GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS

AIM: To analyse the motion of a car

APPARATUS: Not Applicable

THEORY

Analytical Representation of Random and Systematic Errors

For a car moving with average velocity v , the distance covered in an average time t is given by

x=v t (1.1)

In measuring any value, the result is not just one number, such as 5.3 cm. It is two numbers,
5.3±0.1 cm. The second number is the experimental uncertainty, or error bar. It usually
represents one standard deviation (one sigma) from the first value.

All measurements are affected by errors. This means that all measurements are subject to some
uncertainty. There are many types of errors such as personal bias i.e. error resulting in trying to
fit results to some perceived data, random errors and systematic errors. As a result of this, it is
recommended that repeated measurements are conducted upon which statistical analysis is
performed to validate the measurements.

Consider N independent measurements made of the same quantity x. Let the quantities be
designated as x 1 … … x i … … x N . The mean of these measurements in x is given by

N
1
x= ∑ x i (1.2)
N i=1

Where
N

∑ x i=x 1 + x 2 … … … ..+ x N (1.3)

i=1

The difference between every measurement x i and the mean value x is referred to as a deviation or
residual δ x i and is given by

δ x i=( xi −x ) (1.4)

A better estimate of the uncertainty (experimental error) in the mean is given by the mean
deviation which is the mean of the moduli of N deviations, or by the standard error.

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 1

 1
mean deviation=δx=
N
∑ |( x i−x )|(1.5)

standard deviation σ =
√ 1
(N −1)
∑ ¿¿¿
The error in a measured quantity is conveniently expressed as a percent of the quantity itself.
Given the true or known value of the quantity x, the percentage error is given by

xi −x
% error= ×100 % (1.7)
x

If the true value is not provided, a percentage deviation of the mean is evaluated as

δx
% error= × 100 %(1.8)
x

If a quantity is raised to the power n, then the percentage error is multiplied by n.

The absolute error is obtained by multiplying the percentage error by the quantity itself and
dividing by 100. That is

(% error ∈ x)× x
Absolute Error= (1.9)
100

Graphical Presentation of Errors

Consider a simple pendulum used as a way to measure the acceleration due to gravity g. The
equation for the period T is

T =2 π
√ l
g
2 2 l
=¿ T =4 π (1.10)
g

The measured period of oscillation T for various lengths of the pendulum l can be used to find g.
But we cannot average all measurements of T into one mean value plus error and all
measurements of l into one mean value plus error and use these values to calculate a mean g,
since T and l are different in each measurement. This is because we would not be sampling the
same quantity each time and so, statistical error analysis, as dealt with previously for random
errors, does not apply.

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 2

One approach to this is to calculate a value of g for each T and l, giving a list of g results, and
then determine a mean g with associated error at the end. While this works, it is inefficient, and a
graphical approach to this problem is more sensible.

The formula (1.10) is first associated with a known curve, in this case the straight line

y=mx+c (1.11)

Where m is the slope of the graph and c is a constant. Let y=T 2 and x=l , a graph with l on the x
axis and T 2 on the y axis may be drawn. The slope m of this graph then takes the value

4 π2
m= (1.12)
g

The value g is determined from equation (1.11). The error in the slope m represents the error in g
since we can see clearly that

∆ g ∆m
= (1.13)
g m

Each data point plotted on the graph has an associated error determined either statistically or
from observation of the resolution of the measuring instrument. Thus a value for T 2 of 100 s 2
plotted on the y axis may have an error of± 5 s 2. This error needs to be represented on the graph
for each data point before a proper slope can be drawn. The error range is represented by
drawing a vertical error bar about the data point, i.e. from T 2=95 s2 toT 2=105 s 2. This is done for
every point plotted, on both x and y axes if necessary.
2
T Maximum Slope Line
2
t Best fit line

Minimum slope line

10 h

The error in the slope is then determined by drawing a line of maximum slope mmax through the
plotted points and their error ranges and line of minimum slopem min. The average slope M is

M =(mmax +mmin )/2(1.14)

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 3

DATA COLLECTION

Table 1: Sampled speed of a car for three trips

No. Trip 1 Trip 2 Trip 3

(m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
1 25 25 25
2 27 27 25
3 27 26 27
4 25 26 27
5 26 26 25
6 25 26 25
7 25 27 27
8 27 26 27
9 27 25 26
10 26 25 25
11 25 26 26

Table 2: Time of fall of a stone from different heights

Height h (cm) Time of fall T(s) T 2 (s 2)

10.0 0.1438 0.02067844
20.0 0.2014 0.04056196
30.0 0.2494 0.06220036
40.0 0.2806 0.07873636
50.0 0.3204 0.10265616
60.0 0.3494 0.12208036
70.0 0.3760 0.141376

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 4

DATA ANALYSIS

Table 1

QUESTION 1

For Trip 1

(i) ∑v
From equation (1.3)
∑ v=( 25+27 +27+25+26 +25+25+27+ 27+26+25 ) m/s
∑ v=¿ 285m/s
(ii) mean v (v)
From equation (1.2)
N
1
mean v=v= ∑v
N i=1 i
N
where N=11 , ∑ v i =v 1 +v 2 +. … … ..+v 11=∑ v=285
i=1

1
∴ v= (285)
11

v=25.90909090 …

∴ v=25.9 m/ s

(iii) v2

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 5

 No. V v2
(m/s) (m2 /s 2 ¿
1 25 625
2 27 729
3 27 729
4 25 625
5 26 676
6 25 625
7 25 625
8 27 729
9 27 729
10 26 676
11 25 625

¿
¿

For Trip 2

(i) ∑v
From equation (1.3)
∑ v=( 25+27 +26+26+ 26+26+27+ 26+25+25+26 ) m/ s
∑ v=¿ 285m/s
(ii) mean v (v)
From equation (1.2)
N
1
mean v=v= ∑v
N i=1 i
N
where N=11 , ∑ v i =v 1 +v 2 +. … … ..+v 11=∑ v=285
i=1

1
∴ v= (285)
11

v=25.90909090 …

∴ v=25.9 m/ s

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 6

 2
(iii) v

No. V v
2

(m/s) (m2 /s 2 ¿
1 25 625
2 27 729
3 26 676
4 26 676
5 26 676
6 26 676
7 27 729
8 26 676
9 25 625
10 25 625
11 26 676

¿
¿

For Trip 3

(i) ∑v
From equation (1.3)
∑ v=( 25+25+ 27+27+25+ 25+27+27+ 26+25+26 ) m/s
∑ v=¿ 285m/s
(ii) mean v (v)
From equation (1.2)
N
1
mean v=v= ∑ v i
N i=1
N
where N=11 , ∑ v i =v 1 +v 2 +. … … ..+v 11=∑ v=285
i=1

1
∴ v= (285)
11

v=25.90909090 …

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 7

 ∴ v=25.9 m/ s
2
(iii) v

No. V v
2

(m/s) (m2 /s 2 ¿
1 25 625
2 25 625
3 27 729
4 27 729
5 25 625
6 25 625
7 27 729
8 27 729
9 26 676
10 25 625
11 26 676

¿
¿

QUESTION 2

For Trip 1

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 8

 1. v

(i) Percentage Error in v

δv
From equation (1.7) Percentage Error= × 100 %
v
1
And from equation (1.5) δv=
N
∑|( v i−v )|

1
∴ δv= ¿]
11

1
δv= ¿
11

1
δv = (9.1)
11

δv=0.827
δv=0.0 90
δv
Percentage Error= × 100 %
v
0.827
Percentage Error= × 100 %
25.9
∴ Percentage Error ∈v=3.2%
(ii) Absolute Error

(%error ∈v )× v
From equation (1.9) Absolute Error=
100
3.2 % × 25.9 m/ s
Absolute Error=
100 %
Absolute Error=0.83 m/s

2. v 2
(i) Percentage Error in v 2
2
δv
From equation (1.7) Percentage Error= 2 × 100 %
v
1
2
N
2
|
And from equation (1.5) δ v = ∑ ( v i−v )
2
|

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 9

 1
∴ δ v2= ¿]
11

2 1
δv = ( 45.8+58.2+58.2+45.8+5.2+ 45.8+45.8+58.2+58.2+5.2+ 45.8)
11

1
δ v 2= ( 472.2)
11
2
δ v =42.9
δ v2
Percentage Error= 2 × 100 %
v
42.9
Percentage Error= ×100 %
670.8
2
∴ Percentage Error ∈v =6.4 %

(ii) Absolute Error

(%error ∈v 2)× v 2
From equation (1.9) Absolute Error=
100
6.4 % ×670.8 m/s
Absolute Error=
100 %
Absolute Error=42.9 m/s

For Trip 2

1. v

(i) Percentage Error in v

δv
From equation (1.7) Percentage Error= × 100 %
v
1
N ∑| i
And from equation (1.5) δv= ( v −v )|

1
∴ δv= [ ¿ 25−25.9∨+¿ 27−25.9∨+ ¿ 26−25.9∨+¿ 26−25.9∨+¿ 26−25.9∨+ ¿26−25.9∨+¿ 27−25.9∨+¿ 26
11

1
δv= (0.9+ 1.1+ 0.1+ 0.1+0.1+0.1+1.1+0.1+0.9+0.9+ 0.1)
11

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 10

 1
δv= (5.5)
11

δv=0.5
δv
Percentage Error= × 100 %
v
0.5
Percentage Error= ×100 %
25.9
∴ Percentage Error ∈v=1.93%

(ii) Absolute Error

(%error ∈v )× v
From equation (1.9) Absolute Error=
100
1.93 % × 25.9 m/s
Absolute Error=
100 %
Absolute Error=0.49987
Absolute Error=0.5 m/s

2. v 2
(i) Percentage Error in v 2

δ v2
From equation (1.7) Percentage Error= × 100 %
v2
1
2
And from equation (1.5) δ v =
N ∑ (| |
v 2i−v 2 )

2 1
∴δv = |625−670.8|+|729−670.8|+|676−670.8|+|676−670.8|+|676−670.8|+|676−670.8|+|729−670.8|+|6
11

2 1
δv = ( 45.8+58.2+5.2+5.2+ 5.2+ 5.2+58.2+5.2+ 45.8+45.8+ 5.2)
11

1
δ v 2= (285.3)
11
2
δ v =25.9

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 11

 2
δv
Percentage Error= × 100 %
v2
25.9
Percentage Error= ×100 %
670.8
2
∴ Percentage Error ∈v =3.9 %

(ii) Absolute Error

2 2
(%error ∈v )× v
From equation (1.9) Absolute Error=
100
3.9 % × 670.8 m/s
Absolute Error=
100 %
Absolute Error=26.1m/ s

For Trip 3

1. v

(i) Percentage Error in v

δv
From equation (1.7) Percentage Error= × 100 %
v
1
N ∑| i
And from equation (1.5) δv= ( v −v )|

1
∴ δv= |25−25.9|+|25−25.9|+|27−25.9|+|27−25.9|+|25−25.9|+|25−25.9|+|27−25.9|+|27−25.9|+|26−25.
11

1
δv= (0.9+ 0.9+1.1+1.1+0.9+0.9+1.1+1.1+0.1+0.9+ 0.1)
11

1
δv = (9.1)
11

1
δv=
11
δv =0.827
δv
Percentage Error= × 100 %
v

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 12

 0.827
Percentage Error= × 100 %
25.9
∴ Percentage Error ∈v=3.2%

(ii) Absolute Error

(%error ∈v )× v
From equation (1.9) Absolute Error=
100
3.2 % × 25.9 m/ s
Absolute Error=
100 %
Absolute Error=0.83 m/s

2. v 2
(i) Percentage Error in v 2
2
δv
From equation (1.7) Percentage Error= 2
× 100 %
v
1
And from equation (1.5) δ v =
2
N
|
∑ ( v 2i−v 2 ) |

2 1
∴δv = |625−670.8|+ ¿ 625−67 0.8|+|729-670.8|+|729-670.8|+|625-670.8|+|625-670.8|+|
11
729-670.8|+|729-670.8|+729-670.8|+|625-670.8|+|676-670.8|

1
δ v 2= ( 45.8+45.8+ 58.2+58.2+ 45.8+45.8+ 58.2+58.2+5.2+ 45.8+5.2)
11

21
δv = ( 472.2)
11
2
δ v =42.9 m/ s
δ v2
Percentage Error= 2 × 100 %
v
42.9
Percentage Error= ×100 %
670.8
2
∴ Percentage Error ∈v =6.4 %

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 13

 (ii) Absolute Error

2 2
(%error ∈v )× v
From equation (1.9) Absolute Error=
100
6.4 % ×670.8 m/s
Absolute Error=
100 %
Absolute Error=42.9 m/s

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 14

Graph 1

Change cm to m for height using (100cm=1m) =0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7

∆y
Average Speed=
∆x

0.5−0.2
Average Speed=
0.3204−0.2014

0.3
Average Speed=
0.119

Average Speed=2.52 m/s

Graph 2

Maximum gradient is at points (0.2, 0.03) and (0.6, 0.13)

y2 − y1
M max =
x2 −x1

0.13−0.03
¿
0.6−0.2

0.1
¿
0.4

M max =0.25

Minimum gradient is at points (0.2, 0.05) and (0.6, 0.11)

y2 − y1
M max =
x2 −x1

0.11−0.0 5
¿
0.6−0.2

0.06
¿
0.4

M max =0.1 5

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 15

 M max + M min
M=
2

0.25+0.15
¿
2

0.4
¿
2

¿ 0.2
2
¿ 0.2 s /m

m
g= 2
s

0.2
¿ 2
0.2

¿ 5 m/s 2

α −α
% error= ×100
α

9.81−5
¿ × 100
9.81

% Error=49 %

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 16

DISCUSSION

Part 1: Analyzing motion of a car for experiment, several readings were taken so as to come up with the
main value because some values are affected by both random and systematic errors in which the observer
may have been biased when taking the readings. The average speed for trip 1 and trip 3 was 25.9m/s with
a percentage error of 3.2%, hence absolute error 0.83 and for trip 2, the average speed was 25.9m/s with
percentage error of 1.93%, hence absolute error 0.5. Therefore, these errors can be minimized further by
reducing personal bias when taking readings/measurements and reduce on the rounding off of numbers
when calculating the measurements.

Part 2: The acceleration of a falling object was taken at different heights so as to obtain the most accurate
value but errors could have occurred when timing the falling object.

CONCLUSION

In all experiments of measurements, errors always occur, as shown in the entire experiment, which is why
more than one experiment is done so as to obtain many values (measurements) to come up with a mean
value with the smallest percentage error, possible.

Sampled speed of a car for three trips: The first and last trips had the same percentage error. The errors
were not large and it was seen that the absolute value and the mean deviation had the same value.

The stone falling from different heights: The percentage error was large and this can be attributed to
errors in timing by the observer and the accuracy of the instrument used.

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 17

REFERENCES

P.C. Simpemba, J. Simfukwe and M. Chengo, PH 110 Laboratory Manual, (2013), School of
Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Department of Physical Sciences, Copperbelt University, Kitwe,
Zambia.

LAB REPORT 1 | GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS 18