Scheduling

In this chapter, we examine different types of scheduling systems and introduce several advance
scheduling techniques that effectively allocate resources and organize work that needs to get done.

Scheduling refers to the last stage of planning before production.

It specifies when labor, equipment, and facilities are needed to produce a product or provide a service.

Different functions of Scheduling based on type of operation

A. Process industries (chemicals and pharmaceutical)

- Scheduling might consist of determining the mix of ingredients that goes into a vat or when
the system should stop producing one type of mixture, clean out the vat, and start
producing another.

B. Mass Production
- Scheduling is used to determined when the assembly line is laid out. In the mass production,
products flow down the assembly line from one station to the next in the same prescribed,
nondeviating order every time. (Day to day scheduling decisions consist of determining how
fast to feed items into the line and how many hours per day to run the line.)

C. Projects
- The scheduling decisions are so numerous and interrelated that specialized project-
scheduling techniques such as PERT and CPM have been devised.

D. Batch or job shop production

- Scheduling decisions can be quite complex. Scheduling determines to which machine a part
will be routed for processing, which worker will operate a machine that produces a part, and
the order in which the parts are to be processed. This might be complex in a sense that in a
job shop, the variety of jobs that are being processed are each with distinctive routing and
processing requirements. In addition, although the volume of each customer order may be
small, there are probably a great number of different orders in the shop at any one time.
This necessitates planning for the production of each job as it arrives, scheduling its use of
limited resources, and monitoring its progress through the system.

Objectives in Scheduling

1. Meeting customer due dates;

2. Minimizing job lateness;
3. Minimizing response time;
4. Minimizing completion time;
5. Minimizing time in the system;
6. Minimizing overtime;
7. Maximizing machine or labor utilization;
8. Minimizing idle time; and
 9. Minimizing work-in-process inventory.

Job Scheduling – [also known as “production control”, “Shop Floor Control (SFC)”, and “Production
Activity Control (PAC)]

Production Control Department’s Responsibilities

1. Loading – checking the availability of material, machines, and labor.

2. Sequencing – releasing work orders to the shop and issuing dispatch lists for individual
machines.
3. Monitoring – maintaining progress reports on each job until it is complete.

Loading – is the process of assigning work to limited resources. Many times an operation can be
performed by various persons, machines, or work center but with varying efficiencies. The problem of
determining how best to allocate jobs to machines or workers to task can be solved with the assignment
method of linear programming.

THE ASSIGNMENT METHOD OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING

- A specialized linear programming solution procedure for deciding which worker to assign to
a task or which job to assign to a machine. Given a table of tasks and resources, the
procedure creates an opportunity cost matrix and selects the best assignment in
consideration of trade-offs among alternatives.

The procedure for a minimization problem is outlined as follows;

1. Perform row reductions by subtracting the minimum value in each row from all other row
values.
2. Perform column reductions by subtracting the minimum value in each column from all other
column values.
3. The resulting table is an opportunity cost matrix. Cross out all zeros in the matrix using the
minimum number of horizontal or vertical lines.
4. If the number of lines equals the number of rows in the matrix, an optimal solution has been
reached and assignments can be made where the zeros appear. Otherwise, modify the
matrix by subtracting the minimum uncrossed value from all other uncrossed values and
adding this same amount to all cells where two lines intersect. All other values in the matrix
remain unchanged.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until an optimal solution is reached.

Sequencing

- When more than one job is assigned to a machine or activity, the operator needs to know
the order in which to process the jobs. The process of prioritizing jobs is called sequencing.
 Types of Sequencing

a. First-come, first-serve (FCFS) – process the job that arrived first.

b. Last-come, first-served (LCFS) – if jobs are stacked on arrival to a machine, it might be easier
to process the job first that arrived last and is now on top of the stack.
c. Earliest Due Date (DDATE) – to process the job first that is due the soonest.
i. Minimum Slack (SLACK) – considers the work remaining to be performed on a job as
well as the time remaining to perform that work.
SLACK = (due date – today’s date) – (Processing time)

ii. Smallest Critical Ratio (CR) – uses the same information as SLACK, but recalculates
the sequences as processing continues and arranges the information in ratio form.

CR = Time Remaining/ Work Remaining

CR = (Due date – Today’s Date)/ Remaining Processing Time

Interpretation:
If CR > 1, then the job is ahead of schedule
If CR < 1, then the job is behind schedule
If CR = 1, then the job is exactly on schedule

d. Highest Customer Priority (CUSTPR) – to process jobs that has the highest customer priority.

Sequencing Jobs Through One Process : Simple Sequencing Rules

Because of the approaching holiday season. Joe Palotty is scheduled to work seven days a week
for the next two months. October’s work for Joe consists of five jobs, A, B, C, D, and E.

Job Description Days Required to complete Due of job

Job A 5 days 10th day

Job B 10 days 15th day

Job C 2 days 5th day

Job D 8 days 12th day

Job E 6 days 8th day

There are 120 possible sequences for the five jobs. Clearly, enumeration is impossible. Let’s try
some simple sequencing rules.

Required:
Determine the sequence of Jobs by;

A. First-come, first-served (FCFS)

B. Earliest due date (DDATE)
C. Minimum Slack (SLACK)
D. Shortest processing time

Determine the completion time and tardiness of each job under each sequencing rule. Should Joe
process his work as is – first-come, first-served? If not, what sequencing rule would you recommend to
Joe?

Solution:

The start of the first job at time is 0. Completion time is the sum of the start time and the processing
time. The start time of the next job is the completion time of the previous job.

A. FCFS: Process the jobs in order of their arrival, A,B,C,D,E.

FCFS Start Time Processing Completion Due Date Tardiness

Sequence Time Time

A 0 5 5 10 0

B 5 10 15 15 0

C 15 2 17 5 12

D 17 8 25 12 13

E 25 6 31 8 23

Total 93 48

Average 93/5 = 18.6 48/5 = 9.6

B. DDATE: Sequence the jobs by earliest due date

DDATE Start Time Processing Completion Due Date Tardiness

Sequence Time Time

C 0 2 2 5 0

E 2 6 8 8 0

A 8 5 13 10 3

D 13 8 21 12 9

B 21 10 31 15 16
 Total 75 28

Average 75/5 = 15 28/5=5.6

C. SLACK: Sequence the jobs by minimum slack.

The slack for each job is calculated as: (due date – today’s date) – remaining processing time.

Job A (10 – 0) – 5 = 5

Job B (15 – 0) 10 = 5

Job C (5 – 0) – 2 = 3

Job D (12 – 0) – 8 = 4

Job E (8 – 0) – 6 = 2

SLACK Start Time Processing Completion Due Date Tardiness

Sequence Time Time

E 0 6 6 8 0

C 6 2 8 5 3

D 8 8 16 12 4

A 16 5 21 10 11

B 21 10 31 15 16

Total 82 34

Average 82/5 = 16.4 34/5 = 6.8

D. SPT: Sequence the jobs by smallest processing time.

 SPT Sequence Start Time Processing Completion Due Date Tardiness
Time Time

C 0 2 2 5 0

A 2 5 7 10 0

E 7 6 13 8 5

D 13 8 21 12 9

B 21 10 31 15 16

Total 74 30

Average 74/5 = 14.8 30/5 = 6

Summary

Rule Average Average Tardiness No. Of Jobs Tardy Maximum

Completion Time Tardiness

FCFS 18.60 9.6 3* 23

DDATE 15 5.6* 3* 16*

SLACK 16.40 6.8 4 16*

SPT 14.80* 6 3* 16*

Legend: *Best Value

Analysis: All the sequencing rules complete the month’s work by day 31, as planned. However, no
sequencing rule is able to complete all jobs on time. The performance of FCFS is either met or exceeded
by DDATE and SPT. Thus, Joe should take the time to sequence this month’s work. Whether Joe
sequences his work by DDATE or SPT depends on the objectives of the company for which he works. The
particular jobs that are tardy may also make a difference.

Sequencing Jobs Through Two Serial Processes

Johnson’s rule finds the fastest way to process a series of jobs through a two – step system in which
every job follows the same sequence through two processes.

Procedure is as follows:

1. List the time required to complete each job at each process. Set up a one-dimensional matrix to
represent the desired sequence with the number of slots equal to the number of jobs.
 2. Select the smallest processing time at either process. If that time occurs at process 1, put the
associated job as near to the beginning of the sequence as possible.
3. If the smallest time occurs at process 2, put the associated job as near to the end of the
sequence as possible.
4. Remove the job from the list.
5. Repeat steps 2-4 until all slots in the matrix have been filled or all jobs have been sequenced.

Johnson’s Rule sample problem:

Johnson’s Fine Restorations has received a rush order to refinish five carousel animals - an alligator, a
bear, a cat, a deer, and an elephant. The restoration involves two major processes: sanding and painting.
Mr. Johnson takes care of the sanding; his son does the painting. The time required for each refinishing
job differs with the state of disrepair and degree of detail of each animal. Given the following processing
times (in hours), determine the order in which the jobs should be processed so that the rush order can
be completed as soon as possible:

Job Process 1 Process 2

A 6 8

B 11 6

C 7 3

D 9 7

E 5 10

Solution:

1. List the time required to complete each job at each process. Set up a one-dimensional matrix to
represent the desired sequence with the number of slots equal to the number of jobs.
2. Select the smallest processing time at either process. If that time occurs at process 1, put the
associated job as near to the beginning of the sequence as possible.

E C

Explanation: The smallest processing time (3 hours) occurs at process 2 for job C, so we place C as near
to the end of the sequence as possible, C is now eliminated from the job list. The next smallest
processing time (5 hours) occurs at process 1 for job E, so we place job E as near to the beginning of the
sequence as possible, E is now eliminated from the job list.

3. Repeat steps 2-4 until all slots in the matrix have been filled or all jobs have been sequenced.

E A B C

The next smallest processing time (6 hours) occurs at process 1 for job A and at process 2 for job B, thus
we place job A near the beginning and job B near the end of the sequence as possible. Job A and Job B
are eliminated from the job list.

E A D B C

Job D is the only job remained, place it on the only available slot of the sequence.

This job sequence will complete these jobs faster than any other sequence. The following bar
charts (Gant charts) are used to determine the makespan or final completion time for the set of five
jobs. The sequence of jobs is the same for both processes and that job cannot begin at process 2 until it
has been completed at process 1. Also, a job cannot begin at process 2 if another job is currently in
process. Time periods during which a job is being processed are labeled with the job’s letter. The gray
shaded areas represent idle time.

The completion time for the set of five jobs is 41 hours. Note that although Johnson’s rule
minimizes makespan and idle time, it does not consider job due dates in contructing a sequence, so
there is no attempt to minimize job tardiness.

Guidelines for Selecting a Sequencing Rule

General Guidelines for when certain sequencing rules may be appropriate.

1. SPT (shortest processing time) is most useful when the shop is highly congested.

It tends to minimize mean flow time, men number of jobs in the system (and thus work-
in-process inventory), and percent of jobs tardy. By completing more jobs quickly, it theoretically
satisfies a greater number of customers than other rules. However, with SPT some long jobs may be
completed very late, resulting in a small number of very unsatisfied customers.

Therefore it is usually stopped depending on the amount of time a job has been waiting
or the nearness of its due date.

2. Use SLACK for periods of normal activity.

When capacity is not severely restrained, a SLACK-oriented rule that takes into account
both due date and processing time will produce good results.

3. Use DDATE when only small tardiness values can be tolerated

DDATE tends to minimize mean tardiness and maximum tardiness. Although more jobs
will be tardy under DDATE than SPT, the degree of tardiness will be much less.

4. Use LPT if subcontracting is anticipated

So that larger jobs are completed in-house, and smaller jobs are sent out as their due
date draws near.

5. Use FCFS when operating at low-capacity levels

FCFS allows the shop to operate essentially without sequencing jobs. When the
workload at a facility is light, any sequencing rule will do, and FCFS is certainly the easiest to
apply.

6. Do not use SPT to sequence jobs that have to be assembled with other jobs at a later
date.

For assembly jobs, a sequencing rule that gives a common priority to the processing of
different components in an assembly, such as assembly DDATE, produces a more effective
schedule. .
MONITORING

Job shop environments are challenging to track due to the various paths, machine centers, and
competition for resources. Initial operations can be predicted by observing queues, but as jobs progress
or shops become congested, it becomes increasingly difficult to follow the job through the system.
Factors such as resource competition, machine breakdowns, quality issues, and set-up requirements can
delay a job's progress.

Shop paperwork, also known as a work package, is used to specify work at a work center and
route items accordingly. Workers sign off on jobs either manually or electronically through a PC on the
shop floor. Bar code technology and RFID tags have simplified this process, eliminating errors and
requiring a wand to read. The tag is automatically read as it enters and leaves the work area. Other
records include time spent on jobs, quality checks, inspection results, and resource utilization.

To ensure valuable information at work centers, it must be accurate, up-to-date, and accessible.
Production control monitors this information and generates progress reports for workers and managers.
A well-run facility produces fewer exception reports and more progress reports, ensuring efficient
resource utilization and job performance.

GANTT CHARTS

Gantt charts, used to plan or map out work activities, can also be used to monitor a jobs’
progress against the plan. As shown in Figure 17.1, Gantt chart can display both planned and completed
activities against a time scale. In this figure, the dashed line indicating today’s date crosses over the
schedule for job 12A, job 23C and job 32B.

From the chart we quickly see that job 12A is exactly on schedule because the bar monitoring its
completion exactly meets the line for the current date. Job 23C is ahead of schedule and Job 32B is
behind schedule.
INPUT/ OUTPUT CONTROL

Input/Output (I/O) control monitors input and output from each work center, comparing actual
output with planned output in a job shop environment. This approach may lead to erroneous
conclusions about problem sources, as reduced output may be caused by problems at one work center
or previous work centers that feed the current work center. To identify the source of a problem, input to
a work center must be compared with planned input, and output must be compared with planned
output. Deviations between planned and actual values are calculated, and their cumulative effects
observed. The resulting backlog or waiting line of work is monitored to ensure it stays within a
manageable range.

The input rate to a work center can only be controlled for initial operations, known as gateway
work centers, as most jobs must pass through them before subsequent operations. Controlling input to
downstream operations is challenging due to the shop's overall functioning, queue formation, and job
progress. Minimizing deviation from planned to actual input for downstream work centers can be
achieved by controlling output rates of feeding work centers.

Input/output control regulates work flow in a network of work centers. Increasing a work
center's capacity doesn't increase output. To address bottlenecks, identify the source of the problem,
such as excessive queues or backlogs. Addressing the backlog, adjusting the work center's capacity, or
reducing input can alleviate bottlenecks.
ADVANCING PLANNING AND SCHEDULING SYSTEM

Infinite scheduling involves scheduling, loading, leveling, sequencing, and monitoring work
progress in work centers. This iterative process assumes infinity capacity and is time-consuming and
inefficient, as it is made after identifying overloads or underloads.

Finite scheduling is an alternative scheduling method that assumes a fixed maximum capacity
and prioritizes loading and sequencing decisions simultaneously. This approach prioritizes the first jobs
loaded onto a work center, while remaining jobs are scheduled for later times. However, success
depends on accurately and concisely expressing work criteria and capacity limitations.

Finite scheduling systems utilize various methods, such as mathematical programming, network
analysis, and simulation, to develop schedules. The scheduling system, not the human scheduler, makes
most decisions, incorporating production system characteristics into the database. Companies often
purchase generic or industry-specific scheduling software as an add-on to their ERP system, known as
advance planning and scheduling (APS). Examples include SAP's APO and JDA's Factory Planner, which
support collaborative planning programming and generic algorithms for schedule development.

Theory of Constraints

A common precept of today’s scheduling systems. It is an approach to scheduling formulated in 1970

when an Israeli physicist named Eliyahu Goldratt, using commonsense and intuitive approach to the
scheduling problem of a chicken coop business. It is generally a software system that used mathematical
programming and simulation to create a schedule that realistically considered the constraints of the
manufacturing system.

Decision making in the manufacturing is often difficult due to the size and complexity of the
problems. Goldratt’s first insight is to simplify the number of variables considered. He suggest that
instead of trying to balance the capacity of the manufacturing system, most systems are inherently
unbalanced and that he would try to balance the flow of work through the system instead. He identified
resources as bottleneck or nonbottleneck and observed that the flow through the system is controlled
by the bottleneck resource. This resource should always have material to work on, should spend little
time as possible on non-productive activities, should be fully staffed, and should be the focus of
improvement or automation efforts.

He pointed out that an hour’s worth of production lost at a bottleneck reduces the output of the system
by the same amount of time whereas an hour lost at a nonbottleneck may have no effect on system
output.
To summarize, Goldratt was able to simplify the scheduling problem by concentrating initially on
scheduling production at the bottleneck resource and then scheduling the nonbottleneck resources to
support the bottleneck acitivities which resulted to a synchronized production with the needs of the
bottleneck and the system as a whole.

DRUM-BUFFER-ROPE

Goldratt introduced the drum-buffer-rope (DBR) concept to maintain synchronization in

production. The drum is the bottleneck, setting production pace, while the buffer keeps inventory busy
to ensure system output. The rope signals upstream processes when to begin production, similar to
kanban, which represents work as a visual signal. This approach is the basis for scheduling software
today, as it allows for visual tracking of work progress through workflows.

PROCESS VERSUS TRANSFER BATCH SIZES

Goldratt's second insight into manufacturing focused on lot sizes or batch sizes. He argued that
there is no need for fixed lot sizes and differentiated between process batch and transfer batch. He
recommended transferring items in one lot size for nonbottlenecks, as the process batch does not affect
the entire system.

The TOC scheduling procedure follows these steps:

1. Identify the bottleneck.

2. Schedule the job first whose lead time to the bottleneck is less than or equal to the
bottleneck processing time.
3. Forward schedule the bottleneck machine.
4. Backward schedule the other machines to sustain the bottleneck schedule.
5. Transfer in batch sizes smaller than the process batch size.

EMPLOYEE SCHEDULING

Labor is a flexible resource, allowing for easier hiring and firing than equipment. Labor-limited
systems can expand capacity through overtime, expanded workers, extra shifts, or part-time workers.
However, scheduling becomes difficult, especially for service firms, where supervisors spend a significant
amount of time developing employee schedules. This task becomes even more challenging for facilities
with multiple shifts and 24-hour operations.

McDonald's uses large-scale linear programming for part-time workforce scheduling, while
American Airlines uses integer liner programming and expert systems for ticket agent scheduling.
Heuristics, which develop repeating work assignments, are often integrated into decision support
systems for flexibility and ease of use.
Employee Scheduling Heuristic:

1. Let N = no. of workers available

D i=demand for workers on day i
X = day working
O = day off
2. Assign the first N – D 1 workers day 1 off. Assign the next N – D2 workers day 2 off. Continue in a
similar manner until all days have been scheduled.
3. If the number of workdays for a full time employee is fewer than five, assign the remaining
workdays so that consecutive days off are possible or where unmet demand is highest.
4. Assign any remaining work to part-time employees, subject to maximum hour restrictions.
5. If consecutive days are off are desired, consider switching schedules among days with the same
demand requirements.
Notes:

Linear programming – used to find the lowest–cost mix of ingredients.

Production Order Quantity - used to determine the optimal length of a production run.

Production Control – The scheduling and monitoring of day-to-day production in a job shop.

Load leveling – The process of smoothing out the work assigned.

Dispatch list – A list of orders released to the shop that specifies the sequence in which jobs should be
processed.

Loading – The process of assigning work to limited resources.

Work package – Shop paperwork that travels with a job.

Input/ Output (I/O) Control – Monitors the input and output from each work center.

Infinite scheduling – loads without regard to capacity, then levels the load and sequence the jobs.

Finite scheduling – sequences jobs as part of the loading decision. Resources are never loaded beyong
capacity.

Advance planning and scheduling (APS) – a software system that uses intelligent analytical tools and
techniques to develop realistic schedules.

Drum buffer rope – the drum sets the pace for the production, a buffer is placed before the bottleneck,
and a rope communication changes.