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Calculus B Real

a very brief introduction of real numbers

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9 views

Calculus B Real

a very brief introduction of real numbers

Uploaded by

稳健
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Real Numbers

Recitation Class for Calculus B

T.-Y. Li∗

School of Mathematical Sciences, Peking University

∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T.-Y. Li (SMS, PKU) Real Numbers 1/8
A quick caveat

)
We recommend Section 0.1 Reading mathematics of Hubbard’s Vector Calculus
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
http://matrixeditions.com/VC5.Chap0.pdf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T.-Y. Li (SMS, PKU) Real Numbers 2/8
Writing proofs
Template
Set the context (optional)
Assert hypotheses
List implications
Draw the conclusion

Shorthand Symbols
∀ for all; for any
∃ there exists some
∃! there exists exactly one
=⇒ implies; only if
⇐⇒ if and only if
s.t. such that; subject to
□ or ■ Q.E.D.; End of proof

)
For more detail, see Kane (2016) Writing Proofs in . Analysis
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30967-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T.-Y. Li (SMS, PKU) Real Numbers 3/8
def
R = {real numbers} is an ordered field
def
induced from Q = {rational numbers}
The set R becomes a field when equipped with two binary operations:
addition, +, whose section x + · (as a unary operation) has inverse · − x for every x

multiplication, ·, whose section x · · has inverse ·/x for every x ∈ R∗ = R \ {0}


def

On R there is a total order ≤ such that


(reflexivity) x ≤ x for all x
(transitivity) x ≤ z whenever x ≤ y and y ≤ z
(antisymmetry) x = y whenever x ≤ y and y ≤ x
(totality) x ≤ y or y ≤ x for all x and y
Note that its reverse ≥ is also a total order, so we specify that 0 ≤ 1.
For convenience, we say x < y if x ≤ y and x 6= y. Then 0 < 1.
(
x ≤ y ⇐⇒ x + c ≤ y + c
Given c > 0, we have
x ≤ y ⇐⇒ cx ≤ cy
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T.-Y. Li (SMS, PKU) Real Numbers 4/8
Distance & Norm
A function d : X × X → R is called a distance/metric (on X) if
1 (triangle inequality) d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) for all x, y, z ∈ X
2 (symmetry) d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y ∈ X
3 (positive definiteness) d(x, y) ≥ 0 for all x, y ∈ X,
with equality holding when and only when x = y

Fix R as a base field whose elements are now referred to as scalars.


Suppose that X is a linear space (over R), i.e., X is equipped with
addition and scalar multiplication.

A function k·k : x ∈ X 7→ kxk ∈ R is called a norm (on X) if


1 (sub-additivity) kx + yk ≤ kxk + kyk for all x, y ∈ X
2 (absolute homogeneity) ksxk = |s| · kxk for all x ∈ X and all s ∈ R
3 (positive definiteness) kxk ≥ 0 for all x ∈ X,
with equality holding when and only when x = 0
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T.-Y. Li (SMS, PKU) Real Numbers 5/8
Norm induces distance, but not vice versa

On a normed linear space (X, k·k), there exists a distance, namely

(x, y) ∈ X × X 7→ kx − yk ∈ R

The absolute value function |·| : x ∈ R 7→ |x| ∈ R is a norm on R

|x|
The function p : x 7→ is not a norm on R, but
1 + |x|
the bivariate function (x, y) 7→ p(x − y) is still a distance on R.

Proof.
Since p violates absolute homogeneity, it cannot be a norm. To justify
distance properties, we observe that p is increasing on [0, ∞) and leave
remaining steps to the reader.

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T.-Y. Li (SMS, PKU) Real Numbers 6/8
Boundedness
A subset A of R is said to be
bounded from above if ∃M ∈ R s.t. ∀a ∈ A it holds that a ≤ M
bounded from below if ∃m ∈ R s.t. ∀a ∈ A it holds that a ≥ m
bounded if A is bounded from both above and below
A function f : X → R is said to be
bounded (from above/below) if its
def
image f(X) = {f(x) : x ∈ X} is
bounded (from above/below).
Given a distance d on X, a subset
B of X is said to be bounded if
d(·, x)|B : b ∈ B 7→ d(b, x) ∈ R is
bounded for some x ∈ X.

No ambiguity within (R, |·|)


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T.-Y. Li (SMS, PKU) Real Numbers 7/8
Problems
1 Show that two real numbers x and y are equal if and only if ∀ε > 0
it follows that |x − y| < ε.
2 (Bernoulli’s inequality) Show that if x > −1, then (1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx
for all positive integers n. Hint: Perform induction on n.
3 Show that if A and B are bounded subsets of R, then so are
def def
A + B = {a + b : a ∈ A, b ∈ B} and A · B = {ab : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
4 (Infinity) Let A be a subset of R, outside which a point ∞ is
specified. Verify that on A ∪ {∞} there exists a distance d such
that d(x, y) = |arctan(x)
− arctan(y)|
and
d(x, ∞) = arctan(x) − π2 for x, y ∈ A.

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T.-Y. Li (SMS, PKU) Real Numbers 8/8

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