Introduction

to

Computer Science

by

Muhammad Aminu

Ahmad

i
Contents

1 Computer Systems 1
1.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Development of Computers .................................................................................... 2
1.2.1 The Abacus .................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Napier’s Bones .............................................................................................. 3
1.2.3 Pascal’s Calculator .......................................................................................4
1.2.4 Leibniz Calculator ........................................................................................4
1.2.5 Analytical Engine ......................................................................................... 5
1.2.6 Tabulating Machine ..................................................................................... 7
1.2.7 Electronic Digital Computer ...................................................................... 7
1.3 Generations of Computer ....................................................................................... 8
1.3.1 First Generation (1945-1956) .................................................................... 8
1.3.2 Second Generation Computers (1956-1963) .......................................... 10
1.3.3 Third Generation Computers (1964-1971) ............................................. 11
1.3.4 Fourth Generation (1971-1984) ............................................................... 12
1.3.5 Fifth Generation (1984-1990) .................................................................. 13
1.3.6 Sixth Generation (1990 and beyond) ..................................................... 13
1.3.7 Emerging Generation (Quantum Computers) ....................................... 14
1.4 Classes of Computers ............................................................................................. 14
1.5 Characteristics of Computers ............................................................................... 18
1.6 Components of a Computer .................................................................................. 18

2 Computer Hardware and Software 19

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 19
2.2 Computer Hardware .............................................................................................. 19
2.2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) ............................................................... 20
2.2.2 Primary Storage Devices ........................................................................... 21
2.2.3 Secondary Storage Devices ...................................................................... 23

iii
Contents Contents

2.2.4 Input and Output Devices ....................................................................... 24

2.3 Computer Software................................................................................................ 29
2.3.1 System Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.2 Middleware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.3 Application Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3 Applications of Computers
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Office Automation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4 Banking and Finance ................................................................................ 70

3.5 Computational Science ............................................................................. 72
3.6 Education .................................................................................................... 73
3.7 Engineering Design ................................................................................... 76
3.8 Expert Systems........................................................................................... 77
3.9 Geographic Information System (GIS) .................................................. 78
3.10 Health .......................................................................................................... 78
3.11 Defence ........................................................................................................ 81

4 Computer Ethics and Responsibility 84

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................84
4.2 Software Piracy .......................................................................................... 85
4.3 Privacy of Data .......................................................................................... 86
4.4 Use of Computers and the Internet....................................................... 86
4.5 Green Computing ...................................................................................... 87
4.6 Ethical Responsibilities............................................................................ 88

iv
Preface

This book introduces the fundamentals of computer systems and problem solving using
Python programming. This book provides broad introductory concepts of computer
systems and problem solving using computer programs to beginners and students who
study computer science as a major or minor course. This book is neither a reference
book, nor a comprehensive text of the entire fields of computer science and problem
solving using Python programming. The goal of this book is to provide background on
computer systems and the applications of computers and their uses in solving problems.
Thus, in-depth discussions of the topics are avoided in favour of more general concepts.
The programming examples used in this book are actual and runnable code tested using
the Python IDLE on Microsoft Windows 7 operating system. However, the examples are
operating system-independent, which can be tested on Unix-based systems and Apple
Macintosh operating systems.

v
 CHAPTER
Computer Systems

1.1 Introduction
Computers have revolutionized the world within a short period of decades; computers have
become indispensable in every sphere of human life. In education, computers are used
for tasks such as writing papers, searching for articles, sending email, and participating
in online classes. At work, people use computers to analyse data, make presentations,
conduct business transactions, communicate with customers and co-workers, control
machines in manufacturing facilities, and do many other things. At home, people use
computers for tasks such as paying bills, online shopping, communicating with friends
and family and playing computer games. Computers can do a wide variety of things
because they can be programmed. This means that computers are not designed to do
just one job, but to do any job based on their programs.
A program is a set of instructions that a computer follows to perform a task. Programs are
commonly referred to as software. Software is essential to a computer because it
controls the hardware components of the computer and everything the computer does.
The software and hardware that make computers useful are created by individuals working
as programmers/software developers and computer engineers. A programmer/software
developer is a person with the training and skills necessary to design, create, and test
computer programs, while a computer engineer focuses on the design and manufacturing of
computer hardware. Today, you will find the work of computer programmers and
engineers in business, medicine, government, law enforcement, agriculture, academics,
entertainment, industries, communications and many other fields. Therefore a computer

1
Development of Computers Computer Systems

can be defined as follows:

A computer is defined as a programmable machine, operating under the

control of instructions stored in its own memory. The computer is capable of
accepting data (input), processing data arithmetically and logically, producing
output from the processing and storing the results for future use. In other
words, a computer is an electronic device that performs specified sequences of
operations as per the set of instructions (known as programs) given on a set
of data (input) to generate desired information (output) and store the result
for future used.

The “machine” part of the computer is called the hardware, while the “programmable”
part is called the software.
Computers are used to fulfil general and specific needs of the public, industries and
governments. Computers use software to make it easier for users to accomplish some
task and solve some problems. Therefore, software must be efficient, robust, easy to
use, visually appealing and produce correct results. Thus, computer science deals with
processing information through computations and analysis to solve a particular problem
or produce a desired result, depending on the application at hand. Using software
for a desired task or to a solve problem requires programming and domain knowledge.
Computer science is not an area of study that covers anything related to IT support,
repairing computers installing and configuring networks, using application packages,
browsing the web or playing games. Computer science focuses on understanding what
goes on behind software and how software/programs can be made more efficiently. The
general areas of discipline in computer science are computer architecture, operating
systems, programming languages and compilers. algorithms, data structures and com-
plexity, computability theory, numerical analysis, networking and distributed computing,
parallel computing, information management/database systems, software development (or
software engineering), human-computer communication/interaction, graphics and visual
computing and intelligent systems (or artificial intelligence). Thus, studying computer
science requires specializing in one or more of these areas.

1.2 Development of Computers

In early days, counting was something difficult and started by using stones. People follow
a set of procedure to perform calculation with these stones, which later led to the creation
of the first mechanical calculating device known as ABACUS.

2
Development of Computers Computer Systems

1.2.1 The Abacus

Abacus is known to be the first mechanical calculating device that was used to perform
addition and subtraction easily and quickly. This device was first developed by the
Egyptians in the 10th century B.C, but it was given its final shape in the 12th century
A.D. by the Chinese educationalists. Abacus is made up of wooden frame in which rods
where fitted across with round beads sliding on the rods as shown in Figure 1.1. It is
divided into two parts called ‘Heaven’ and ‘Earth’. Heaven was the upper part and Earth
was the lower one. Thus, any number can be represented by placing the beads at proper
place. Early merchants used the abacus to keep trading transactions. But as the use of
paper and pencil spread, the abacus lost its importance.

Figure 1.1: The Abacus

1.2.2 Napier’s Bones

In 1617, John Napier of Scotland invented a calculating device called the Napier Bones.
Napier’s bone used bone rods for counting purpose where some numbers were printed on
these rods. Figure 1.2 shows the picture of Napier’s bones. These rods can be used for
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Figure 1.2: The Napier’s Bones

3
Development of Computers Computer Systems

1.2.3 Pascal’s Calculator

In 1642, Blaise Pascal, the 18-year-old son of a French tax collector, invented what he
called a numerical wheel calculator to help his father with his duties. Pascal’s calculator, also
called a Pascaline, is a brass rectangular box that used eight movable dials to add sums
up to eight figures long. Figure 1.3 shows the Pascal’s calculator.

Figure 1.3: The Pascal’s calculator

The device used a base of ten to accomplish this. For example, as one dial moved ten
notches or one complete revolution, it moves the next dial, which represented the ten’s
column - one place. When the ten’s dial moved one revolution, the dial representing
the hundred’s place moved one notch and so on. The drawback to the Pascaline was its
limitation to addition.
1.2.4 Leibniz Calculator
In 1694, a German mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhem von Leibniz,
improved the Pascaline by creating a machine that could also multiply. Like its predecessor,
Leibniz’s mechanical multiplier worked by a system of gears and dials. Partly by studying
Pascal’s original notes and drawings, Leibniz was able to refine his machine. Figure 1.4
shows the Leibniz calculator.

Figure 1.4: The Leibniz calculator

The centrepiece of the machine was its stepped-drum gear design, which offered an
elongated version of the simple flat gear. It was not until 1820 that mechanical calculators
gained widespread use. Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar, a Frenchman, invented a

4
Development of Computers Computer Systems

machine that could perform the four basic arithmetic functions. Colmar’s mechanical
calculator, the Arithmometer, presented a more practical approach to computing because
it could add, subtract, multiply and divide. With its enhanced versatility, the Arithmo-
meter was widely used until the First World War. Figure 1.5 shows the Arithmometer
device.

Figure 1.5: The Arithmometer device

1.2.5 Analytical Engine

The real beginning of computers is with an English mathematics professor, Charles
Babbage. Babbage noticed a natural harmony between machines and mathematics;
machines were best at performing tasks repeatedly without mistake, while mathematics,
particularly the production of mathematics tables, often required the simple repetition
of steps. The problem centred on applying the ability of machines to the needs of
mathematics. Babbage’s first attempt at solving this problem was in 1822 when he
proposed a machine to perform differential equations, called a Difference Engine. Figure
1.6 shows the Differential Engine.

Figure 1.6: The Differential Engine

5
Development of Computers Computer Systems

Powered by steam and large as a locomotive, Difference Engine would have a stored
program and could perform calculations and print the results automatically. After
working on the Difference Engine for 10 years, Babbage was suddenly inspired to begin
work on the first general-purpose computer, which he called the Analytical Engine. Figure
1.7 shows the Analytical Engine.

Figure 1.7: The Analytical Engine

Babbage’s assistant, Augusta Ada King, was instrumental in the machine’s design. She
helped in revising plans, secured funding from the British government and communicated
the specifics of the Analytical Engine to the public. Ada’s understanding of the machine
allowed her to create the instruction routines to be fed into the computer, making her the
first female computer programmer. In the 1980’s, the U.S. Defense Department named a
programming language ADA in her honour.
Babbage’s steam-powered engine, although ultimately never constructed, may seem
primitive by today’s standards. However, it outlined the basic elements of a modern
general purpose computer and was a breakthrough concept. Consisting of over 50,000
components, the basic design of the Analytical Engine included input devices in the
form of perforated cards containing operating instructions and a "store" for memory of
1,000 numbers of up to 50 decimal digits long. It also contained a "mill" with a control
unit that allowed processing instructions in any sequence and output devices to produce
printed results. Babbage borrowed the idea of punch cards to encode the machine’s
instructions from the Jacquard loom. The loom, produced in 1820 and named after its
inventor, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, used punched boards that controlled the patterns to
be woven. For this great invention of the computer, Sir Charles Babbage is also known
as the father of computer.

6
Development of Computers Computer Systems

1.2.6 Tabulating Machine

In 1889, an American inventor, Herman Hollerith, also applied the Jacquard loom
concept to computing. His first task was to find a faster way to compute the U.S. census.
Unlike Babbage’s idea of using perforated cards to instruct the machine, Hollerith’s
method used cards to store data, which he fed into a machine that compiled the results
mechanically. Each punch on a card represented one number and combinations of two
punches represented one letter. Instead of ten years, census takers compiled their results in
just six weeks with Hollerith’s machine. Figure 1.8 shows the Tabulating Machine.

Figure 1.8: The Tabulating machine

In addition to their speed, the punch cards served as a storage method for data and
they helped reduce computational errors. Hollerith brought his punch card reader into
the business world, founding Tabulating Machine Company in 1896, later to become
International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924 after a series of mergers. Other companies
such as Remington Rand and Burroughs also manufactured punch readers for business
use. Both business and government used punch cards for data processing until the 1960’s.
1.2.7 Electronic Digital Computer
Vannevar Bush developed a calculator for solving differential equations in 1931. The
machine could solve complex differential equations that had long left scientists and
mathematicians baffled. The machine was cumbersome because hundreds of gears and
shafts were required to represent numbers and their various relationships to each other.
To eliminate this bulkiness, John Vincent Atanasoff, a professor at Iowa State College
(now called Iowa State University) and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, envisioned
an all-electronic computer that applied Boolean algebra to computer circuitry. This
approach was based on the mid-19th century work of George Boole who clarified the
binary system of algebra, which stated that any mathematical equations could be stated

7
Generations of Computer Computer Systems

simply as either true or false. By extending this concept to electronic circuits in the form
of on or off, Atanasoff and Berry developed the first automatic electronic digital
computer called Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC), which was successfully tested in 1942.
Figure 1.9 shows the Atanasoff-Berry Computer.

Figure 1.9: The Atanasoff-Berry Computer

1.3 Generations of Computer

In the year 1946, the first successful electronic computer called ENIAC was developed
and it was the starting point of the current generation of computers.
1.3.1 First Generation (1945-1956)
With the onset of World War II, governments sought to develop computers to exploit their
potential strategic importance. This increased funding for computer development projects
hastened technical progress. By 1941 German engineer Konrad Zuse had developed a
computer, the Z3, to design airplanes and missiles. The Allied forces, however, made
greater strides in developing powerful computers. In 1943, the British completed a secret
code-breaking computer called Colossus to decode German messages. The Colossus’s
impact on the development of the computer industry was rather limited for two important
reasons. First, Colossus was not a general-purpose computer; it was only designed to
decode secret messages. Second, the existence of the machine was kept secret until
decades after the war.
American efforts produced a broader achievement. Howard H. Aiken, a Harvard
engineer working with IBM, succeeded in producing an electronic calculator by 1944.
The purpose of the computer was to create ballistic charts for the U.S. Navy. It was about
half as long as a football field and contained about 500 miles of wiring. The Harvard-
IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Mark I for short, was an electronic
relay computer. It used electromagnetic signals to move mechanical parts. The

8
Generations of Computer Computer Systems

machine was slow (taking 3-5 seconds per calculation) and inflexible (in that sequences
of calculations could not change); but it could perform basic arithmetic as well as more
complex equations.
Another computer development spurred by the war was the Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), produced by a partnership between the U.S. govern-
ment and the University of Pennsylvania. Consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000
resistors and 5 million soldered joints, the computer was such a massive and consumed
160 kilowatts of electrical power. ENIAC was developed by John Presper Eckert and John
W. Mauchly, and unlike the Colossus and Mark I, the machine was a general-purpose
computer that was 1,000 times faster than Mark I. In the mid-1940’s John von Neumann
joined the University of Pennsylvania team, initiating concepts in computer design that
remained central to computer engineering for 40 years. Figure 1.10 shows the ENIAC
computer.

Figure 1.10: The ENIAC computer

Von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)
in 1945 with a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data. This "stored
memory" technique as well as the "conditional control transfer" that allowed the computer
to be stopped at any point and then resumed, allowed for greater versatility in computer
programming. The key element to the von Neumann architecture was the central
processing unit, which allowed all computer functions to be coordinated through a single
source. Figure 1.11 shows the ENIAC computer. In 1951, Remington Rand built the
Universal Automatic Computer I (UNIVAC I), which became one of the first commercially
available computers to take advantage of these advances.

9
Generations of Computer Computer Systems

Figure 1.11: The EDVAC computer

First generation computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions
were made-to-order for the specific task for which the computer was to be used. Each
computer had a different binary-coded program called a machine language that told it
how to operate. This made the computer difficult to program and limited its versatility
and speed. Other distinctive features of first generation computers were the use of vacuum
tubes (responsible for their breathtaking size) and magnetic drums for data storage.
1.3.2 Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
By 1948, the invention of the transistor greatly changed the development of computers.
The transistor replaced the large, cumbersome vacuum tube in televisions, radios and
computers, reduced the size of electronic machinery. The transistor was at work in the
computer by 1956. Coupled with early advances in magnetic-core memory, transistors led to
second generation computers that were smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy-
efficient than their predecessors. The first large-scale machines to take advantage of this
transistor technology were early supercomputers such as Stretch by IBM and LARC
by Sperry-Rand. These computers were both developed for atomic energy laboratories
and could handle an enormous amount of data, a capability much in demand by atomic
scientists. The machines were costly and tended to be too powerful for the business
sector’s computing needs, thereby limiting their attractiveness.
Second generation computers replaced machine language with assembly language,
allowing abbreviated programming codes to replace long and difficult binary codes.
Throughout the early 1960’s, there were a number of commercially successful second
generation computers used in business, universities and government from companies such

10
Generations of Computer Computer Systems

as Burroughs, Control Data, Honeywell, IBM, Sperry-Rand and others. These second
generation computers were also of solid state design and contained transistors in place of
vacuum tubes. They also contained all the components associated with the modern day
computer: printers, tape storage, disk storage, memory, operating systems, and stored
programs. One important example was the IBM 1401, which was universally accepted
throughout industry, and is considered by many to be the Model T of the computer
industry.
By 1965, most large business routinely processed financial information using second
generation computers. It was the stored program and programming language that gave
the computers the flexibility to finally be cost effective and productive for business use.
More sophisticated high-level languages such as COBOL (Common Business-Oriented
Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) came into use. These languages replaced
cryptic binary machine code with words, sentences, and mathematical formulas, making
it much easier to program a computer. New types of careers such as programmer,
analyst and computer systems expert, and the entire software industry began with second
generation computers.
1.3.3 Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)
Despite the improvement provided by transistors over the vacuum tube, they still gener-
ated a great deal of heat, which damaged sensitive internal parts of a computer. The
quartz rock eliminated this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments,
developed the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958. The IC combined three electronic compon-
ents onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz. Scientists later managed to fit
even more components on a single chip, called a semiconductor. As a result, computers
became ever smaller as more components were squeezed onto the chip. Figure 1.12 shows a
vacuum tube, a resistor and an integrated circuit.

Figure 1.12: A vacuum tube, a resistor and an integrated circuit

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Generations of Computer Computer Systems

Another third-generation development included the use of an operating system that

allowed machines to run many different programs at once with a central program that
monitored and coordinated the computer’s memory.
1.3.4 Fourth Generation (1971-1984)
After the integrated circuits, the only place to go was down in size, that is, Large Scale
Integration (LSI) could fit hundreds of components onto one chip. By the 1980’s, Very
Large Scale Integration (VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of components onto a
chip. Ultra-large Scale Integration (ULSI) increased that number into the millions. It also
increased their power, efficiency and reliability. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971,
took the integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a computer
(central processing unit, memory, and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip.
Unlike the previous integrated circuit that must be manufactured to fit a special purpose,
now one microprocessor could be manufactured and then programmed to meet any
number of demands. Soon everyday household items such as microwave ovens, television
sets and auto-mobiles with electronic fuel injection incorporated microprocessors. Such
condensed power allowed everyday people to harness the power of computers. They were no
longer developed exclusively for large business or government contracts.
By the mid-1970’s, computer manufacturers sought to bring computers to general
consumers. These minicomputers came complete with user-friendly software packages
that offered even non-technical users with an array of applications, most popularly word
processing and spreadsheet programs. Pioneers in this field were Commodore, Radio
Shack and Apple Computers. In the early 1980’s, arcade video games such as PAC Man
and home video game systems such as the Atari 2600 ignited consumer interest for more
sophisticated, programmable home computers. In 1981, IBM introduced its personal
computer (PC) for use in home, office and schools. The 1980’s saw an expansion in
computer use in all three arenas as clones of the IBM PC made the personal computer
even more affordable. Computers continued their trend toward a smaller size, working
their way down from desktop to laptop and palmtop computers. Apple’s Macintosh
line, in direct competition with IBM’s PC, was introduced in 1984. Notable for its user-
friendly design, the Macintosh offered an operating system that allowed users to move
screen icons instead of typing instructions. Users controlled the screen cursor using a
mouse, a device that mimicked the movement of a hand on the computer screen.
As computers became more widespread in the workplace, new ways to harness their
potential developed. As smaller computers became more powerful, they could be linked
together or networked to share memory space, software, information and communicate

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Generations of Computer Computer Systems

with each other. As opposed to a mainframe computer which was one powerful computer
that shared time with many terminals for many applications, networked computers
allowed individual computers to form electronic cooperation using either direct wiring,
called a Local Area Network (LAN) or telephone lines.
1.3.5 Fifth Generation (1984-1990)
This generation of computers introduced machines with hundreds of processors that
could all be working on different parts of a single program. The scale of integration in
semiconductors enabled building chips with a million components, and semiconductor
memories became standard on all computers. Many advances in the science of computer
design and technology emerged such as parallel processing, which replaces von Neumann’s
single central processing unit design, with a system harnessing the power of many
processors to work as one. The superconductor technology, which allows the flow of
electricity with little or no resistance, greatly improved the speed of information flow.
Computer networks, both wide area network (WAN) and local area network (LAN)
technology developed rapidly and single-user workstations also became popular. The
fifth generation computers also introduced the use of Artificial intelligence. For example,
expert systems assist doctors in making diagnoses by applying the problem-solving steps
a doctor might use in assessing a patient’s needs.

1.3.6 Sixth Generation (1990 and beyond)

Most of the developments in computer systems since 1990 were improvements over
established systems. This generation brought about gains in parallel computing in both
the hardware and in improved understanding of how to develop algorithms to exploit
parallel architectures. Workstation technology continued to improve, with processor
designs now using a combination of RISC, pipelining, and parallel processing. Wide area
networks, network bandwidth and speed of operation and networking capabilities have kept
developing tremendously. Personal computers (PCs) now operate with Gigabit per second
processors, multi-Gigabyte disks, gigabytes of RAM, colour printers, high-resolution
graphic monitors, stereo sound cards and graphical user interfaces. Thousands of software
(operating systems and application software) are existing today. This generation also
brought micro controller technology, which are embedded inside some other devices (often
consumer products) so that they can control the features or actions of the product. They
work as small computers inside devices and now serve as essential components in most
machines.

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Classes of Computers Computer Systems

1.3.7 Emerging Generation (Quantum Computers)

Conventional digital computers store information using bits represented by 0s or 1s.
Quantum computers use quantum bits, or qubits, to encode information as 0s, 1s, or
both at the same time. This superposition of states and other quantum mechanical
phenomena of entanglement and tunnelling enables quantum computers to manipulate
enormous combinations of states at once. A qubit can be thought of like an imaginary
sphere. Whereas a classical bit can be in two states - at either of the two poles of
the sphere - a qubit can be any point on the sphere. This means a computer using these
bits can store a huge amount more information using less energy than a classical
computer. D-Wave Systems developed an integrated quantum computer system running on
a 128-qubit processor in 2011. D-Wave Systems launched the D-Wave two (512-qubit
quantum computer) in 2013 and D-Wave 2X (1000-qubit quantum computer) in 2015. In
January 2017, D-Wave Systems launched the D-Wave 2000Q quantum computer (2000
qubit). Figure 1.13 shows the D-Wave 2000Q quantum computer.

Figure 1.13: D-Wave 2000Q Quantum Computer

1.4 Classes of Computers

Computers can be classified by their mode of operations; analogue, digital and hy- brid,
and their sizes; supercomputers, mainframes, minicomputers, workstations and
microcomputers.
Analog Computers
An analogue computer is designed to process continuous physical quantities. Examples
of analogue computer usage include monitoring temperature, voltage and current reading

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Classes of Computers Computer Systems

in a power station. Each of these parameters can attain an infinite number of values, not
just simple on and off. An analogue computer has the following characteristics:
• It operates by measuring.

• It functions on continuously varying quantities.

• The output is usually represented in the form of graph.

• Its calculations are first converted in equation and later converted into electrical
signals.

• The accuracy of the output is poor.

• It has limited memory space.

• It is not versatile, that is, it has limited application.

• The speed of analog computer is low.

• Not suitable for business and industry.

Digital Computers
A digital computer processes digital quantities that attain discrete values. They are
machines made up of combinations of chips, flip-flops, buttons and other electronic devices
to make them function at a very fast speed. A digital computer has its numbers, letters
or other symbols represented in digital format. A digital computer has the following
characteristics:
• It operates by counting.

• It functions on discrete numbers.

• The calculations are converted into binary numbers, that is, 1s and 0s.

• The output is represented in the form of discrete values.

• Its accuracy is good.

• It has large memory space.

• It is versatile in nature and is suitable for a number of applications.

• It uses numbers, words and symbols.

• Its processing speed is high.

• It is highly suitable for business application.

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Classes of Computers Computer Systems

Hybrid Computers
A hybrid computer possess the features of both analog and digital computers. A hybrid
computer accepts either digital, analog or both types of inputs and gives the results as
per requirements through special devices. Thus, with the hybrid computer, users can
process both continuous and discrete data. A converter is fixed in a hybrid computer to
convert the analog data into digital data and vice versa. These are special purpose
devices and are not widely used.
Super Computers
A super computer is the most powerful computer available at any given time. These
machines are built to process huge amounts of information and do so very quickly.
Supercomputers are built specifically for researchers or scientists working on projects
that demand very huge amounts of data variables; an example is in nuclear research,
where scientists want to know exactly what will happen during every millisecond of a
nuclear chain reaction. To demonstrate the capability of super computers, for an air
pollution control project that involves more than 500,000 variables, it will take a mini
computer about 45 hours to complete the simulation process, while a super computer
completes the simulation in 30 minutes. Supercomputers are big in size, generate a lot of
heat and are very expensive.
Mainframe Computers
The largest types of computers that are common in use are the mainframe computers.
They are designed to handle tremendous amounts of input, output and storage. They
are used mainly by large organization. Other users access mainframe computers through
terminals. Terminals consist of a keyboard and a display. The mainframe is usually in a
computer room.
Mini Computers
These are physically small compared to mainframes and are generally used for special
purposes or small-scale general purposes. The capabilities of mini computers is between
mainframes and personal computers. Like mainframes, they can handle a great deal more
input and output than personal computers. Although some minicomputers are designed for
a single user, many can handle dozens or even hundreds of terminals. Advances in
circuitry enabled modern mini computers to out-perform older mainframes.

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Classes of Computers Computer Systems

Workstations
Workstations lie between mini computers and microcomputers in terms of processing
power. A workstation looks like a personal computer and is typically used by one person,
although it is still more powerful than the average personal computer. The differences
in the capabilities of these types of machines are growing smaller. They significantly
differ from micro computers in two ways: the central processing units of workstations are
designed differently to enable faster processing of instructions.
Micro Computers/Personal Computers (PCs)
The term microcomputers and personal computers are used interchangeably to mean the
small free-standing computers that are commonly found in offices, homes and classrooms.
Today, PCs are seriously challenging older mainframes and mini computers in processing
power and competition is producing smaller and faster models of PCs every year. The
following are different types of PCs:

• Desktop: This is the first type of PC and the most common. Most desktops are
small enough to fit on a desk, but are a little too big to carry around.

• Laptop: They weigh about 4.5kg, and are battery–operated computers with built–in
screens. They are designed to be carried and used in locations with no electricity.
Laptops typically have an almost full–sized keyboard.

• The Notebook: They are similar to laptops but smaller. They weigh about 2.7–3.2kg.
As the name implies, they are approximately the size of a notebook.

• The Palmtop: They are also known as personal digital assistance (PDAs) and are
the smallest of portable computers. Palmtops are less powerful than notebooks
or desktops models and have built-in applications such as word processing. They
are mostly used to display important informations such as telephone numbers and
addresses.

Personal computers can do a lot of things. The most common tasks computers perform
include writing documents such as memos, letters, reports and briefs, budgeting and
performing accounting tasks, analysing numeric information, searching through lists or
reports for specific information, scheduling and planning projects, creating illustrations,
communication and many other activities.

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Characteristics of Computers Computer Systems

1.5 Characteristics of Computers

The characteristics which make computer indispensable are speed, accuracy, reliability,
storage capacity, versatility and automation and diligence.

• Speed: A computer is able to process data and give the output in fractions of
seconds, such that the required information is given to the user on time, which
enables the user to take right decisions quickly. A powerful computer is capable of
executing about 3 million calculations or more per second.

• Accuracy: Apart from high processing speed, the accuracy of computers is consist-
ently high enough to avoid errors.

• Reliable: The output generated by the computer is very reliable. This is achieved
when the data passed as input to the computer and the instructions are correct
and reliable.

• Storage: A computer has a provision to store large volumes of data in small storage
devices, which have capacity to store huge amounts of data and help the retrieval
of data an easy task.

• Versatility: A computer performs three basic operations; it is capable of accessing

and accepting information from the user through various input-output devices. It
performs basic arithmetic and logic operations on the data as desired and it is
capable of generating the desired output in the desired form.

• Automation: The instructions fed into a computer works automatically without

any human intervention until the completion of execution of a program, or until
the computer meets an instructions to terminate execution.

• Diligence: The performance of a computer is consistent, that is, it does each and
every calculation with same speed and accuracy.

1.6 Components of a Computer

A computer has three main components; hardware, software and peripheral devices.
Hardware refers to the tangible and physical units of a computer system, which includes all
electronic and electric circuitry components and devices. Software is a set of instructions
that makes the hardware work to get desired results. Peripheral devices are machines
and other electronic devices attached to the computer system to perform a desired task.
The components of a computer system are explained in Chapter 2.

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 CHAPTER
Computer Hardware and Software

2.1 Introduction
The previous chapter presented an overview of computer systems, how they evolved,
their categories and characteristics. This chapter is concerned with the components of a
computer, i.e., hardware and software.

2.2 Computer Hardware

The term hardware refers to all of the physical devices or components that a computer
is made of. A computer is not a single device, but a system of devices that all work
together. Each device in a computer performs a particular function. Computer has
hardware components such as central processing unit (CPU), main memory, secondary
storage devices, input and output devices. Computer hardware performs some operations
like addition, subtraction, data transfer and control transfers. Figure 2.1 presents a
typical computer system with the following major components:

• The central processing unit (CPU)

• Main memory

• Secondary storage devices

• Input devices

• Output devices

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Computer Hardware Computer Hardware and Software

Figure 2.1: Hardware Component of a Computer

2.2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

When a computer is performing the tasks that a program commands, it is called running
or executing the program. The CPU is the component in the computer that runs programs.
The term CPU is used loosely to refer to the processor of a computer whether it is a set
of chips or a single microprocessor. The processor is the “brain” of the computer, that
is, the part that interprets and executes instructions. In large computers, the processor
often comprises a number of chips whereas in small computers called microcomputers or
PCs, the processor is a single silicon chip, called a microprocessor. Figure 2.2 presents
an Intel microprocessor chip.

Figure 2.2: An Intel Microprocessor Chip

Every CPU has two basic parts, the control unit (CU) and the Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU).

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Computer Hardware Computer Hardware and Software

Control Unit (CU)

The control unit manages all the computer resources and coordinates all the activities
of a computer. The control unit contains the basic instructions (called firmware) for
executing programs. The instruction set, built into the circuitry of the control unit, is a
list of all the operations that the CPU can perform. In fact, the control unit directs the
flow of data around the CPU and the computer. Based on the instructions given, the
CPU ensures that the operation specified in the program are performed in the sequence. This
operation may be receipt of data and storing them at specified locations, transfer of data
from one address of memory to another, transfer of data from memory to the ALU and
controlling the ALU.
Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)
All calculations and comparisons (decisions) are made in the Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU) of the CPU. Processing does not occurs in the primary storage. Intermediate
results generated are temporarily placed in a designated working storage area until needed
at a later time. Data may thus move from primary storage to the ALU and back again
many times before processing is finished. Once completed, the final results are released
to an output storage section and from there to an output device. The type and number
of ALU operations a computer can perform are determined by the design of the CPU.
2.2.2 Primary Storage Devices
The data passed to the computer is stored in the memory. When the data is required to
be processed or operated upon, it is then transferred to the ALU, which does all the
computation work such as addition, subtraction and shifting. After processing, the data
is again brought back and stored in the memory. There are two main types of memories;
main memory and read only memory (ROM).
Main Memory (RAM)
The main memory, commonly known as random-access memory (RAM), can be seen
as the work area of a computer. This is where the computer stores a program while the
program is running, as well as the data that the program is working with. Main memory
is called RAM because the CPU is able to quickly access data stored at any random
location. Main memory is usually a volatile type of memory that is used only for
temporary storage while a program is running. When the computer is turned off, the
contents of RAM are erased. Figure 2.3 shows a main memory or RAM chip.

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Computer Hardware Computer Hardware and Software

Figure 2.3: A main memory Chip

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Instructions to perform operations that are critical to a computer are stored permanently
on a read-only memory (ROM) chip, which is installed by the manufacturer inside the
computer. When the power in the computer is turned off, the instructions stored in
ROM are not lost and the data cannot be changed, thus they are non-volatile. Figure
2.4 shows a ROM chip.

Figure 2.4: A ROM Chip

ROMs are categorised as follows:

• Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): These are non-volatile memor-
ies and may be written into only once. The writing process is performed using
special equipment for writing. However, PROMs provide flexibility and convenience.

• Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): These are another

variation of read only memories called read-mostly memories. EPROMs can be
read and written into as with the PROMs. Before write operations, the content
must be erased by exposing the memory to ultraviolet radiation. EPROMs have
multiple update capacity, that is, they can be erased repeatedly.

• Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM):

These are read-mostly memories that can be written into at any time without
erasing prior content; only the byte address are updated. The write operation takes
considerably longer time than the read operation. EEPROM is non-volatile, flexible
and more expensive than the EPROM.

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Computer Hardware Computer Hardware and Software

Table 2.1 presents differences between RAMs and ROMs

Table 2.1: Differences between RAM and ROM

Random-Access Memory (RAM) Read-Only Memory (ROM)
The data and program in RAM can be read The data or program in ROM can only be
and written. read but cannot be changed.
RAM stores data during and after processing. ROM is another type of memory that is
RAM is also known as a working memory. permanently stored inside the computer.
RAM is volatile which means the programs ROM is non-volatile. It holds the programs
and data in RAM are lost when the computer and data when the computer is powered off.
is powered off.
A computer uses RAM to hold temporary Programs in ROM are prerecorded. It can
instructions and data needed to complete only be stored by the manufacturer.
tasks. This enables the CPU (Central
Processing Unit) to access instructions and
data stored in the memory very quickly

2.2.3 Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary storage is a type of memory that can hold data for long period of time, even
when there is no power to the computer. Programs are normally stored in secondary
memory and loaded into main memory as needed. Important data, such as word processing
documents, payroll data and inventory records are stored in secondary storage as well.
The most common type of secondary storage device is the disk drive. Figure 2.5 shows
some storage devices.

Figure 2.5: Storage devices

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Computer Hardware Computer Hardware and Software

Disk Drive
A disk drive stores data by magnetically encoding it onto a circular disk. Most computers
have a disk drive mounted inside their cases. External disk drives, which connect to one
of the computer’s communication ports, are also available. External disk drives can be
used to create backup copies of important data or to move data to another computer. In
addition to external disk drives, many types of devices have been created for copying
data, and for moving data to other computers.
Floppy Disk Drive
A floppy disk drive records data onto a small floppy disk, which can be removed from
the drive. Floppy disks hold a small amount of data, are slow to access data and can be
unreliable. Floppy disk drives are no longer in use in the recent years.
USB Drives
USB drives are small devices that plug into the computer’s USB (universal serial bus)
port, and appear to the system as a disk drive. These drives do not actually contain a
disk. They store data in a special type of memory known as flash memory. USB drives,
which are also known as memory sticks and flash drives, are inexpensive, reliable and
small enough to be carried in pocket.
Optical Devices
Optical devices such as the CD (compact disc) and the DVD (digital versatile disc) are
also popular for data storage. Data is not recorded magnetically on an optical disc, but is
encoded as a series of pits on the disc surface. CD and DVD drives use a laser to detect
the pits and thus read the encoded data. Optical discs hold large amounts of data, and
because recordable CD and DVD drives are now common, they are good mediums for
creating backup copies of data.
Flash Cards
Flash cards can be used to store gigabytes of data depending on how much memory they
have. There are three different types of flash cards: compact flash cards, smart media
cards and memory sticks.
2.2.4 Input and Output Devices
Input is any data the computer collects from a user and other devices. The component
that collects the data and sends it to the computer is called an input device. After the
computer has recieved and processed data, the final result has to be brought out from
the machine in some intelligent and readable form. The result that comes out of the

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Computer Hardware Computer Hardware and Software

machine is called output and the equipment which enables the results to be brought out are
termed output devices. Output is any data the computer produces for people or forother
devices. It might be a sales report, a list of names or a graphic image. The data issent to
an output device, which formats and presents it.
Common input devices are the keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, joy stick, light
pens, digital camera, visual displays, printers, projector, speaker disk drives and optical
drives as shown in Figure 2.6

Figure 2.6: Input Devices

Keyboard
A keyboard is the most common input device and is used for all kinds of computers.
Several kinds of keyboards are available but they resemble each other with minor variations.
The keyboard in most common use is the QWERTY board. IBM and IBM compatible
PCs use 101 keyboard, which has 101 keys.

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Computer Hardware Computer Hardware and Software

Mouse
A mouse is an electro-mechanical hand-held device. It is used as a pointer to select menu
commands, move icons, size windows, start programs and choose options. Thus, the
mouse is best used as a pointing and selecting device, as it allows moving the cursor
across the screen of a computer in a rapid and intuitive way. Buttons are mounted on
the chassis of the mouse to trigger some events, like the selection of an icon or menu item
the cursor is positioned over. Mice are of two types:
• Mechanical mice: These contain a small ball inside the chassis, which is spun as the
mouse is moved over the surface. The ball in turn rotates some small wheels whose
motion is encoded by potentiometers or optical encoders. These mice can work on
every surface, but dirt is collected by the ball and often soils the encoders.

• Optical mice: These do not need a rotating ball, they contain optical sensors that
emit signals as the mouse is moved over a special grid containing reflecting lines in
the X and Y direction; on every line that is crossed, a pulse is emitted. These mice
have the advantage that there are no moving parts and no dirt is collected from the
surface, but they work only in combination with a special mouse pad containing
the grid.
Track Balls
The trackball is somehow the inverse of the mouse. It consists of a fixed chassis and
a freely rotating ball that can be moved in any direction with the fingers or the palm
of the hand; small wheels, positioned 90 degrees from each other, are connected to the
ball and rotate as it is spun. In mechanical trackballs, the spinning ball is connected to
potentiometers whose output corresponds to changes in the X and Y direction. In optical
trackballs, optical encoders are used to generate pulses according to the increments in
rotation around the X and Y axis. Trackballs have the same purpose as the mouse, to
move a cursor across the screen, but are preferable when there is no enough space for a
mouse or when the cursor has to be moved rapidly over a large area, because the ball
can be spun very fast and the cursor can be moved continuously without stopping.
Joy Stick
Joysticks consist of a stick that is mounted vertically on a fixed base, which can be
rotated around two orthogonal axes. There exist three basic types of joysticks employing
different technologies; digital, displacement and force joysticks.
• The digital joystick does not have resistors, but switches mounted around the
base of the lever (usually four), so that movement in any of the eight directions

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Computer Hardware Computer Hardware and Software

can be sensed. The output is "on" or "off" in any of the eight directions, and not
proportional to the stick’s displacement. Digital joystick cannot be used in absolute
positioning mode, but only to send directional information. This kind of joystick is
extremely successful in arcade games because of its robustness, simplicity and low
cost.

• In displacement joysticks, the stick is connected to resistors, typically potentiometers,

whose resistance is proportional to the stick’s position along the two axes. Increasing
the force applied to the stick increases its displacement; there is a direct relation
between force and displacement. The joystick can be used as an absolute positioning
device where the vertical stick corresponds to a central position and the full deflection
corresponds to corner positions (absolute mode), or the deflection may be used as a
velocity parameter indicating the direction and the speed of movement of a cursor
(relative parametric mode).

• Force joysticks has a lever that is rigid and cannot be moved noticeably, because
the forces applied to the stick are measured not the motion. The output of force
joysticks is proportional to the direction and amount of force applied. Force joysticks
always return to their central position when released. Because of their extremely
limited movement, they are not suited for absolute positioning.

Touch Pen and Screens

Touch Pens are devices used to directly point on the screen to select menu items or icons, or
directly draw graphics on the screen. It can also be used for writing on a special padas
direct written information to a system. Pressure on tip of a button is used to cause same
action as right-button-click of a mouse.
Touch screens are simple intuitive and easiest to learn of all input devices. Touch
screen enables users to choose the desired icon or menu items displayed on the screen by
simply touching with their fingers.
Scanner
A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters, magazine
pages and similar sources for computer editing and display.
Visual Display
Visual display is an output device that enables a user to see the results produced by the
computer. It is available in different sizes. Colour monitors and liquid crystal displays

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Computer Hardware Computer Hardware and Software

(LCD) are very popular these days. The quality of the display depends on the screen
resolution.
Printer
A printer is a device that prints text or illustrations on paper. There are many different
types of printers

• Dot-Matrix Printers: These are character printers that form characters and all
kind of images as a pattern of dots. Dot-matrix prints many special characters,
different sizes of print and graphics such as charts and graphs. They are slow, with
speed usually ranging between 30 to 600 characters per second.

• Ink-Jet printers: These are character printers that form characters and all kind
of images by spraying small drops of ink on to the paper. The print head contains
up to 64 tiny nozzles that can be selectively heated up in a few micro seconds by
an integrated circuit register. They are slower than dot-matrix printers with speed
usually ranging from 40 to 300 characters per second.

• Laser Printers: These are line printers that print one line at a time. They have
a solid cylinder drum with characters embossed on its surface in form of circular
bands. Laser printers can only print a pre-defined set of characters in a pre-defined
style that is embossed on the drum. They speed in the range of 300 to 2000 lines
per minutes.

• Multifunction Device: As its name implies, a multifunction printer can perform

more than one task. This device can usually operate as a fax machine, copier, and
scanner in addition to its traditional printing duties.

Plotter
A plotter is a special printer that is used to create posters and blueprints.
Projector
A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) projector is a device that uses its own light source to
project what is to be displayed on a wall or projection screen. A digital light processing
(DLP) projector uses tiny mirrors to reflect light which can be seen clearly in a well-lit
room.
Speakers
A speaker is a device that produces out music, speech or other sounds. A pair of speakers is
an audio output device that generates sound. The headphone is a pair of small speakers

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Computer Software Computer Hardware and Software

placed over the ears and plugged into a port on the sound card. A woofer or sub-woofer
is used to boost the low bass sound and is connected to the port on the sound card.
Modem
A modem (MOdulator-DEModulator) converts signal from digital to analog (modulation)
and analog to digital (demodulation). The modem enables digital microcomputers to
send output through analog telephone lines; voice and data can be carried over through
the modem. The modem is not only an output device but also an input device that
receives data and voice through a communication channel.

2.3 Computer Software

Computer software is the set of instructions that makes the computer work as desired.
Essentially, computer software can be divided into three main groups depending on their
use and application. These are system software, middleware and application software.
Usually most of us interact with a computer using computer software developed as
application software.
2.3.1 System Software
The programs that control and manage the basic operations of a computer are generally
referred to as system software. System software typically includes the following types of
programs:
Operating Systems (OS)
An operating system is the most fundamental set of programs on a computer. The
operating system controls the internal operations of the computer’s hardware, manages
the devices connected to the computer, allows data to be saved to and retrieved from
storage devices, and allows other programs to run on the computer. Operating system
is the software used by the computer to translate inputs from various sources into a
language which a machine can understand. Basically, the operating system coordinates
the different hardware components of a computer. The most popular operating systems are
Linux (e.g Redhat, Ubuntu, Fedora), Microsoft Windows (e.g Windows 7, 8 and 10),Mac
OS X and UNIX (e.g Solaris).
Functions of Operating Systems
The operating system has the following primary functions:

• Booting of the Computer: This is the first process that takes place the moment
the computer’s electrical switch is put on. During this process all the peripherals

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connected to the computer are checked and validated. At the end of the validation
process, the operating system signals the user to begin working on the computer.

• Providing User Interface: Operating system provides an interface for the user,
either as a command line interface or as a graphical user interface. This enables
the user to communicate with the computer. In other words, operating system
communicates with the computer user or operator by means of terminals and
through the use of monitor command responses. The user may also be able to
communicate with the operating system by means of command language. There are
two broad categories of interfaces: command line and graphical user interfaces. To use
an operating system with a command line interface, a user can type words and
symbols using the keyboard. With a graphical user interface (GUI), a user selects
actions by using a mouse or similar pointing device to click on pictures called icons
or to pick options from menus. Every operating system provides a user interface,
whether it is made up of text or is graphical in nature.

• Managing the Hardware: Operating system controls and manages hardware

resources. For example, operating system manages the selection and operation of
devices used for input, output and storage. In other words the operating system
serves as the intermediary between programs and hardware. Regardless of the type of
user interface, the operating system intercepts commands to use memory and
other devices, keeping track of what programs have access to what devices and so
on. For example when instructing the operating system to list the files in a
directory or folder, the software interpreting the command sends a request to the
CPU in form of interrupting the CPU and instructing the CPU to go to the disk
drive and retrieve the names of the files it finds in the directory or folder.

• Managing the File System: Operating system groups data together into logical
compartments for storage on disk. These groups of data are called files. The
computer stores information in files. Files may contain program instructions or
data created or used by a program. The operating system maintains the list of files on
a disk.

• Supporting Programs: Another major function of an operating system is to

provide services to other programs. Often these services are similar to those that the
operating system provides directly to users. For example when a user wants word
processing program to retrieve a document, the word processor will list the files in the
directory that the user specifies. To do this, the program (word processing)

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Computer Software Computer Hardware and Software

calls on the operating system to list the files. The operating system goes through
the same process to build a list of files whether it receives instruction directly from
a user or from an application program. But when the request comes from an
application the operating system sends the result of its work to the application
program instead of directly to the computer screen. Some of the other services that an
operating system provides to programs are:

– Saving files to disk and reading them from disk into memory .
– Checking available disk or memory space,
– Allocating memory to hold data for a program.
– Reading keystrokes from the keyboard.
– Displaying characters or graphics on the screen.
– Loading the user program into memory.
– Giving instruction to display the result on the monitor

Categories of Operating Systems

Operating systems are designed with many objectives in mind. Among the most basic
questions in operating system design are the following:

Should the operating system be able to do more than one thing at a time?
Should the operating system support only one user or should it support
multiple users simultaneously?
Should the operating system be able to use more than one CPU?

The categories of operating systems are;

• Multitasking Operating System/Multi Programming: This is an operating

system that is capable of running more than one program task per operation time.
There are two types of multitasking operating systems; cooperative and pre-
emptive.

– Cooperative Multitasking: This requires cooperation between the operating

system and application programs. In this case, the programs are written in
such a way that they periodically check with the operating system to determine
whether any other program needs the CPU. If a program needs the CPU, they
relinquish control of the CPU to the next program. Cooperative multitasking
is common with Macintosh OS and computers running Microsoft Windows.

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Computer Software Computer Hardware and Software

– Pre-emptive Multitasking: Under this scheme, the operating system maintains

a list of processes (programs) that are running. Each process on the list is
assigned a priority by the operating system when it is started. At any time,
the operating system can intervene and modify the priority list. The operating
system also retains control of the amount of time that it spends with any
process before going to the next process. Unix, OS/2 and Windows NT employ
pre-emptive multitasking.

• Multi-user Operating Systems: A multi-user operating system allows more

than a single user access to a computer at the same time. To accomplish this,a
multi-user operating system must also be capable of multitasking. Multi-user
operating system provides two ways to enable people use the same PC at the same
time.

– The first way to connect to a PC running multi-user operating system is from

another computer with a connection. The remote user can log in and run
programs, list files, send e-mails read the news and otherwise do everything
they could do as if they are physically in front of the computer.
– The second way to connect to a computer, with multi-user operating system,
is by attaching terminals to the PC. Terminals are inexpensive devices that
consist of a keyboard and a monitor.

• Multiprocessing Operating Systems: A special type of operating system is

required to use a computer equipped with more than one CPU. In other words,
multiprocessing requires an operating system that is capable of using and managing
a series of CPUs. There are two types of multiprocessing operating systems; asym-
metric and symmetric. With asymmetrical multiprocessing, one main CPU retains the
overall control of the computer as well as that of the other microprocessors. In
symmetrical multiprocessing, there is no single controlling CPU. This arrangement
provides a linear increase in system capacity for each processor added to the system.

2.3.2 Middleware
Middleware is a set of services that allows multiple processes running on one or more ma-
chines to interact. Middleware is often used to support and simplify complex distributed
applications. It can also allow data contained in one database to be accessed through
another. Middleware is sometimes called plumbing because it connects two applications and
passes data between them. (e.g Java RMI, CORBA, DCOM, web servers, application servers,
etc.).

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2.3.3 Application Software

These are programs that make a computer useful for everyday tasks. These are the
programs that people normally spend most of their time running on their computers.
Popular examples of application software are word processing programs, image editing
programs, spreadsheet programs, database programs, email programs, web browsers and
games.
Word processing
This is one of the most common application software. The great advantage of word
processing over using a typewriter is that you can make changes without retyping the
entire document. Word processors make it easy to manipulate and format documents.
Example of word processing software is Microsoft Office Word and Open Office Word.
Spreadsheets
These are computer programs that allow users to electronically create and manipulate
spreadsheets (tables of values arranged in rows and columns with predefined relationships
to each other). Spreadsheets are used for mathematical calculations such as accounting,
budgeting, statistics and so on. Examples of spreadsheet applications are Microsoft Excel,
Open Office Spreadsheet, Lotus and SPSS.
Database Management Systems
These applications are computer programs that let people create and manipulate data in
a database. A database is a collection of related information that can be manipulated
and used to sort information, conduct statistical analyses or generate reports. Examples
of database management systems are Microsoft Access, Microsoft SQL, MySQL and
Oracle database.
Presentation Packages
A presentation is a means of assessment, which requires presentation providers to present
their work orally in the presence of an audience. It combines both visual and verbal
elements. A presentation software allows users to create presentations by producing
slides or handouts for presentation. Essentially, such computer programs allow users to
create a variety of visually appealing electronic slides for presentation. They enable users to
create highly stylized images for slide presentations and reports. They can also be used
to produce various types of charts and graphs. Microsoft PowerPoint and Prezi are
examples of presentation application.

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Image Editors
Image editor programs are designed specifically for capturing, creating, editing, and
manipulating images. These graphics programs provide a variety of special features for
creating and altering images. In addition to offering a host of filters and image
transformation algorithms, some image editors also enable users to create and superimpose
layers. Most graphic programs have the ability to import and export one or more graphic
file formats. With image editing software, one a user can adjust an image to improve its
appearance, darken or lighten an image, rotate it, adjust it contrast, crop out extraneous
detail and much more. Examples of image editors are Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator
and CorelDraw.
Communication Packages
These are applications that enable people to send faxes and emails and dial into other
computers for voice and video communication. Examples are Microsoft Outlook and
Skype.

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 CHAPTER
Applications of Computers

3.1 Introduction
Computers play a very important role in almost every aspect of human life; banking,
insurance, transportation etc. Computers are useful in data processing as discussed
in Chapter 4. The use of computers in data processing and other activities includes office
automation, business transactions, financial transactions, scientific computing and
engineering design. This shows how computers are used to solve problems or achieve
a desired activity. The following sections discussed some applications of computers in
facilitating activities and solving different problems using developed software packages.

3.2 Office Automation System

The introduction of mini computers significantly changed the way work is done in offices.
Office automation is a collection of computer-based office-oriented technologies with the
basic objective of improving the efficiency of office work.
Document Management System
A document management system comprises applications that are used to create and
manipulate documents such as word processing, desktop publishing, spreadsheets and
image processing.

• Word processing: This is used to create document electronically such as letters,

proposals, reports and brochures. It allows manipulation of such documents and
their storage and retrieval.

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Office Automation System Applications of Computers

• Spreadsheet: This is used to maintain records and perform calculations such as

expenses, profits and losses. It is used to perform mathematical, statistical and
logical processing.

• Desktop publishing: This is used to produce professional print quality documents

with photos and graphics. A user can combine text, artwork, photos and a variety
of fonts to produce the document.

• Multimedia processing: This is used to manipulate and store images, audio and
video in a computer. It can also be used to improve the quality of images, audio
and videos.

Payroll System
Organisations employ people for their businesses, management and other activities. The
employees have to be paid their salaries periodically either weekly or monthly. Therefore the
payment details of employees in an organisation have to be processed and stored.
Computer facilitates the process using a computer program that consists of a number of
smaller programs or modules. Each module performs a particular function of the payroll.
This set of programs is called a payroll system.
To calculate the pay of an employee, organisations normally use employee number
(a unique number assigned to an employee), name, basic pay, allowances, deductions
and bank account number. Using a payroll system, the details of the employees are
stored permanently in a master file in a computer storage. For example, if an employee
completes a year of service, he normally gets an increment. This is updated using the
master update module of the payroll system. Another module of the payroll system
reads details from master file and calculates net pay. The program also prints out pay
slip for each employee. A pay slip shows the employee number, name, basic pay, various
allowances, various deductions and net pay. The payroll system also generates a number
of statements.
Office Support System
This is a collection of programs that are used to coordinate the activities of a workgroup
in an organisation. The members of a work-group can use the system to collaborate and
exchange information irrespective of their location. Examples of groupware applications are
Lotus Notes and Microsoft SharePoint and Exchange. Most of the groupware
applications include calendering and scheduling, discussion databases, reference library
and messaging.

36
Business Applications of Computers

Data Management System

This is used to effectively organise, manipulate and store records. Educational organ-
isations use data management system to manage employee and student records. In
addition to employee records, hospitals use data management system to keep the records of
patients, medicines and prescriptions.
Communication Systems
These are used to send messages, documents, images, audio and videos from one location
to another. These programs includes facsimile (Fax), email and Teleconference.

3.3 Business
Computers have tremendously improved the way businesses operate in their respective
industries. Businesses that do not use computers are at a major disadvantage against
their competitors. The following are some of the applications of computers in businesses.
Transaction Processing System
Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) are among the earliest computerised systems
catering to the requirements of large business enterprises. The purpose of a typical TPS
is to record, process, validate and store transactions that occur in the various functional
areas of a business for subsequent retrieval and usage. A transaction could be internal
or external. When a department requisitions material supplies from stores, an internal
transaction is said to have occurred. However, when the purchase department purchases
materials from a supplier, an external transaction takes place. The steps involved in TPS are
data entry, data validation, processing and revalidation, storage and reporting.
Order Processing System
Companies often use a set of processes to complete the tasks and activities that occur in their
businesses every day. Order processing is one of these activities. An order processing system
captures order data from customer service employees or from customers directly, stores the
data in a central database and sends order information to the accounting and shipping
departments, if applicable. Order processing systems provide tracking data on orders and
inventory for every step of the way.
Inventory Control System
Computers are used to keep track of purchases and raw materials needed in an organization.
The purchases and raw materials are called inventories and the set of programs used
to keep track of these inventories constitute the inventory control system. Therefore,

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Banking and Finance Applications of Computers

a particularly quantity of each item or raw material has to be stocked. An inventory

control system helps in planning and control functions of inventory management.
The inventory control system maintains a file with item number, name, quantity on
stock a company orders and the suppliers’ addresses. This file is the inventory master.
When an item is issued, the inventory update program updates the inventory master
reducing the stock by the quantity issued. If the resultant stock falls below the reorder
level, the inventory control program prints out an order to the supplier of the item
automatically. It can also be mailed to the supplier. When the supplier supplies the item,
the inventory control program updates the stock. The inventory control system can
quickly inform the management of a company on the usage of items over a period of time.
It also maintains an optimum level of stock of these items.
Decision Support System
A decision support system is a computer application that helps users in analysing
problems and making business decisions more confidently. It uses data routinely collected
in organizations and special analysis tools to provide information support to complex
decisions. For example, a sales department of a company may be interested in analysing
various sales decision options. The decision support application might gather data,
present the data graphically and help in evaluating various options. It may use past
sales figures, project sales based on sales assumptions for each alternative considered
and display information graphically. It may also use artificial intelligence to enhance its
decision support capability.

Electronic Commerce
Electronic commerce is the process of searching, choosing, buying and selling of product
or service on the electronic network; it uses the computer and communication networks
for promoting products, selling, delivery, collection and delivery service. In e-commerce, the
parties to a transaction interact electronically. They may be separated by long distances
physically, yet the electronic network brings them together not only to complete a
transaction but also to get sales support. The most important advantage of the internet for
business firms is that it allows reaching customers at very low costs.

3.4 Banking and Finance

The following are the major impacts of the use of computers in banking and finance:

38
Banking and Finance Applications of Computers

Automated Teller Machine (ATM)

An ATM is a device uses computers to enable a customer perform financial transactions
using a personal identification number. This enabled an ATM to dispense cash at any
time of the day and night, unlike the traditional method where customers have to queue
in a bank for a very long time in order to withdraw cash or transfer funds. To use
an ATM, a customer is issued an ATM card. This is a plastic card, which bears the
customer’s name. This card is magnetically coded and can be read by the ATM machine.
Each card holder is provided with a secret personal identification number (PIN). When
the customer wants to use the card, he has to insert his plastic card in the slot of the
machine. After the card is a recognized by the machine, the customer enters his personal
identification number. After establishing the authentication of the customers, the ATM
machine allows the customer to do the desired transaction. When the transaction is
completed, the ATM ejects the customer’s card.

Telephone Banking
Telephone banking provides a 24 hour banking facility to customers. Telephone banking
is based on the voice processing facility available that is controlled using computers. The
caller usually a customer calls the bank any time and can enquire balance in his account
or other transaction history. In this system, the computers at the bank are connected to
a telephone link with the help of a modem. Voice processing facility is provided in the
software. The software identifies the voice of caller and provides him suitable reply.
Internet Banking
Internet banking enables a customer to do banking transactions through the bank’s
website on the Internet. It is a system of accessing accounts and general information on
bank products and services through a computer. This is more or less bringing the bank
to your computer. In traditional banking, a customer has to approach the branch in
person to withdraw cash or deposit a cheque or request a statement of accounts etc.
However, Internet banking has changed the way of banking now, because a customer can do
transactions using a computer through the website of a bank. All such transactions are
encrypted using computer software. A customer can be rest assured that transactions are
secure and confidential.
Bankers Automated Clearing Services
This involves the use of Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR) for cheque processing.
It is capable of encoding, reading and sorting cheques. Also, request for cheque books or
purchase of draft can be made and granted via electronic devices.

39
Computational Science Applications of Computers

Accounting Information System

Accounting software is used to implement a computerised accounting system. The
computerised accounting system is based on the concept of databases. It does away with the
concept of creating and maintaining journals, ledger, etc., which are essential while
working with manual accounting system. A computerised accounting system offers the
following features:

• Online input and storage of accounting data.

• Print out of purchase and sales invoices.

• Logical scheme for codification of accounts and transactions. Every account and
transaction is assigned a unique code.

• Grouping of accounts is done from the very beginning.

• Instant reports for management, for example – Statement, Trial Balance, Trading
and Profit and Loss Account, Balance Sheet, Stock Valuation, Value Added Tax
(VAT), Returns, Payroll Report, etc.

Accounting Information System (AIS) identifies, collects, processes and communicates

economic information about an entity to a wide variety of users. Such information is
organised in a manner that correct decisions can be based on it.

3.5 Computational Science

Computational science (also known as scientific computing) is a collection of tools,
techniques and theories required to solve complex problems in science and engineering
using computers. Majority of these tools, techniques and theories were originally developed
in Mathematics before the advent of electronic computers. This set of mathematical
theories and techniques is called Numerical Analysis (or Numerical Mathematics) and
constitutes a major part of computational science. The development of the electronic
computer, however, signalled a new era in the approach to the solution of scientific
problems.
Many numerical methods that had been developed for the purpose of hand calculation
(including the use of desk calculators for the actual arithmetic) had to be revised.
Considerations that where irrelevant or unimportant for hand calculation now became of
utmost importance for the efficient and correct use of a large computer system. Many of
these considerations – programming languages, operating systems, management of large
quantities of data, correctness of programs – were subsumed under the new discipline

40
Education Applications of Computers

of Computer Science, on which scientific computing now depends heavily. In summary,

scientific computing draws on mathematics and computer science to develop the best way
to use computer systems to solve problems from science and engineering. Computational
biology, computation chemistry, computational engineering, computation mathematics and
computational physics are sub-fields of computational science.

3.6 Education
Computers have become essential in education and teaching. The use of multimedia
packages, hypertext video chats, web based education, multimedia based education,
intelligent tutoring system, digital libraries, simulation laboratories, tele-education find
their places in education. The use of computers in imparting education to student has
been found attractive and satisfying. Some of the uses of computers in education includes
CAL, CAI, distance learning, digital libraries and e-learning.
Computer Aided Learning (CAL)
Computer Aided Learning is an interactive technology that describes an educational
environment where a computer program is used to assist people in learning a particular area
of study. CAL refers to an overall integrated approach of instrumental methods. CAL is
a device/learning strategy to make teaching more interesting and sustainable. CAL is
becoming an important part of education system. CAL system has its own vital merits
as follows;
• Well organized and readily accessible information to user.

• Allows users to work privately and without any interference.

• Elegant way to present information through graphics and animation.

• Rapid response to user’s queries.

• Overcomes traditional approach of blackboard and most of times one way commu-
nication.

• User satisfaction can be achieved as it can be used multiple times.

• It is convenient as it can be used at home or work place.

• It is dynamic because its content can be easily modified and upgraded depending
upon current information.

• It is self-evaluating, resource effective, dependable, simulative and numerically

judicious.

41
Education Applications of Computers

Computer Aided Instruction (CAI)

Computer Aided Instruction is a strategy of delivering learning objectives using computer-
based tools and applications such as electronic lecture halls and electronic seminar rooms
in a university for multimedia supported lectures, the use of projector in lecture halls
and the use of an interactive white board. There is also video conference system for live
conversations with external discussions transmitted into lecture hall. Video conferences can
be used to transfer lectures to another venue within the same university or other
universities, thereby increasing the inter university cooperation with live video conference
between two lecturers on the same subject in different universities. Computers also find
their place in classrooms for the purpose of presenting graphics, animation and attractive
presentation, which allows easy understanding for the student.
E-learning
E-learning is commonly referred to the intentional use of networked information and
communications technology in teaching and learning. A number of other terms are also
applied to e-learning like online learning, virtual learning, distributed learning, network
and web-based learning. There are four basic models for e-learning:
• Individualized self-paced e-learning online: This refers to situations where an
individual learner is accessing learning resources such as a database or course
content online via an Intranet. A typical example of this is a learner studying alone or
conducting some research on the Internet or a local network.

• Individualized self-paced e-learning offline: This refers to situations where an

individual learner is using learning resources such as a database or a computer-
assisted learning package offline (while not connected to an Intranet). An example
of this is a learner working alone off a hard drive, a CD or DVD.

• Group-based e-learning synchronously: This refers to situations where groups

of learners are working together in real time through the Intranet. It may include
text-based conferencing, and one or two-way audio and video conferencing. Ex-
amples of this include learners engaged in a real-time chat or an audio-video
conference.

• Group-based e-learning asynchronously: This refers to situations where

groups of learners are working over an Intranet, where exchanges among par-
ticipants occur with a time delay (not in real time). Typical examples of this kind
of activity include on-line discussions via electronic mailing lists and text-based
conferencing within learning managements systems.

42
Education Applications of Computers

Distance Learning
Distance education is usually defined as education that takes place when distance or
technology separates the teacher and the learner. The education modes are print
correspondence, audio graphics, instrumental television, videotape, teleconferencing and
a computer conferencing. Choosing a mode depends on educational need or goal. It may be
divided as asynchronous or static education, and synchronous or dynamic (real-time)
distance education.

• Asynchronous or static distance education: This means that students and

instructors are not required to be present at the same time. Students do not have
to be gathered together in the same location at the same time. Rather, they may
choose their own instructional time frame and gather learning materials according
to their schedules. Delivery modes of asynchronous distance education include
email, video/audio tapes, web pages, CD-ROMs, fax and traditional postal mail.

• Synchronous distance education: This includes the use of satellite video con-
ference, desktop video conference and multi-user domain object-oriented (MOO).
Satellite video conference is usually a one-way video and a one-way audio with
a telephone number available for questions. Satellite video conference is used to
cover mass education. Desktop video conferences may be a one-way video and a
two-way audio or a two-way video and audio. Video conferencing technology is used
to simulate a classroom environment for distance learners. The system supports
spontaneous interactive lectures, question and answer sessions and discussions with
the students. Multi-user domain Object-Oriented (MOO) allows users to connect
from anywhere in the world and enables them to communicate with others in real
time (as opposed to the delayed communication of email). Instructors may use a
Web interface over the MOO to interact with their participants. Courses delivered
over the MOO require less overhead cost than those via video conferences.

Digital Libraries
Digital libraries are an electronic collection of real or virtual resources that are available
online or offline anywhere in the world . They have become widely accepted and
even preferred information sources in areas of education, science and others. The
speedy expansion of the Internet and the increasing interest in development of digital
library related technologies and collections helped to speed up the digitization of printed
documents in the past few years. Advantages of digital libraries includes;

• Minimizing storage space.

43
Engineering Design Applications of Computers

• Cutting down the cost of library maintenance and resource distribution.

• Information that cannot be provided in printed format can be presented using

audio and videos.

• Easy for distribution via the Internet, compact disk (CD) and digital versatile disk
(DVD).

• Less time required for searching.

• Multiple access.

Publication
Publication of research work is an important aspect in any field of study and a vital
element of researcher’s profession. The use of computers in writing and editing makes it very
effortless and versatile to prepare and publish article. Computers may be requiredat the
different stages for the author, publisher and reviewer. For writing paper, word
processing applications are used, which are available on a computer and easy to operate.
Word processing applications provide numerous tools for typing and processing options
for documents such as spell check correcting grammatical mistake, providing option for
inserting tables of required size, graphics, footnotes and many more.
When it comes to publishing articles, conventional ways are very tedious and time
consuming. But using computers and the Internet makes it very easy. The Internet can
be used to search for a list of different journals, their guidelines for writing research
paper and submission process. Most journals today offer the opportunity to submit
paper through their websites, which is called “electronic submission” or “e-submission”. E-
submission is a faster mode of submitting paper by just one click. Publishers can also send
back articles to the author for corrections by e-mail.

3.7 Engineering Design

Computer Aided Design (CAD) is the use of computer system in design process. A CAD
system consists of computer hardware, specialised software and peripherals. The role of the
CAD is aiding a designer to

• Accurately generate and easily modify graphical representation of a product. The

user can view the actual product on screen, make any modifications to it, and
present ideas on screen without any prototype, especially during the early stages of
the design process.

44
Expert Systems Applications of Computers

• Perform complex design analysis in short time and implementing finite elements
analysis methods.

• Perform static, dynamic and natural frequency analysis, heat transfer analysis,
plastic analysis, fluid flow analysis, motion analysis, tolerance analysis and design
optimisation.

• Record and recall information with consistency and speed. In particular, the use
of Product Data Management (PDM) systems can store the whole design and
processing history of a certain product for future reuse and upgrade.

CAD is one of the most popular computer tools used by engineers. CAD helps engineers
create designs, analyse equipment and optimize engineering processes. Computers use CAD
software to analyse how certain conditions may affect the engineer’s design and
understand which safety precautions may be necessary for different processes. For
example, an engineer may use software to simulate how a bridge would hold up under
stress from inclement weather, earthquakes or heavy traffic. Engineers may then use
these results to make decisions and develop solutions to any problem that arise.

3.8 Expert Systems

An expert system gathers together a database of knowledge or expertise to offer advice
or solution for problems in a particular area by emulating the abilities and judgements
of human experts. It accumulates all the expert knowledge in a given area so that
the advice or solution offered is better than that of a single consultant or expert. It
guides users through problems by asking them a set of questions about the problem.
The answers given are checked against the rule base in the system to draw appropriate
conclusions from the problem situation. Expert systems are particularly useful in dealing
with unstructured problems.
Developing an expert system involves extracting relevant knowledge from human
experts in the area of problem, called domain experts. Such knowledge is often heuristic
in nature, i.e., useful knowledge based on some “rules of thump” rather than absolute
certainties. Acquisition of such rules of thump and storing them in knowledge base are
serious tasks in building a knowledge base. The expert system consists of two major
parts: the development environment and the consultation environment. The expert
system builder uses the development environment to build the components and stores
expertise into the knowledge base. Non-expert users use the consultation environment to
get the expert opinion and advice from the expert system.

45
Geographic Information System (GIS) Applications of Computers

3.9 Geographic Information System (GIS)

Geographic information system is a computer-based system that acquires spatial data
from a variety of sources, changes the data into useful formats, stores the data, and
retrieves and manipulates the data for analysis. GIS is a computer software that links
geographic information (where things are) with descriptive information (what things
are). GIS shows data on a map such as streets, buildings and vegetation’s, which enables
people to analyse and understand patterns and relationships.
With GIS technology, people can compare the locations of different things in order
to discover how they relate to each other. For example, using GIS, a single map could
include sites that produce pollution, such as factories, and sites that are sensitive to
pollution, such as wetlands and rivers. Such a map would help people determine where
water supplies are most at risk. GIS applications include both hardware and software
systems. These applications may include cartographic data, photographic data, digital
data or data in spreadsheets.

3.10 Health
Health care institution employ computer systems to maintain patient records. It is often
necessary to maintain detailed records of the medical history of patients. Doctorsoften
require the information about a patient’s family history, physical ailments, already
diagnosed diseases and prescribed medicines. This information can be effectively stored in
a computer database. Applications of computers in health also include medical equipments,
electronic medical record and telemedicine, pharmaceutical analysis, computer aided
drug design, clinical trials and pharmacokinetics.
Medical Equipment and Appliances
Most modern medical equipment and appliances have small and programmed computers.
The circuitry and logic in most of the medical equipment is basically a computer. For
example, the functioning of hospital-bed beeping systems, emergency alarm systems, X- ray
machines and several such medical appliances is based on computer logic. Computer
software is also used for diagnosis of diseases. Computer-based systems are used to
examine internal and delicate organs of the body. Some of the complex surgeries can be
performed with the aid of computers. Medical imaging is a vast field that deals withthe
techniques to create images of the human body for medical purposes. Many of the
modern methods of scanning and imaging are largely based on the computer technology
such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

46
Health Applications of Computers

Electronic Medical Records (EMR)

The use of computers in helps in gathering and storing data about patients. Computers are
used in places such as emergency and intensive care for vital sign monitoring, calculations
of cardiac output, and even pulmonary artery pressure. This allows the focus to be solely on
the patient and helps in the comparison of a patient’s present condition to earlier
conditions. Computers are also useful in documenting nurse’s observations. Computer
programs either offer nurses a library of common phrases that they can pick to describe the
patient’s condition, or they are offered a series of questions that they answer to describe
the patient’s condition. There is also documentation on the computer that lists all the
personnel that worked on patient’s case.
Electronic medical records (EMR) have increased the efficiency of hospitals by making
patient information readily available and saving office space for the storage of records. It
has also eliminated illegible handwriting, decreases on data-entry errors and automatically
connects related records. Through means of security, only authorized individuals have
access to medical records. The computer even keeps track of the history of those who
have visited certain records. Most significantly, EMR has dramatically reduced the need for
paper and storage services.
Telemedicine
Telemedicine is defined as the use of telecommunications technology to deliver medical
diagnosis and patient care to sites that are distant from the provider. This includes health
care delivery, diagnosis, consultation, treatment, education and transfer of medical data.
Telemedicine uses computers and a large array of technologies to distribute health care
and educational services, including plain old telephone service (POTS), cellular systems,
integrated services digital network (ISDN), T-1 and T-3 lines, satellite, and terrestrial
microwaves. Besides health care delivery, telemedicine is widely used for distance learning
and continuing medical education for community health providers who do not have access
to information.
Well-known examples of telemedicine include: teleradiology (radiographic images are
transmitted to radiologist for interpretation), telepathology (a pathologist can look
down and in some cases, control a microscope located several hundred miles away),
telepsychiatry (a real-time telemedicine application that is offered routinely as a service in
USA and Australia) and surgical telemedicine (used for post-residency surgical education).
From educational perspective, video-conferencing may supplement supervised hands-on
training in the instruction of a new procedure. From a clinical perspective, remote patient
evaluation, consultation, triage decision and non-operative treatment are considered

47
Health Applications of Computers

acceptable applications of remote surgical practice. Teledermatology, home telenursing and

minor injuries telemedicine are also in practice.
Pharmaceutical Analysis
Computers in pharmaceutical analysis are mainly utilized for data storage, processing of
data and searching of various files. Also various instruments like UV visible spectropho-
tometer Infrared instrument, HPLC, microscopes, mass spectrometer come along with
particular software. The software do all necessary process required for analysis purpose.
Also these programs contain inbuilt libraries that are useful for searching of data related
to different chemical entities. For example if a mass spectrum of any unknown chemical is
obtained then instructions can be given to the program to find out similar mass spectrum
among the library that is present in it, which will help to find out unknown chemical
entity.
Computer Added Drug Design
Drug design, also sometimes referred to as rational drug design, is the inventive process
of finding new medications based on the knowledge of the biological target. This type of
drug design can be assisted by computer software. Software will generate a number of
lead molecules depending upon the feed data and among these; compound of interest
can be developed and tested. If such process is carried out manually then it will be time
consuming and tedious. But the use of computers significantly reduces the time. Molecular
modelling and molecular graphics have shown dramatic growth and are becoming integral
part of drug discovery process.
Molecular modelling is the generation, manipulation and representation of three
dimensional form of molecule. Molecular graphics refers to the use of computer graphics to
represent the molecular structure. In the past synthetic chemists have used molecular
models, but computer modelling has enhanced the detailed display of molecular structures.
Various types of software are available, like AutoDock, CombiBUILD, DockVision, HINT,
LIGPLOT and SITUS.
Clinical Trials
Clinical trials are the important part of current drug development which provides
information about risk and benefits of any medication. Data collection and management are
very crucial in clinical trials. The astonishing advancement in computer hardware and
software technology had tremendous impact on clinical trials, data collection and
management. E-clinical software consist of integrated suites of applications that support
clinical research process, including various ways of data collection, data entry, remote

48
Defence Applications of Computers

data capture, batch data load. These suites enable users to quickly and easily design
studies and capture clinical data. Some examples of e-clinical software are (1) Oracle
clinical V4i from Oracle Corporation; (2) Data LabsXC from Data labs, Inc.; (3) Trial
master from Omnicomm systems; (4) Cliniplus Data Management from DZC software
solution, Inc. and (5) Openclinica by Akaza research.
Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics is the science that deals with the rate of absorption, metabolism, distri-
bution and elimination of drug and its metabolites in the body. Pharmacokinetic analysis is
basically carried out to get information on renal clearance, volume of distribution,
metabolic deposition, absorption and multiple dosing of drug. This type of analysis can
be conducted using software. Classically, long manual calculations had to be performed and
semi-logarithmic paper was used for drawing plots. Now these computations can be left to
the computer. There are different approaches to pharmacokinetics using differential
equations with the help of software. NONLIN is a software that allows users to perform
statistical regression analyses to estimate the values of parameters for linear, multivariate,
polynomial, and general nonlinear functions. The regression analysis determines the
values of the parameters that cause the function to best fit the observed data that you
provide. KINPAK is a software used to obtain Area Under Curve (AUC), peak plasma
concentration (Cmax) and peak plasma time (tmax). ESTRIP and STRIPACT are pro-
grams that are also used for mathematical analysis. These software help in therapeutic
drug monitoring of patient. Other applications such XLSTAT, OpenStat, Prism, SAS,
Minitab, SYSTAT and MYSTAT are used for calculation of regression analysis.

3.11 Defence
The high computation capability of computers was initially utilized in major weapon
systems and Electronic Warfare (EW). The advent of microprocessors enables computers to
be used in every area of military equipment and operations. The need for accurate and
timely information is vital for Defence. Computers with their high speed and unlimited
storage are revolutionizing the concept of warfare.
Weapon Systems
Computers are used in the following weapon systems:

• Armoured Vehicles: Computers are used in displaying real-time battle situation,

setting guns for azimuth and elevation, providing accurate information for engaging
enemy tanks and tactical targets, and information on terrain, obstacles, routes and
state of armoured fighting vehicles.

49
Defence Applications of Computers

• Night Vision: Microprocessor-controlled night vision systems are increasingly

being used in basic infantry and anti-tank weapons for higher accuracy during nights.
Mobile computer systems are being employed for a wide range of communications
network and general purpose computing need at forward field locations.

• Fighter Aircraft: Complex computer systems are essentially required for high
performance fighter aircraft. Extensive use of microprocessor-based cockpit in-
strumentation made it possible to give accurate and timely information to the
fighter pilot. Separate on-board computer systems assist in navigation in adverse
environmental and tactical situations.

• Missiles: Computer are used in all types of strategic and tactical missile systems
to improve their accuracy. In surface-to-surface ballistic and cruise missiles, a very
powerful on-board processor capable of image processing is used to navigate the
missiles to the target. In air-to-surface missiles, microprocessors have extensively
been used to process on-board parameters to correct their course. In surface-to-air
missiles, both in the ground and the on-board systems, powerful computers are
utilized to ensure high probability of hit.

Surveillance and Communication Systems

Computers together with satellites, aircraft sensors and telecommunication networks
are used in surveillance and communication systems to provide accurate information to
commanders at various levels to exercise effective command and control using reliable
communication. Surveillance is gathering information with respect to the position of
an enemy, resources and capabilities. This is obtained by satellites, radars, sonar, EW
equipment installed on land, in ships and in aircraft or in space. Communications is
transmitting the information gathered in surveillance to locations where such information
could be processed and analysed. The decisions based on such analysis are communicated
to the theatres of action. A variety of communication links such as satellite links are
employed for this purpose. In each of these systems, computer technology plays a major role
by reducing the time spent in collecting accurate information and transmitting the
information for analysis.

Simulation and Wargaming

Fast and powerful computer systems and efficient simulation software make it possible
to configure and develop real-time man-in-loop simulation system. It provides cost-
effective and time-saving support towards design, development and training programs in
respect of complex military systems. Simulation is an extremely useful technique, which

50
Defence Applications of Computers

enables better understanding of dynamic behaviour of complicated physical systems

through mathematical modelling. The real-time ground-based simulator systems have
proved efficient in providing training to human operators, without putting them at risk
on the real-life system being simulated. This also increases the operational life of the
sophisticated military equipments and expensive modern weapon systems, which
otherwise would have to be utilized for training.
Another major area where computer systems have been effectively utilized is wargaming,
A simulation of battlefield situation is provided to different levels of commanders to test
their professional skills and decision-making capabilities. A computer system provides
flexibility of use of the visual displays for different operations of war. Highly complex
situations can be simulated with the help of powerful computers. A number of dynamic
simulation probabilistic models for different types of battles have been developed and are
being utilized to determine the effectiveness of battle tactics.

51
 CHAPTER
Computer Ethics and Responsibility

4.1 Introduction
Every profession operates with a set of ethics that help to define the responsibilities
of people who practice the profession. Computers present a range of capabilities that
can affect people and the environment by challenging society with many new ethical
issues. Some of the existing ethical practices apply to the use of computers, whereas
other situations require new ethical rules. In some cases, there may not be established
guidelines, but it is up to the user to decide what is ethical.
A computer professional has knowledge to access computers, program them, and
manipulate data. This gives gives a computer professional the ability to create new
products, solve important problems and help people to manage their interactions with
the society. Knowledge of computers can be a powerful means to effecting positive change.
Computer knowledge can be used in unethical ways. A computer can be programmed for
hacking and unauthorised activities, to sabotage a competitor’s production line or to steal
sensitive information. In addition, it is illegal to copy or distribution of computer software
without the permission of the owner because it is an intellectual property. Intellectual
property is creations (books, software, videos, etc.) that are protected by law. Copyright
is protecting intellectual property from copying by others for a period of years. This
chapter discuss some ethical and professional responsibilities of using computers and the
Internet.

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Software Piracy Computer Ethics and Responsibility

4.2 Software Piracy

Computer software is easy to copy. However, software buyers only own the right to use
the software according to the license agreement. Therefore, it is illegal to copy, resell,
lend, rent, lease and distribute software without the permission of its creator. These acts
are called software piracy. Copyright laws exist to protect the creators of software (and
books and art) so that they can make a profit from the effort and money spent
developing the software.
A software package can cost millions of dollars to develop and distribute to retailers.
If people make unauthorized copies of the software, then the owner of the software loses
those sales and either has to raise its prices to compensate or spend less money to develop
improved versions of the software. Software pirates sometimes rational of saying they
just make one copy for their own use. However, if thousands of people do the same, then
it adds up to the lost of revenue for the software company, which leads to higher prices
for everyone.
When a user purchases a copy of a software program, the user is actually buying a
software license, or in the case of an organization that needs many copies, a site license.
A software license can only be copied for backup purposes while site licenses let the
organization make a specific number of copies to be used within that organization only.
There are four types of software licenses: public domain, freeware, shareware and all
rights reserved.

• Public Domain License: This has no owner and is not protected by copyright
law. It is either created with public funds, or the ownership was forfeited by the
creator. This can be copied, sold and/or modified.

• General Public License: GPL software has the same restrictions as public
domain software, but cannot be sold for profit.

• Freeware License: This is a copyrighted software that is licensed to be copied

and distributed without charge. However, it is still under the control of the owner.

• Shareware License: This allows people to use the software for a trial period but it
is illegal to copy or modify them without permission since they are copyrighted. The
user must pay a registration fee to the owner for permanent use. Some shareware
trials expire on a certain date. Purchasing the software may also provide a user
with a version with more powerful features and published documentation.

• All Rights Reserved License: This may be used by the purchaser according

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Privacy of Data Computer Ethics and Responsibility

the exact details spelled out in the license agreement. People cannot legally posses
and use it without the permission of the owner.

Thus, computer users have an ethical obligation not to engage in software piracy and
to try to stop it from occurring. This rule is not restricted to duplicating copyrighted
software, it includes plagiarism of all or part of code. If someone gives you permission
to copy some code, then just like any responsible writer, you should acknowledge that
person with a citation in the code.

4.3 Privacy of Data

The computer enables the compilation of databases containing useful information about
people, companies, geographic regions and so on. These databases allow employers to
issue payroll checks, banks to cash a customer’s check at any branch, the government to
collect taxes, and mass merchandisers to send out junk mail. Even though people may
not care for every use of databases, they generally have positive benefits. However, they
also can be used in negative ways. For example, an industrial spy might steal customer
data from a company database and sell it to a competitor, which is obviously an illegal
act.
Any information about a person that is not clearly public should be considered con-
fidential. An example of public information is a phone number listed in a telephone
directory. Private information includes any data that has been provided with an under-
standing that it will be used only for a specific purpose such as the data on a credit
card application, staff and student records, company payroll, patient record and so on.
Therefore, unauthorised access, viewing, distribution of these information are unethical and
invasion of the owners right to privacy.
Thus, a computer user has a responsibility to avoid taking advantage of special access
to confidential data. The user also has a responsibility to guard that datafrom
unauthorized access. Guarding data involves shredding old printouts that contain
confidential information, keeping backup copies in a locked cabinet, not using passwords
that are easy to guess (such as a name or word), and more complex measures such as
encryption (keeping it stored in a secret coded form).

4.4 Use of Computers and the Internet

A computer can be used to commit an illegal act such as snooping around someone’s
personal computer physically or through remote access, intentionally modifying or
destroying files to which one has not been granted access, releasing computer viruses,
stealing passwords or files, exposing personal information, and stealing electronic money.

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Green Computing Computer Ethics and Responsibility

This also involves the use of computer and Internet connection that belong to an
organisation for personal business, viewing, downloading or storing contents that are
illegal or against the policies of the organisation such as pornography, movies, etc.
Thus, computer users have an ethical responsibility never to use or access computer
resources without permission, either physically or through network access, or access an
Internet content that is illegal or against the policy of an organisation.

4.5 Green Computing

Green Computing is a movement towards a more environmentally sustainable computing or
IT, through the study and practice of efficient and eco-friendly computing concepts.
Green computing deals with the practice of designing, manufacturing, using and dis-
posing of computers, servers, monitors, printers, storage devices, and networking and
communications systems efficiently and effectively with minimal or no impact on the
environment. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the energy consumed due to various
computing technologies. The targeted areas of green computing are portable devices
(laptop, tablets, etc), desktops, servers, data centres and mobile infrastructures.
Thus, it is the responsibility of a computer user to participate in disposing computing
devices appropriately and reducing the energy consumed by the devices for a clean ans
sustainable environment through the following:

• Turn off the computer when not in use, even if it is just for an hour.

• Turn off the monitor when not in use rather than opting a screen saver.

• Use power saver mode

• Switch off Wi-Fi when not in use

• Do not print unless necessary

• Upgrading where possible is preferred rather than replacement

• Dispose computing devices appropriately.

• Use hardware/software with the Energy Star label. Energy Star is a “seal of
approval” by the Energy Star organization of the government (the EPA) as shown
in Figure 6.1.

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Ethical Responsibilities Computer Ethics and Responsibility

Figure 4.1: Energy Star label

4.6 Ethical Responsibilities

Ethics deals with placing a value on acts according to whether they are good or bad.
Every society has its rules about whether certain acts are ethical or not. These rules have
been established as a result of consensus in society and are often written into laws.
Computer ethics is a term used to describe the ethical and moral principles in computer-
based society. Today, laws have been formulated, either national or international, for
illegal use of computer resources, and every computer user is responsible for knowing the
laws. Thus, it is unethical for a computer user to

1. Use a computer to harm other people: If it is unethical or bad to steal and

destroy other people’s books and notebooks, it is equally bad to access and destroy
their computer files.

2. Interfere with other people’s computer work: Computer viruses and or

malicious software are programs that disrupt other people’s computer work by
destroying their files, taking huge amounts of computer time or memory, or by simply
displaying annoying messages. Generating and consciously spreading computer
viruses is unethical.

3. Snoop around in other people’s files: Reading other people’s e-mail messages,
screens, and personal documents in their computers is as bad as opening and reading
their letters: This is invading their privacy. Obtaining other people’s non-public
files should be judged the same way as breaking into their rooms and stealing their
documents. Text documents on the Internet may be protected by encryption.

4. Use a computer to steal: Using a computer to break into the accounts of a

company, an individual or a bank and transferring money should be judged the
same way as robbery. It is illegal and there are strict laws against it.

5. Use computer to bear false witness: The Internet can be used to spread false
information as fast as it can spread the truth. Putting out false information to

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 the world is bad. For instance, spreading false rumours about a person or false
propaganda about events is wrong.

6. Use or copy software without payment or permission: Software is an

intellectual product. In that way, it is like a book; obtaining illegal copies of
copyrighted software is as bad as photocopying a copyrighted book. There are
laws against both. Information about the copyright owner can be embedded by a
process called watermarking into pictures in the digital format.

7. Use other people’s computer resources without authorization: Multi-user

systems employ user identifications and passwords to enforce their memory and
time allocations, and to safeguard information. A computer user should not try to
bypass this authorization system. Hacking a system to break and bypass the
authorization is unethical.

8. Appropriate other people’s intellectual output: Copying a program

developed by someone or an organisation without proper authorization is
software piracy and is unethical. Intellectual property is a form of ownership and
may be protected by copyright laws.

9. Develop a program to harm people or society: Software developers have to

think about computer issues in a more general social framework; can the program you
write be used in a way that is harmful to society? If yes, then a person shoulddesist
from writing the program.

10. Use a computer in ways that show now consideration and respect: Just like
public buses or banks, people using computer communications systems should be nice
to other people. The fact that you cannot see the people you are interacting with does
not mean that you can be rude to them.

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