UNIT_1

Introduction to finite automata: The central concepts of automata theory, Structural

representation of FA, Types of FA, Conversion of NFA to DFA, NFA with epsilon to NFA
without epsilon conversion.

Regular Expression: Introduction to Regular language, Algebraic laws for regular

expressions, Conversion of FA to RE, Conversion of RE to FA, Pumping lemma for Regular
language.

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Introduction to Finite Automata _Fundamentals – Terminology

Automation: means automatic machine / self-controlled

 Ex: computer, ATM
Why we study it:
 It allows us to think systematically about what machine do without going into
Hardware details.
 Learning of languages and computational techniques.
 Designing of theoretical models for machines.
 It is core subject of computer science.

To understand a machine Language we should know

 How we are going to give input to machine
 How machine takes the input
 What are the limitations of machine?

Central concepts of automata theory

1. Symbol
 Something that has some meaning.
 Can’t be further divided.
Eg: { a, b, 0, 1, +, ?, :, +, ++ }

2. Alphabet
 Has finite set of symbols?
 Denoted by ∑
Eg : ∑ = { 0, 1 } ∑ bin = { 0, 1}
∑ = { a, b } ∑ dec = { 0, 1 . . .9 }
∑ = {[ #, @ } ∑ empty = Ø
∑ { 0. . .9 }
∑ eng = { A, B, …..Z, a, b . . .z }

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 3. String / Word / sentence
 Finite sequence of symbols over ∑
 Denoted by w.
∑ = { 0, 1 }
W = 101, w = 1100, w = 111 00 11
∑ { a, b }
W = aba, w = bab, w = aabbaa

4. String operations
 Empty string is denoted by ε / л / λ
 String length: * # of symbols in the word.
 Denoted by |w|

5. Concatenation: with Є
Є. W = w. Є = w.
Eg : w = 110110 w = Є 011100 Є
|w|= 6 |w| =6
w = Є 00 ЄЄ 011 Є 00
|w| = 7
Don’t consider Є while calculating length of a string.

6. Prefix
 The first letter of each string is fixed. But ending may be anywhere.
Eg: w = abcd
Prefix(w) = {Є, a, ab, abc, abcd}

7. Suffix
 The last letter of each string is fixed. But start may be anywhere.
Eg: w = abcd
Suffix(w) = {Є, d, cd, bcd, abcd}

8. Subsequence
 Starting and ending is anywhere.
Eg: w = abcd
Subsequence(w)= { Є, a, b, c, d, ab, ac, ad, bc, bd, cd, abc, abd, bcd,
abcd}

9. Substring
 Letters of consecutive symbols.
Eg: w = abcd
Substrings(w) = {Є, a, b, c, d, ab, bc, cd, abc, bcd, abcd}

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 10. Concatenation
 Concatenation of two strings w1 and w2
 W1 is followed by w2 without any space b/w them
Eg : w1 = Success w2 = fully
w1.w2 = successfully

11. Proper substring:

 All substrings of w except itself.

Eg : FLAT
Proper substrings: {Є, F, L, A, T, FL, LA , AT, FLA, LAT}

12.Palindrome
 Can be read w either side identically.
Eg : w = { 0, 1 }
w = 0110, w = 10001, w = 111000111

13. Power Alphabet

 The power alphabet, ∑k
 K denotes set of all strings of length k.
Eg: let ∑ = {0, 1}

∑0 = {Є} ∑1 = {0, 1} ∑2 = {00, 01, 10, 11}

14. Kleene closure

 All strings of length 0 or more instances.
 Denoted by ∑*
∑* = ∑0 U ∑1 U ∑2 . . . . .

∑ *∑ *= ∑ *
= ∑ ++ ∑ 0 = ∑ *
∑++Є=∑*

15. Positive Closure

 ∑+ denotes all strings of length 1 or more.
∑ + = ∑1 U ∑ 2 U ∑ 3 . . . . ∑* ∩ ∑ + = ∑ +
∑* U ∑+ = ∑*
∑* ∑+ = ∑+
∑+ ∑+ = ∑+
∑* - Є = ∑ +
a. Є = a

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 16. Set operation:
 Set is a collection of distinct objects.
 Set is denoted by S.

Eg :1. S = { 0,1, 2, 3, 4 } → finite set

2. S = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . } → Infinite set
3. S = { } → Empty | Null set

17. Set size | cardinality:

 The number of objects in the set

Denoted by |S|
Eg : s = {[ 1, 2, 3 } → |S|= 3

18. Finite | countable set:

 Every element of the set is countable
Eg: S = {10, 20, 30, 40}
19. Infinite | countably Infinite set
 Basically, finite set.
 Every object is countable for sometimes.
Eg: set of natural Numbers.

20. Intersection
 Common elements from the given sets.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {2, 6, 7, 8} A ∩ B = {2}

21. Union
 Unique elements from the given sets.
A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

22. Cartesian product

 Multiply each element of one set by another element of another set.
Eg : A = { 1, 2 } , B = {a, b }
A * B = { ( 1, a ), ( 1, b ), ( 2, a ), ( 2, b ) }

23. Language: (Finite and Infinite)

 subset of ∑*
 Denoted by L.
Finite Language: Finite | countable number of objects in the set.
Eg: ∑ = {a, b}
∑2 = {aa, ab, ba, bb}

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 Infinite Language: Infinite number of elements in the set.
Eg: All strings of starts with a.
{a, ab, aa, aab, aab, aba,… ...... }
∑ = {a, b } → L 1 = { a, aa, ab, aab, abb ........... }
L2= { } → Ф
L3= { ε }
L 4 = {a, b } → { ε, ab, aabb, aaabb .......}
L 5 = {an | n>= 0 } { a0, a1, a2, a3, ....... }
L 6 = {an bm | n, m >= 1 }
= {ab, aab, abb, aaab, ......... }

23.Automata
 Mathematical model of computation.
 Abstract machine to perform computation.
Eg : Can generate primes
Can check primes.

24. Types of Automata

 Finite Automaton
 Pushdown Automaton
 Linear Bounded Automaton
 Turing Machine

25. Grammar
 Generates valid strings using rules.

26. Types of languages, Automata and grammar

Language Automata Grammar
Type 0[ REL] TM UG
Type 1[CSL] LBA CSG
Type 2[CFL] PDA CFG
Type 3[Regular Language] FA RG

Practice Questions

1. Let ∑ = {0, 1} How many strings of length n are possible over ∑.

A) n B) n+1 C) 2n D) 2n

2. w be a string of length n. How many suffixes are possible for w.?

A) n B) n+1 C) 2n D) 2n

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 3. Let ∑ = {0, 1, 2} How many strings of length 3 or less are possible?
A) 8 B) 9 C) 18 D) None

L3 = 33
L2 = 32
L1 = 31 27+9+3+1 = 40
L0 = 30

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 4. Let ∑ = {0, 1}, Let L = {01, 110, 100}

i) 0100110010 iii) 110100011110

ii) 100110100110 iv) 1010101110
Which of the combination of strings belong to L*?
A) i & ii B) ii & iv C) iii & iv D) None (only ii)

Structural Representation of Finite Automata

 A finite automaton (FA) can be represented structurally as a directed graph,
also called a state transition diagram or state machine diagram.

 The graph consists of vertices (nodes) and edges. In an FA, the vertices
represent the states of the machine and the edges represent the transitions
between states based on input symbols.

 The FA has one initial state, represented by an arrow pointing to the state. The
initial state is where the machine begins processing input symbols.

 The machine may have one or more accepting states, indicated by a double
circle around the state. An accepting state is where the machine accepts the
input string.

 The edges of the graph represent transitions between states. Each edge is
labeled with an input symbol, indicating the symbol that causes the machine
to transition from one state to another. For a deterministic finite automaton
(DFA), each state has exactly one edge leaving it for each input symbol in the
alphabet.

 For a non-deterministic finite automaton (NFA), a state may have multiple

edges leaving it for the same input symbol or even have epsilon (ε) transitions,
which means the machine can transition to another state without reading an
input symbol.

Finite Automata
o Finite automata are used to recognize patterns.
o It takes the string of symbol as input and changes its state accordingly. When the
desired symbol is found, then the transition occurs.
o At the time of transition, the automata can either move to the next state or stay in
the same state.

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 o Finite automata have two states, Accept state or Reject state. When the input
string is processed successfully, and the automata reached its final state, then it will
accept.

→ In other words, a FA is a 5-tuple system.

M = (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F) where

Q: Finite set of states

∑: Input alphabet
δ: Transition function mapping from Q X ∑ → Q
q0: Initial state
F: Set of final states

A FA is represented in two ways

1. State Diagram 2. Transition state Table

State Diagram
→ can also be called transition diagram | transition system.

→ It is a direct labelled graph in which nodes are corresponding

to states and directed edges are corresponding to transition
states.

→ Initial states are denoted by →

→ final state is denoted by

State Transition Table

 In transition table, rows are corresponding to state and columns are corresponding to
i/p.
 For each combination of present state and present i/p, corresponding entry specifies
next state of the system.

Configuration | Block Diagram of FA

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  A FA consists of Input tape, read only head and Finite Control.
 The i/p tape consists of set of cells each hols one i/p symbol.
 The read only head moves left to right and scans one symbol at a time.
 FC determines the next state of the system using symbol under read only head and
the present state of the system.

Applications Applications
1. Used to check spellings 1. Computing1’s complement
In Editor
2. Lexical analysis in compilers 2. Computing 2’s compliment
3. General Applications 3. Adder | Subtractor
4. To model the behavior of 4. Counter
electrical ckts
5. To model the behaviour of 5. Sequence Generator/detector
digital ckts
6. To model the behaviour of
mechanical devices
7. To solve puzzles.

Equality
All types of FAS are equal. Equivalence means not the same but they perform the same
task.
L (FA) = L (DFA) = L (NFA) = L (ε- NFA) = RL.
FA DFA NFA ε- NFA = RL.

FA without o/p

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FA Representation

DFA . . . . . . δ (Q X ∑) → Q 1. State Diagram

NFA . . . . . . δ (Q X ∑) → 2Q 2. Transition Table
Є – NFA . . . δ (Q X ∑ U {Є} → 2Q 3. Transition Function

State Diagram

Transition Table
Staes a b
P Q R
Q Q R
R R R

String Acceptance by FA
 If there Exists a path from initial state to final state the string w is said to be
accepted.
 In other words, w is accepted by FA
iff δ (q0, w) → for some P in F.

Language Accept
 A FA is said to be accepted a lang if all the strings in the lang are accepted.
 All the strings that are not in the lang are rejected by the FA.

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 DFA PROBLEMS

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 Practice Questions MODEL :1
(start | End | contain)

1. Dead state exists 1. No dead state

2. # states : n+2 2. # states +1

1. Design DFA for the lang RE: aaa (a+b) * → 5 states

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Exercise 1: Construct DFA for the RE: (a+b) * abb ( a+b)* → contain
Exercise 2: Construct DFA for the RE: ( a+b )* aaa → Ends with aaa Need 3+1 states.

Model : 2
( Language over 1 Symbol )

2. L = ( aaa )* over ∑ = { a, b }

Exercise 1: L = { am, bn, cL | m, n, L >= 1 }

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Exercise 2: L = { am, bn, cL | m, n, L >= 0 }

Model: 3
(Length and Divisible problems)

3. L = {String length is exactly 2 } over ∑ = { a, b }*

Exactly n length Almost = |w| <= 2 Atleast = |w| >= 2

= n+2 states n+2 states n+1 states
Dead state exists Dead state exists No Dead state

Exercise 1:L = { w|w Є {[ a, b }, |w| <= 2 }

Exercise 2: L = { w|w Є { a, b }*, |w| >= 2 }

MODEL: 4
( Multiple conditions )

4. L = { starts with a and ends with b }

a b

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 Exercise 1: L = {[ strings start and end with different symbols} over ∑ = {a, b}
Exercise: 2: L = ( aa+bb ) ( a+b)* ..................... starts with aa or bb.

MODEL: 5
(Position Based problems)

Exercise 1: L = { 2nd symbol from LHS is a }

Exercise 2: L = { a3 b w a3 / w Є { a, b }* }

MODEL : 6
( Sequence Based problems )

5. L = { a+ b+ }

6. UNION of two FAs

L1 = { start with a and end with b } L2 = { start with b and end a }

= { ab, aab, abb, aaab . . . } = { ba, bba, bbba, baaa . . }

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Union of the above FA (starting and ending with different Symbols) L1 U L2

7. Concatenation of two FA.

L1 = {[start with a } L2 = {Ending with b }

= { a, aa, ab, aaa . . . } + { b, ab, aab, bbb . . . }

Concatenation of L1 . L2 (start with a and End with b)

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 8. Cross product
Even no of a’s Even no of b’s
L1 = { aa, aba, aab . . . } L2 = { bb, bab, bba . . . }

L1 X L2 = { AB X CD } = { AC, AD, BC, BD }

9. Compliment of language L1
L1 = {containing a } 𝐿̅1 = { does not contain a }
= { a, aa, ba, bab, . . . } = { Є, b, bb, bbb, . . . }
i) Final to non-final
ii) Non- final to final

L1

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10. Reversal: start with a
L = { a, aa, ab, aaa . . . } LR = {Reverse of strings}
= { a, aaa, ba, aaa . . . }

(Ending with a . . . ) (Staring with a . . . ) Its NFA

Since no transition q0

i) Final to initial & initial to final.

ii) No change in Symbols
iii) Reverse transition.

Non-Deterministic Finite Automata

 In NDFA, for a particular input symbol, the machine can move to any combination of
the states in the machine.
 In other words, the exact state to which the machine moves cannot be determined.
Hence, it is called Non-deterministic Automaton.
 As it has finite number of states, the machine is called Non-deterministic Finite
Machine or Non-deterministic Finite Automaton.
Formal Definition of an NDFA
An NDFA can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F) where −
 Q is a finite set of states. 
 ∑ is a finite set of symbols calling the alphabets. 
 δ is the transition function where δ: Q × ∑ → 2Q

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 (Here the power set of Q (2Q) has been taken because in case of NDFA, from a state,
transition can occur to any combination of Q states)
 q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).
 F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).
Graphical Representation of an NDFA: (same as DFA)
An NDFA is represented by digraphs called state diagram.

 The vertices represent the states.

 The arcs labeled with an input alphabet show the transitions.
 The initial state is denoted by an empty single incoming arc.
 The final state is indicated by double circles. 
Example
Let a non-deterministic finite automaton be →

 Q = {a, b, c}
 ∑ = {0, 1}
 q0 = {a}
 F = {c}
The transition function δ as shown below

Present State Next state for Input 0 Next state for Input 1

a a, b b

b c a, c

c b, c c

DR. V SREENIVASULU 20
DR. V SREENIVASULU 21
DFA vs NDFA
The following table lists the differences between DFA and NDFA.

DFA NDFA

The transition from a state is to a single The transition from a state can be to
particular next state for each input multiple next states for each input symbol.
symbol. Hence it is called deterministic. Hence it is called non-deterministic.

Empty string transitions are not seen in NDFA permits empty string transitions.
DFA.
In NDFA, backtracking is not always
Backtracking is allowed in DFA
possible.
Requires more space. Requires less space.
A string is accepted by a NDFA, if at least
A string is accepted by a DFA, if it transits one of all possible transitions ends in a
to a final state. final state.

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NDFA to DFA Conversion

Problem Statement
Let X = (Qx, Σ, δx, q0, Fx) be an NDFA which accepts the language L(X). We
have to design an equivalent DFA Y = (Qy, Σ, δy, q0, Fy) such that L(Y) = L(X).
The following procedure converts the NDFA to its equivalent DFA:

Algorithm
Input: An NDFA
Output: An equivalent DFA
Step 1 Create state table from the given NDFA.
Step 2 Create a blank state table under possible input
alphabets for the equivalent DFA.
Step 3 Mark the start state of the DFA by q0 (Same as the NDFA).
Step 4 Find out the combination of States {Q0, Q1,... , Qn} for
each possible input alphabet.
Step 5 Each time we generate a new DFA state under the
input alphabet columns, we have to apply step 4
again, otherwise go to step 6.

DR. V SREENIVASULU 23
 Step 6 The states which contain any of the final states of the
NDFA are the final states of the equivalent DFA.

Example
Let us consider the NDFA shown in the figure below.

Using the above algorithm, we find its equivalent DFA. The state table of the DFA is shown in
below.
Transition Table for DFA

q δ(q,0) δ(q,1)
[a] [a, b, c, d, e] [d,e]
[a, b, c, d, e ] [a, b, c, d, e] [b, d, e]
[d, e] [e] ∅
[b, d, e] [c, e] [e]
[e] ∅ ∅
[c, e] ∅ [b]
[b] [c] [e]
[c] ∅ [b]

The state diagram of the DFA is as follows:

0
[a,b,c,d,e] 1 [b,d,e] 0
[c,e]

0 1
[a] 1 [b]
1 1
1
0
0
DR. V SREENIVASULU[d,e] [e] [c] 18
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Conversion of Epsilon-NFA to NFA
Non-deterministic Finite Automata (NFA) is a finite automata having zero, one or more than
one moves from a given state on a given input symbol. Epsilon NFA is the NFA which
contains epsilon move(s)/Null move(s). To remove the epsilon, move/Null move from epsilon-
NFA and to convert it into NFA, we follow the steps mentioned below.

Figure – Vertex v1 and Vertex v2 having an epsilon move

Step-1:
Consider the two vertexes having the epsilon move. Here in Fig.1 we have vertex v1
and vertex v2 having epsilon move from v1 to v2.
Step-2:
DR. V SREENIVASULU 23
Now find all the moves to any other vertex that start from vertex v2 (other than the
epsilon move that is considering). After finding the moves, duplicate all the moves
that start from vertex v2, with the same input to start from vertex v1 and remove
the epsilon move from vertex v1 to vertex v2.
Step-3:
See that if the vertex v1 is a start state or not. If vertex v1 is a start state, then we
will also make vertex v2 as a start state. If vertex v1 is not a start state, then there
will not be any change.

Step-4:
See that if the vertex v2 is a final state or not. If vertex v2 is a final state, then we
will also make vertex v1 as a final state. If vertex v2 is not a final state, then there
will not be any change. Repeat the steps(from step 1 to step 4) until all the epsilon
moves are removed from the NFA.

Now, to explain this conversion, let us take an example.

Example: Convert epsilon-NFA to NFA. Consider the example having states q0, q1,
q2, q3, and q4.

DR. V SREENIVASULU 24
In the above example, we have 5 states named as q0, q1, q2, q3 and q4. Initially, we
have q0 as start state and q2 as final state. We have q1, q3 and q4 as intermediate
states.
Transition table for the above NFA is:
States/Inputs INPUT 0 INPUT 1 INPUT EPSILON

q0 – q1 q2

q1 – q0 –

q2 q3 q4 –

q3 q2 – –

q4 q2 – –

According to the transition table above,

state q0 on getting input 1 goes to state q1.
State q0 on getting input as a null move (i.e. an epsilon move) goes to state q2.
State q1 on getting input 1 goes to state q0.
Similarly, state q2 on getting input 0 goes to state q3, state q2 on getting input 1
goes to state q4.
Similarly, state q3 on getting input 0 goes to state q2.
Similarly, state q4 on getting input 0 goes to state q2.
We can see that we have an epsilon move from state q0 to state q2, which is to be removed.
To remove epsilon move from state q0 to state q1, we will follow the steps mentioned below.
Step-1:
Considering the epsilon move from state q0 to state q2. Consider the state q0 as
vertex v1 and state q2 as vertex v2.

DR. V SREENIVASULU 25
 S
Figure – State q0 as vertex v1 and state q2 as vertex v2
Step-2:
Now find all the moves that starts from vertex v2 (i.e. state q2).
After finding the moves, duplicate all the moves that start from vertex v2 (i.e state
q2) with the same input to start from vertex v1 (i.e. state q0) and remove the epsilon
move from vertex v1 (i.e. state q0) to vertex v2 (i.e. state q2).
Since state q2 on getting input 0 goes to state q3.
Hence on duplicating the move, we will have state q0 on getting input 0 also to go to
state q3.
Similarly state q2 on getting input 1 goes to state q4.
Hence on duplicating the move, we will have state q0 on getting input 1 also to go to
state q4.

So, NFA after duplicating the moves is:

Figure – NFA on duplicating moves

Step-3:
Since vertex v1 (i.e. state q0) is a start state. Hence we will also make vertex v2 (i.e.
state q2) as a start state.
Note that state q2 will also remain as a final state as we had initially.
NFA after making state q2 also as a start state is:

DR. V SREENIVASULU 26
 Figure – NFA after making state q2 as a start state
Step-4:
Since vertex v2 (i.e. state q2) is a final state. Hence we will also make vertex v1 (i.e.
state q0) as a final state.
Note that state q0 will also remain as a start state as we had initially.
After making state q0 also as a final state, the resulting NFA is:

Figure – Resulting NFA (state q0 as a final state)

The transition table for the above resulting NFA is:

INPUT INPUT
STATES/INPUT 0 1

q0 q3 q1,q4

q1 – q0

q2 q3 q4

q3 q2 –

q4 q2 –

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Converting Regular Language to Regular Expressions

 Regular sets| Reg lang: Recognized by FA.

 Regular Expressions
→ Mathematical representations of lang accepted by FA.
→Regular sets are expressed in simple algebraic forms.
→ Lang accepted by FA can be represented in RE.

 Applications of RE
→ pattern matching algorithm.
→ search Engines (google, yahoo)
→ Text Editors.
→ Web programming forms.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Reg set | Language Reg Exp

1. L = { } Ф
2. L = { ε } ε
3. L = { a } a
4. L = {ab, ba } ab + ba or ab| ba
DR. V SREENIVASULU 30
5. L = { ab, ba }* U { abb } ( ab + ba )* + abb
6. L = { ab, ba } ab ( ab+ba )* aab
7. L = { ε, a, b, aa, ab, baa, bb . . . } ( a+b)*
8. L = { ε, a, b, c, aa, ab, aac, baa . . .} ( aa+b+c )*
9. ∑ = { 0 } L = { ε, 0, 00, 000 . . . } 0*
10. L = { 0, 1 }* 00 ( 0+1 )* 00

11. Set of strings begin with 1 and Ending with 0.

RE : 1 ( 0+1 )* 0

12. Set of strings containg in 3 consecutive OS.

RE : ( 0+1 )* 000 ( 0+1 )*

13. Set of all strings such that 10th symbol from the right is 1.
RE : ( 0+1 )* 1 ( 0+1 )9

14. Set of all strings such that 3rd symbol from LHS is 1
RE : ( 0+1 )2 1 ( 0+1 )*

DR. V SREENIVASULU 31
 15. # 1’s followed by exactly 2 consecutive Os followed by # 1’s.
RE : 1* 00 1*

16. Set of all strings containing atleast two 0’s.

RE : 1* 01* 0 ( 0+1)* or ( 0+1 )* 0 ( 0+1)* 0 ( 0+1)*

17. Set of all strings containing atmost two 0’s

RE : 1* ( 0+ε ) 1* ( 0+ε )* 1

18. Set of strings of length 2.

RE : ( 0+1 ) ( 0+1 ) = ( 0+1 )2

19. Strings of length 2 or more

RE : ( 0+1 ) ( 0+1 ) ( 0+1 )* or ( 0+1)2 ( 0+1 )*

20. Strings of length 3 or less

RE : ( 1+0+ε ) ( 1+0+ε ) ( 1+0+ε )

Algebraic Laws forRegular Expressions

Given R, P, L, Q as regular expressions, the following identities hold:

1. Ø* = ε

2. ε* = ε

3. RR* = R*R

4. 4. R*R* = R*

5. 5. (R*)* = R*

6. RR* = R*R

7. (PQ)*P =P(QP)*

DR. V SREENIVASULU 32
 8. (a+b)* = (a*b*)* = (a*+b*)* = (a+b*)* = a*(ba*)*

9. R + Ø = Ø + R = R (The identity for union)

10. Rε = εR = R (The identity for concatenation)

11. ØL = LØ = Ø (The annihilator for concatenation)

12. R + R = R (Idempotent law)

13. L (M + N) = LM + LN (Left distributive law)

14. (M + N) L = LM + LN (Right distributive law)

15. ε + RR* = ε + R*R = R*

Construction of a Finite Automata from a Regular Expression

We can use Thompson's Construction to find out a Finite Automaton from a Regular Expression. We
will reduce the regular expression into smallest regular expressions and converting these to NFA and
finally to DFA.

Some basic RA expressions are the following:

Case 1: For a regular expression ‘a’, we can construct the following FA:

q1 q
a

Finite automata for RE = a

Case 2: For a regular expression ‘ab’, we can construct the following FA:

DR. V SREENIVASULU 33
 q1 q1 q
a b

Finite automata for RE = ab

Case 3: For a regular expression (a+b), we can construct the following FA:

q1 q
a

Finite automata for RE= (a+b)

Case 4: For a regular expression (a+b)*, we can construct the following FA:

a,b

Finite automata for RE= (a+b)*

Method:

Step 1: Construct an NFA with Null moves from the given regular expression.

Step 2: Remove Null transition from the NFA and convert it into its equivalent DFA.

Problem Convert the following RA into its equivalent DFA: 1 (0 + 1)* 0

Solution:

We will concatenate three expressions "1", "(0 + 1)*" and "0"

DR. V SREENIVASULU 34
 0,1

q0 q1 q2 q3 q
1 є є 0

NDFA with NULL transition for RA: 1 (0 + 1)* 0

0,1

q0 q2 q
1 0

Now we will remove the є transitions. After we remove the є transitions from the NDFA, weget the
following:NDFA without NULL transition for RA: 1 (0 + 1)* 0

It is an NDFA corresponding to the RE: 1 (0 + 1)* 0. If you want to convert it into a DFA, simplyapply
the method of converting NDFA to DFA discussed in Chapter 1.

Examples:

Construct DFA for the regular expression given.

1. a (a + b) * a

2. a (a + b) * b

3. a (a + b)+ a

4. a (a + b)+ b

5. a*

6. a* b*

7. Construct a DFA for the regular language: ending with aab

8. Find the language accepted by the given DFA

DR. V SREENIVASULU 35
 9. Consider the following DFA.

10. Consider the following strings. Which of these below strings are accepted by the DFA?
A. 011110 B. 101011 C. 010110 D. 1110110
==========================================================================

Pumping Lemma
 Pumping lemma is used to prove that a language is Not Regular.
 But can’t be used to prove that a language is regular.

If L is a Regular Language, L has a pumping length P such that any word W where
|w|>= p may be divided into 3 parts w = x y z then the following condition must be
true.
1) x y z ε L for every i > 0, the string xyiz is also in L
2) |y| > 0 or |y| ≠ ε
3) |xy| < = P

To prove that a language is not regular using pumping lemma follow the steps.
o Assume that L is regular.
o The pumping length is n.
o Words of length greater than p can be pumped |w| >= n
o Divide w into x y z.
o Show that x y i z L f for some i.
o So, none can satisfy all the above 3 conditions at a time.
o So, the assumption is wrong, proof by contradiction.

1. Prove that the language L = {an bn | n >= 0}is not regular using pumping lemma.
Proof: Assume that L = {an bn | n >= 0}is regular
Pumping length = K
w = a K bk → aaaaaaaabbbbbbb

DR. V SREENIVASULU 36
 Case1: The y is in the ‘a’ part
a a a a a a a b b b b b b b b x y z → x y2 z
x y z aaaaaaaaaaabbbbbbb
11 a’s ≠ 7 b’s
Case2: The y is in the ‘b’; part
a a a a a a a b b b b b b b x y1 z → x y2 z
x y z aaaaaaabbaabbbbbb
Not even the pattern = a bk k

Language L is not regular.

========================================================================

2. Prove that the language L = {y y|y ∈ {0, 1} * is not regular by using pumping lemma.
Assume that L is regular

The pumping length = n.

W = 0n 1 0n 1

x y z k =7

0000000100000001 → x yi z → x y2 z
x y z 00000000000100000001
110’s L.
|y| > 0
|xy| < k Not satisfied.
Contradiction by proof. So, L is not regular.

========================================================================
3.
RL or non-RL? → pumping lemma for RL.
For any RL, L ∃ an integer is dependent on L
Set V Z ∈ L and |z| >= n
i) z =uvw then u vi w Є L V i >= 0
ii) |uv| <= |z|
iii) v >= 1 or |v| # 0. u, v, w, z are words ∈

Example 1: L = {am bm | m >= 1} pumping means: u v’ w

u v2 w
u v3 w . . . .
// counting, storing, comparing not possible
// finite lang. No problem.
Let assume L is a RL
ZЄL
Z = ak bk → |z| >= n, we don’t know the length of n or k

u v w chooses a k s.t |ak bk | = 2K >= n

DR. V SREENIVASULU 37
 1.Z → ak-1 a bk → length of v >= 1
2. | u v | = | a a | = | a | = k < = 2k
k-1 k

Check | v | ≠ 0, but 1
At first, it is assumed L is a RL Hence uvi w Є L V I >= 0
Proof by contradiction → i = 2: u v w
→ L is non-RL a k-1 a bk = ak+1 bk
Now it is m+1 not equal to bm L
L = {a b | m >= 1} if i changes
m m

========================================================================
Eg2: L = {am bp | m > p}
Let assume L is a RL → by proof by contradiction assumption is incorrect. L is a non-
RL
z∈L
z = ak+1 bk choose k s.t |z| >= n
2k+1 >= n
ak+1 b bk-1
1) |z| >= n satisfied

2) |uv| <= |z|

|v| ≠ 0,

3) Then u vi w Є L V I >= 0
Choose i = 2
u v w
ak+1 b2 bk-1 ∈ L
Because m > p
Proof by contradiction
Hence L is non regular

========================================================================
Eg 3: L = {a3n | n >= 1}
1) z Є L

u v w
a 3n-1 a Є → can be
but v = 1
or
v≠0
2) |u v| < = | z |
3) Now check
U v w Є L V I >= 0
Choose I = 2:
u v w

a3n-1 a2 Є → a3n+1 L

DR. V SREENIVASULU 38
because L = a3n but ↑ say a’s and b’s are equal.
By proof by contradiction. it is not.
Special case of pumping lemma when ∑ = {a}
Singleton set.
Length of strings must follow AP for a L tube a RL.

u vi w → a (aa)i a → {a a, a a a a, a a a a a a}
2 4 6
========================================================================
Eg 4: L = {a3n | n >= 1} ∑ = {a}
a , b , a , a
3 6 9 12 .............. fn=1
RL n =2
3 6 9 12 . . .. n = 3
Diff: 3 3 3 n =4

Eg 6: L = {a2n+1 | n >= 0} → RL
1, 3, 5, 7 ..........AP
If n = 0
n =1
n =2
n =3
1, 3, 5, 7 . . ..
========================================================================
Eg 7: L = {an3 +n2 +1| n >= 0} → non RL if n =0
1, 3, 13 . . . Not AP n =1
N =2

Eg 8: L = {a2n | n >= 0} Non-RL If n = 0

n =1
n =2
1, 2, 4, 8, 16 . . ≠ AP n =3

Eg 9: L = {ap | p is a prime} non-RL

Prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 ......... ≠ AP
1 2 2 4 ........ ≠ AP

==============================00oo00======================================

DR. V SREENIVASULU 39