QUIZ GT601

Railway Engineering
Lucas Montogue

► PROBLEMS

PROBLEM 1
Assume a 200,000-kg rail vehicle at a speed of 60 mi/h is being decelerated at a
rate of 0.3g as recommended in Chapter 5 of Track Design Handbook for Light Rail
Transit. What is the minimum track length required to decelerate the vehicle safely?

A) D = 200 ft
B) D = 400 ft
C) D = 600 ft
D) D = 800 ft

PROBLEM 2
Regarding ballast technology and other aspects of railway engineering, true or
false?
1.( ) Resilient moduli of granular ballast and cohesive subgrade soil are the most
important material properties for the track substructure. Several equations have been
devised to describe the relations between resilient modulus and soil physical state
parameters such as moisture content and dry density. The following chart, for
example, outlines the variation of the ratio 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 ⁄𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟(opt) with water content difference
𝑤𝑤 − 𝑤𝑤opt with the dry density held constant. (Here, 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟(opt) is the resilient modulus at the
optimum moisture content 𝑤𝑤opt.) The graph suggests that resilient modulus tends to
increase with increasing water content.

2.( ) Railway track can be ballasted or ballastless. Advantages of ballasted track over
its non-ballasted counterpart include less requirement of maintenance, greater speed
limits, greater life expectation, and lower noise levels.
3.( ) Mainline ballast specifications typically require a very narrow range of particle
sizes, which maximizes interparticle void volume, facilitates drainage and provides for
substantial storage of ballast-fouling material.
4.( ) Shape, angularity, and surface texture are critical elements that affect ballast
performance since they affect ballast interlocking and deformation behavior. In this
regard, it has been found that particles with smooth surface tend to interlock better
than rough particles. Angularity is another aspect of aggregates that must be carefully

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considered. Angular particles tend to roll past one another under load, whereas
rounded particles interlock to resist the applied load.
5.( ) Crushing and abrasion of ballast are often leading causes of ballast degradation
that can cause track settlement and drive track geometry maintenance costs. One test
designed to investigate this aspect of aggregates is the Los Angeles Abrasion (LAA) test,
of which the version most suitable for ballast is covered in ASTM C535. A low LAA value
is desired for ballast as it indicates increased resistance to crushing.
6.( ) The following figure is a plot of single grain crushing strength of variedly sized
fresh and recycled ballast grains. This graph reveals that, in general, recycled ballast
has a higher tensile strength than fresh ballast, especially in the case of smaller grains.

7.( ) The deformation behavior of fresh and recycled ballast under representative
cyclic loading was investigated using the prismoidal triaxial apparatus. The following
graph shows the settlement of fresh and recycled ballast, both in dry state, with and
without inclusion of geosynthetics. It can be concluded that fresh ballast gives the least
settlement.

8.( ) The subballast plays two major roles in the track substructure: (1) act as a
permeable medium to transmit water laterally into the drainage channels; and (2)
dissipate excess porewater pressure from saturated subgrades by allowing upward
flow. The subballast, therefore, must have greater permeability than the subgrade soil.
9.( ) Ballast fouling is the process by which the voids between particles become filled
with fouling material. Although a variety of potential sources of fouling material are
possible and fouling sources are often site-specific, the most common source of
fouling is breakdown of the ballast itself.
10.( ) There are numerous indices to quantify ballast fouling in rail track. One of the
earliest such attempts is Selig and Waters’ Percentage Void Contamination (PVC),
defined as the summation of percentage (by weight) passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve
and the the percentage passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve.
11.( ) Despite the fact that “tamping” suggests compaction or densification, there is
ample evidence that tamping in fact loosens ballast.

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PROBLEM 3A
Consider the following parameters for a rail track.
 The track is new and is in very good conditions.
 Upper confidence limit that the applied load will not be exceeded is 84.1%.
 Velocity of train V = 120 km/h.
 Effective wheel load Q = 168 kN
 Sleeper spacing a = 0.495 m
 Diameter of the wheel Dw = 0.97 m
 Characteristic length L = 1.30 m
 Sleeper length l = 2.7 m
 Sleeper width b = 0.25 m
The equivalent thickness was determined to be 0.84 m. Using Eq. (I) in the
Appendix, compute the impact factor.
A) 𝜙𝜙 = 1.03
B) 𝜙𝜙 = 1.14
C) 𝜙𝜙 = 1.28
D) 𝜙𝜙 = 1.46

PROBLEM 3B
Using Eq. (IX) in the Appendix, compute the maximum compressive stress on
the sleeper.
A) 𝜎𝜎max = 15.3 kPa
B) 𝜎𝜎max = 31.9 kPa
C) 𝜎𝜎max = 45.8 kPa
D) 𝜎𝜎max = 67.1 kPa

PROBLEM 4
Regarding further aspects of railway engineering, true or false?
1.( ) Merits of wooden sleepers include a simple fastening system, the possiIbility of
obtaining different sizes and lengths with little effort, and the possibility of gage
widening. However, wooden sleepers require special treatment against deterioration
and fire hazards.
2.( ) Rail sections may be connected by bolted joints or welding. With bolted joints, the
rails are connected with drilled plates called fishplates. Bolted rail has the advantage of
providing a more structurally continuous configuration, which reduces dynamic stress
concentrations and, in the long term, reduces rail wear and need for maintenance.
3.( ) Tie spacing affects rail flexure stress and compressive stress on ballast and
roadbed. For the case of constant tie, ballast, and subgrade characteristics, wider tie
spacings bring about larger track depression per unit of wheel load, i.e. lowered track
modulus.
4.( ) Frost heaving of soil is a common problem in rail track constructed in cold
regions. Frost heave control measures include overexcavation of the soil susceptible to
ice lens formation and replacement with select material that is resistant to capillary
action. Another protective measure is the placement of insulation material, such as
extruded polystyrene mats or injected foam, to act as thermal barriers.
5.( ) Hot mix asphalt (HMA) underlayment is sometimes implemented in the track
substructure in layer thicknesses varying between 8 and 12 in. The main areas in which
a HMA layer can improve conventional track substructure are to provide drainage out
of the track, reduce stress in the subgrade, increase track stiffness, and improve
constructability of new track. Use of HMA also provides an improved degree of
confinement to the track because this material is much better than ballast at resisting
spreading due to its higher resistance to tension and shear.

PROBLEM 5
In SI units, what is the linear density of a rail with designation 115 RE in the
AREMA classification system?
A) 𝜇𝜇 = 43.8 kg/m
B) 𝜇𝜇 = 50.2 kg/m
C) 𝜇𝜇 = 57.1 kg/m
D) 𝜇𝜇 = 64.0 kg/m

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PROBLEM 6
Track modulus represents the overall stiffness of the rail support system,
including rail fasteners and pads, ties, ballast, and subgrade. Determine the track
modulus for a section with rails made of steel with E = 200 GPa and moment of inertia I
= 3.95 × 10-5 m4. Mechanical tests revealed that the the rail deflected 1 mm when
subjected to a vertical force of 75 kN.
A) 𝑢𝑢 = 26.5 MPa
B) 𝑢𝑢 = 30.8 MPa
C) 𝑢𝑢 = 39.7 MPa
D) 𝑢𝑢 = 44.6 MPa

PROBLEM 7
Estimate the rail gap size for thermal protection of a rail with 11.25 in.2 cross-
sectional area (i.e., a typical 115 RE rail) made of steel with a modulus of elasticity equal
to 30 × 106 lb/in.2. The temperature drop in the site of the railway is expected to be no
greater than 60oF. The longitudinal restraint is 62 lb/in. and the coefficient of thermal
expansion of steel is 6.5 × 10-6 in./in./oF.
A) 𝐺𝐺 = 0.25 in.
B) 𝐺𝐺 = 0.48 in.
C) 𝐺𝐺 = 0.59 in.
D) 𝐺𝐺 = 0.83 in.

PROBLEM 8
Using the Talbot equation, determine the depth of the granular layer (ballast +
subballast) to withstand a train with a wheel diameter of 36 in. (36,000-lb wheel load)
operating at a speed of 60 mi/h. Consider a 136-lb rail and 7”×9”×8”-6’ oak ties at 21-in.
spacing. Assume an allowable subgrade pressure of 18 psi (corresponding to a factor
of safety of 2.0) and take a distribution factor of 0.47.
A) ℎ = 16.3 in.
B) ℎ = 20.1 in.
C) ℎ = 24.1 in.
D) ℎ = 28.2 in.

PROBLEM 9
“The _____________ process entails bringing the rail ends together and
generating an arc which heats the metal. Once the metal reaches the appropriate
temperature, the rail ends are forged together using hydraulic pressure and the excess
upset material at the weld interface is sheared away to produce a near perfect rail
profile with minimal requirement for secondary profile grinding. The entire process is
automated with the rail ends encapsulated and manipulated by a portable weld head.”
The rail welding process described above is
A) Aluminothermic welding.
B) Flash butt welding.
C) Puddle arc welding.
D) None of the above.

PROBLEM 10
As per AREMA guidelines, what is the minimum length for a vertical curve that
connects two sections whose difference in grades is 2%, and for which the maximum
speed of incoming trains is 60 mi/h? Consider the vertical acceleration to be 0.60
ft/sec2.
A) L = 258 ft
B) L = 306 ft
C) L = 344 ft
D) L = 404 ft

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PROBLEM 11
Regarding more aspects or railway engineering, true or false?
1.( ) Referring to the Additional Information section, the equilibrium elevation for a
curve with degree of curve equal to 3 degrees and a speed of 60 mi/h is found to be
greater than 7 inches.
2.( ) Referring to the Additional Information section, the minimum tangent length
required between reverse curves with degree of 5o is greater than 10 feet.
3.( ) Using coarse aggregate, with its inherent high permeability, is often the most
economical and effective subsurface drainage material. According to Selig and Waters,
in order for an aggregate drain to preclude particle migration from the adjacent soil,
both of the following criteria must be met:

D15 ( Aggregate drain )

<5
D85 ( Adjacent soil )
D50 ( Aggregate drain )
< 25
D50 ( Adjacent soil )

where 𝐷𝐷𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 denotes the particle size at which xx percent of the material is smaller.
Suppose that the following table provides the pertaining particle sizes for a
cohesionless material that is being investigated for use as a draining medium. The
table also provides the sizes for a common sandy subgrade soil, which is to be placed
in contact with the draining material. With these data, we conclude that the aggregate
material in question meets both of the foregoing criteria for use as a draining material.

Material 𝐷𝐷15 (mm) 𝐷𝐷50 (mm) 𝐷𝐷85 (mm)

Aggregate 7 18 23
Subgrade sand 0.2 0.5 1.8

4.( ) Eddy current and ultrasonic inspection are popular technologies for quality
control of rails. In particular, the sensitivity of eddy current testing makes it a
promising technique for detecting small cracks in the surface of the rail, whereas the
ultrasonic method offers poor performance in analyzing superficial defects.
5.( ) Consider surface crack propagation in steel rails. Once a crack has initiated, the
rate at which it progresses into the surface is influenced by a large number of
considerations. The presence of water in the rail-wheel contact plays a critical role in
the rate and depth of surface crack propagation. Water, with its low viscosity and high
surface tension, is drawn into the cracks by capillary action, and, if the surface crack is
oriented in a direction where it drops away from the approaching load, the rolling
contact will first seal the crack entrance and then hydraulically pressurize the crack tip.
This additional pressure helps to evenly distribute the tensile stresses in the rail-wheel
interface and ultimately inhibits crack propagation.

► APPENDIX – LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM

Eisenmann proposed a statistical approach for determination of the impact
factor. In this formulation, the rail bending stresses and deflections are normally
distributed and the mean values can be calculated from the beam on elastic
foundation (BOEF) model. The impact factor is given by

φ = 1 + δ tm (I)
where 𝛿𝛿 is a factor that depends on the track condition (refer to the table below), t is a
factor that depends on the upper confidence limit that the maximum applied load will
not be exceeded (see table below), and m is a factor dependent on the speed of the
vehicle, in accordance with the equations

m 1 ; V < 60 km/h
=
V − 60
m =1 + ; 60 ≤ V ≤ 200 km/h (II)
140

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 Track Condition Factor δ UCL Factor t
Very Good 0.1 50% 0
Good 0.2 84.1% 1
Poor 0.3 97.7% 2
99.9% 3

The following figure shows the stress pattern on the ballast bed along the
length of the track.

The stress for each sleeper is assumed to be evenly distributed over its surface
area. An equivalent strip load then replaces the even distribution of stresses per
sleeper across the width of the sleeper. By superimposing the individual load
contribution of each sleeper, and by factoring in the thickness and elasticity of the
upper ballast and subballast layers, the maximum vertical stress on the subgrade is
then evaluated. The dynamic amplitude is incorporated by using the amplification
factor or impact factor presented in equation (I). The magnitude of this stress beneath
the various sleepers caused by the effective wheel load Q is given by

σ i σ max ×η ( xi ) (III)
=

where 𝜎𝜎max is given by

Qa
σ max = φ × (IV)
2 LAsb

in which 𝜙𝜙 is the impact factor as per eq. (I), a is the sleeper spacing, L is the
characteristic length (= 4�𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸⁄𝑘𝑘, where EI is the bending stiffness of rail and k is the
foundation coefficient of continuous support), and Asb is the contact area between
sleeper and ballast bed for a third of the sleeper. Parameter 𝜂𝜂(xi), in turn, is given by

 x  x x 
η ( xi ) =−
exp  i  cos i + sin i  ; xi ≥ 0 (V)
 L  L L
where xi is the lateral distance from the centerline of the sleeper to the point of
interest. In this method of longitudinal beam calculation, the rail is defined as an
infinite beam on a continuous elastic support. This assumption holds for a beam of
finite length if the length is greater than 2𝜋𝜋L.

The vertical stress in an elastic half-space loaded by an evenly distributed strip

load illustrated below can be determined with the two-dimensional theory of elasticity.

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 In this illustration, ℎ� is the equivalent depth. The compressive stress is given by

σ z=
,i σ i × f ( xi ) (VI)

in which

1 1 
f ( xi=
) α1 − α 2 + ( sin 2α1 − sin 2α 2 )  (VII)
π 2 
and angles 𝛼𝛼1 and 𝛼𝛼2 are calculated with the relations

 b  b
 xi + 2   xi − 2 
=α1 arctan
=   ; α 2 arctan   (VIII)
 h   h 
   

where b is the sleeper width. In this method, the contributions to the maximum vertical
stress in the formation can be determined for each strip loading according to

σ z ,max = ∑ σ zi (IX)
i

Only a few strip loads in the vicinity of the maximum load need to be
considered because of the decrease in strip load according to eq. (V) and the load
spreading according to eq. (VII).

► ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Table 1 Equilibrium elevation for various speeds on curves

Table 2 Recommended tangent length for different degrees of reverse curve

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► SOLUTIONS
P.1 ■ Solution
This is a straightforward application of the kinematics formula

αt2
D= Vt +
2
where D is the distance, V = 60 mi/h = 26.8 m/s is the initial velocity, 𝛼𝛼 = −0.3 × 9.81 =
2.94 m/s2 is the acceleration, and t is the time required to obtain the deceleration
motion. This latter quantity can be calculated as

V0
V =V0 + α t → t =−
α
26.8
∴ t =− =9.12 s
( −2.94 )
so that, backsubstituting in the first equation, we obtain

2.94 × 9.122
D = 26.8 × 9.12 − = 122 m = 400 ft
2
► The correct answer is B.

P.2 ■ Solution
1. False. All it takes is a visual inspection of the graph: increasing the water
content 𝑤𝑤 − 𝑤𝑤opt causes the resilient modulus 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 to decrease accordingly. In a similar
manner, the following graph describes the change in resilient modulus with 𝑤𝑤 − 𝑤𝑤opt
when the compactive effort, not the dry density, is held constant. The trend remains
the same, that is, the resilient modulus tends to decrease with increasing water
content.

2. False. All of the advantages cited are characteristics of ballastless track.

Non-ballasted track requires substantially less maintenance when compared to
ballasted railways; non-ballasted track has better lateral resistance, which enables use
of higher speeds and adoption of tilting technology; life expectation of non-ballasted
railways is distinctly superior, as these tracks can last for over half a century; lastly,
noise levels of non-ballasted railways are typically lower than those of ballasted tracks.
On the other hand, ballasted track also does have its merits, such as extensive practical
experience all over the world, greater tolerance to construction defects, and, perhaps
most importantly, lower initial construction costs. Indeed, Esveld’s textbook reports
that adoption of ballastless technology may increase construction costs by 20%, but
this is counterbalanced by a reduction of 70 – 80% in maintenance costs.
3. True. Indeed, drainage characteristics and storage of ballast-fouling material
are enhanced when the ballast material has a very narrow particle size distribution.
When narrowly graded ballast is adequately compacted, it performs well and provides
good drainage and fouling material storage. More broadly graded ballast will provide

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increased strength and resistance to deformation due to the denser packing
arrangement of particles, but can be expected to have a lower void volume than
narrowly graded ballast.
4. False. The statement errs twice, firstly by mentioning that interlocking
behavior of smooth particles is better than that of rough particles (the opposite is
generally true) and secondly by stating that angular particles have a greater tendency
to roll past one another under load (they do not). A combination of high angularity and
high surface roughness is generally preferred to obtain a mass of particles that
interlocks properly and forms a stable layer.
5. True. In a typical LAA test procedure, 10 kg of ballast with 12 steel balls are
repeatedly subjected to a rolling motion inside a steel drum. After 1000 revolutions,
the material is removed from the drum and wash sieved on a 4.25-mm (#12) sieve. The
LAA value is the amount of material passing the 4.25 mm sieve generated by the test
as a percentage of the original sample weight. Accordingly, a small LAA value is desired
as it indicates increased resistance to crushing. The 2013 AREMA specifications suggest
a LAA no larger than 35% for ballast material, while the Canadian Pacific Railroad
proposes a limit of 45%.
6. False. Since the line that represents the characteristic tensile strength of
fresh ballast is above the line for recycled ballast, we can anticipate that fresh ballast
has greater strength, especially at smaller grain sizes. Since recycled ballast has
undergone millions of load cycles in the past, it contains more micro-cracks than fresh
ballast, and for this reason can be expected to be more susceptible to crushing.
Regression analysis of the particle strength data indicates that recycled ballast
generally has 35% lower tensile strength than fresh ballast.
7. True. Indeed, inspection of the graph shows that dry fresh ballast provides
the least settlement of the experimented materials, while dry recycled ballast without
geosynthetic reinforcement produced the highest settlement values. It is believed that
the higher angularity of fresh ballast contributes to better particle interlock and
therefore causes less settlement. Recycled ballast alone, being less angular, exhibits
significantly higher settlement than fresh ballast. Combination of recycled ballast with
geosynthetics can reduce such settlement significantly. Regardless of the material
being considered, one common feature is certain: initially the settlement increases
rapidly in all specimens, and all ballast specimens tend to stabilize within about
100,000 cycles, beyond which the settlement increase becomes marginal.
8. True. This is stated in Chapter 9 of Advanced Rail Geotechnology. As an
intermediate layer, the drainage design of the subballast must consider both the
underlying subgrade and the overlying ballast. The subballast must prevent the
intermixing of ballast and subgrade and the upward migration of subgrade particles
into the ballast. Functions of subballast, as listed by Selig and Waters, include (1)
reduce stress to subgrade; (2) protect subgrade from freeze-thaw damage; (3) keep
subgrade and ballast separate; (4) prevent upward migration of subgrade fines; and (5)
prevent subgrade attrition by ballast.
9. True. Indeed, Selig and Waters’ Track Geotechnology and Substructure
Management states that 76% of studied sites had breakdown of the ballast itself as the
main cause of fouling. Upward migration of material from a lower granular layer was
the second, far less prevalent source of fouling material, being the predominant source
of fouling in 13% of cases investigated by those authors.
10. False. The parameter conceived by Selig and Waters is called the Fouling
Index, FI, not the Percentage Void Contamination. The latter was proposed by Feldman
and Nissen and is defined as 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉2 ⁄𝑉𝑉1 × 100, where V1 is the void volume between
re-compacted ballast particles and V2 is the total volume of re-compacted fouling
material (particles passing 9.5 mm sieve). Although the PVC method is a direct measure
of percentage of voids occupied by fouling particles, the measurement of volume is
time consuming. Furthermore, as the total volume of fouling particles is used, the
gradation of fouling particles cannot be taken into account. In view of these limitations,
Indraratna and other investigators at the University of Wollongong have introduced yet
another parameter, the Relative Ballast Fouling Ratio, Rb-f, a weighted ratio of the dry
weight of fouling particles (passing 9.5 mm sieve) to the dry weight of ballast (particles
retaining on 9.5 mm sieve). Rather than relying on cumbersome measurements of
volume, calculation of this third parameter requires only the mass of ballast and the
mass and specific gravity of fouling material.

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 11. True. Indeed, research has found that tamping actually disturbs ballast
over the depth of insertion and reduces the ballast bulk density. The loosening effect
of tamping may require slowing train speed immediately after the process is
implemented because of temporarily reduced track lateral stability. The loosening
effect is also the reason for a high rate of track settlement immediately after tamping.
It is train traffic which promotes the densification of ballast again.

P.3 ■ Solution
Part A: The impact factor is given by

φ = 1 + δ tm
Here, 𝛿𝛿 = 0.1 is a factor dependent on track condition ( 0.1 for very good
condition track, 0.2 for good condition track, and 0.3 for poor track condition), t = 1.0 is
a factor dependent on the upper confidence limit (UCL) that the maximum applied load
will not be exceeded (0 for 50% UCL, 1 for 84.1% UCL, 2 for 97.7% UCL, and 3 for
99.9%), and 𝑚𝑚 is a factor dependent on the speed of the vehicle, given by

= m 1 ; V < 60 km/h
V − 60
m =1 + ; 60 ≤ V ≤ 200 km/h
140
In the present case, V = 120 km/h and 𝑚𝑚 = 1.43. The value of 𝜙𝜙 is then

φ =+
1 0.1× 1.0 × 1.43 =1.14

► The correct answer is B.

Part B: The contact area between sleeper and ballast for a third of the sleeper
is 𝐴𝐴sb = lb/3 =2.7 × 0.25/3 = 0.225 m2. The maximum stress is given by

Qa
σ max = φ ×
2 LAsb

Here, 𝜙𝜙 = 1.14 is the impact factor obtained just now, Q =168 kN is the effective
wheel load,, a = 0.495 m is the sleeper spacing, L = 1.30 m is the characteristic length,
and Asb = 0.225 m2 is the contact area between sleeper and ballast bed for a third of the
sleeper. Substituting these data gives

168 × 0.495
σ max =
1.14 × 162 kPa
=
2 × 1.30 × 0.225
We also require factor 𝜂𝜂, which is given by

 x   x   x 
η ( xi ) = exp  − i  × cos  i  + sin  i  
 L  L  L 
where x is the distance from the centerline of the track and L = 1.30 m is the
characteristic length. For x = 0.5 m, labeled station 4, we have

 0.5    0.5   0.5  

η ( x4 ) =exp  −  × cos   + sin    =0.886
 1.30    1.30   1.30  

We also require factors 𝛼𝛼1 and 𝛼𝛼2 , which are respectively given by

 b
 xi + 2 
α1 = arctan  
 h 
 

and

 b
 xi − 2 
α 2 = arctan  
 h 
 

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 where b = 0.25 m is the sleeper width and h = 0.84 m is the equivalent thickness. For x4
= 0.5 m, for example, we have

 0.5 + 0.25 2   0.5 − 0.25 2 

=α1 arctan  =  0.640
= ; α 2 arctan  =  0.420
 0.84   0.84 
These two numbers are used in the calculation of factor f(xi), which is given by

1 1 
)
f ( xi= α1 − α 2 + ( sin 2α1 − sin 2α 2 ) 
π 2 
For x4 = 0.5 m, for example, we have

1 1 
f ( x=
4) 0.640 − 0.420 + sin ( 2 × 0.640 ) − sin ( 2 × 0.420 ) =
 0.104
π 2 
The compressive stress at x4 = 0.5 m follows as

σ 4 × f ( x4 ) =
σ z ,4 = 143.5 × 0.104 =
14.9 kPa

The calculations for the remaining stations are tabulated below.

i x i (m) η(x i ) σ (kPa) α1 α2 f(x i ) σzi (kPa)

1 -1 0.655 106.1 0.929 0.806 0.0328 3.48
2 -0.5 0.886 143.5 0.64 0.42 0.104 14.9
3 0 1 162.0 -0.148 0.148 0.187 30.3
4 0.5 0.886 143.5 0.64 0.42 0.104 14.9
5 1 0.655 106.1 0.929 0.806 0.0328 3.48
Sum = 67.1

The total compressive stress was determined to be 67.1 kPa. The distribution
of stresses relatively to the centerline of the track is plotted below.

► The correct answer is D.

P.4 ■ Solution
1. True. Indeed, the main disadvantage of wooden sleepers is the requirement
of treatment against decaying and fire hazards. Other downsides include their inherent
lightness and the fact that some types of wood (e.g., pinewood) have inevitably inferior
useful lives than, say, concrete sleepers in a similar environment.
2. False. Better continuity and less dynamic stresses are properties of
continuous welded rail (CWR), not bolted rail. The combination of impact load and
reduced rail stiffness at the joints of a bolted rail may lead to extremely high local
stresses, which exacerbates the rates of ballast degradation, fouling, and track
settlement.
3. False. Conversely, reduction of tie spacing lowers unit stresses and
increases track modulus. However, a 2006 study by the Transportation Research
Board, with emphasis on configurations for track transitions, verified that reduced tie
spacing had an insignificant effect on track modulus or rail deflections. The same
applied to adoption of longer ties or ties with larger cross-sections.

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© 2019 Montogue Quiz
 4. True. This is pointed out in Section 6.2.5 of Railway Geotechnics. Indeed, a
free-draining layer installed at the bottom of the excavation can work to intercept
capillary rise and hence prevent the formation of ice lenses. Likewise, thermal
insulators such as injected foam can impede the substructure soil from developing
freezing temperatures.
5. True. However, HMA does have inherent disadvantages: for instance, in
some cases the use of this material can result in exceedingly high track stiffness,
leading to accelerated rates of ballast deterioration and track component degradation
(e.g., concrete tie cracking). Further, the stiff HMA also typically results in less damping
in the substructure, so dynamic loads can be more acute.
P.5 ■ Solution
In the AREMA classification system, the number that precedes RE indicates the
approximate linear density of the rail in pounds per yard. Accordingly, a 115 RE rail has
an approximate weight of 115 lb/yd. Converting this quantity to SI units, we get

lb 1 yd kg
µ=115 × × 0.454 =57.1 kg/m
yd 0.9144 m lb

► The correct answer is C.

P.6 ■ Solution
The track modulus is given by

k4 3
u=
( 64 EI )
13

where k is the track stiffness, E = 200 GPa is the modulus of elasticity of the material (in
this case, steel) and I = 3.95 × 10-5 m4 is the moment of inertia of the rail. The value of k
is calculated as

P 75 ×103
k= = = 75 MN/m
δ 1.0 ×10−3
Backsubstituting in the first equation gives

=u =
( 75 ×10 ) 6 43

39.7 MPa
64 × ( 200 × 10 ) × ( 3.95 × 10 ) 
13
9 −5
 
► The correct answer is C.

P.7 ■ Solution
The gap size can be estimated with the relation

Ar Er
(α∆T )
2
G=
Rr

where 𝛼𝛼 = 6.5 × 10-6 in./in./oF is the coefficient of thermal expansion of steel, Ar = 11.25
in.2 is the cross-sectional area of the rail, ΔT = 60oF is the temperature drop, Er = 30 ×
106 lb/in.2 is the modulus of elasticity of steel, and Rr = 62 lb/in. is the longitudinal
restraint of the rail. Substituting these data gives

11.25 × ( 30 ×106 )
G = ( 6.5 ×10 ) × 60
2
−6
× = 0.83 in.
62
► The correct answer is D.
P.8 ■ Solution
The first step is to compute the AREMA impact factor,

0.33V 0.33 × 60
IF
= = = 0.55
Dwheel 36

Next, we apply the AREMA formula for average ballast pressure at tie face,

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 1  IF  DF 
ABP
= 2 P 1 + 
A   100  100 


Here, A = 918 in.2 is the area of the specified ties, P = 36,000 lb is the wheel
loading, IF = 55 is the impact factor in percent, and DF = 47 is the distribution factor in
percent. Substituting these data gives

1   55  47 
ABP= ×  2 × 36, 000 × 1 + × = 57.1 psi
918   100  100 
In order to determine the depth of the granular layer, we invoke the Talbot
equation and solve it for h,

0.8
16.8 pa  16.8 pa 
pc
= 1.25
→
= h  
h  pc 
Here, pa = 57.1 psi is the uniformly distributed pressure over tie face and pc =
18.0 psi is the bearing pressure on subgrade including the safety factor. Accordingly, h
becomes

0.8
 16.8 × 57.1 
=h =  24.1 in.
 18.0 
► The correct answer is C.
P.9 ■ Solution
The technology in question is flash butt welding. Along with aluminothermic
welding, this is the most widely used welding technology in modern rail service. Flash
butt welding is less prone to porosity and cleanliness problems than welds produced
with aluminothermic technology, not to mention that it is generally less dependent on
skilled labor. Flash butt welding tends to produce the highest quality welds, but
involves less portable equipment and is consequently more expensive.

► The correct answer is B.

P.10 ■ Solution
All we have to do is apply the formula

K × D ×V 2
L=
A

where D = 0.02 is the difference in grades expressed as a decimal, V = 60 mi/h is the

speed of the train, A = 0.60 ft/sec2 is the vertical acceleration, and K = 2.15 is a
conversion factor to give L in feet. Substituting these data gives

2.15 × 0.02 × 602

=L = 258 ft
0.60
► The correct answer is A.

P.11 ■ Solution
1. True. Entering a speed of 60 mi/h and a degree of curve of 3o into Table 1,
the equilibrium elevation is read as 7.56 in. Equivalently, this result can be obtained
with the simplified formula E = 0.0007V2D = 0.0007 × 602 × 3.0 = 7.56 in.
2. False. With reference to Table 2, we see that, for a reverse curve less than 6
degrees, the recommended tangent length is zero, which is to say that there is no need
at all for tangents between reverse curves of such small angles.
3. False. Applying the first criterion gives

D15 ( Aggregate drain ) 7

= = 3.9 < 5 (OK)
D85 ( Adjacent soil ) 1.8

while, with recourse to the second criterion,

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 D50 ( Aggregate drain ) 18
= = 36 < 25 (FALSE)
D50 ( Adjacent soil ) 0.5

Accordingly, the aggregate satisfies only one of the criteria required to

maintain adequate separation from the adjacent soil, and its use in combination with
the subgrade sand is not advisable.

4. True. It should be noted, however, that the increased sensitivity of ECI to

superficial cracks comes at the cost of a reduced responsiveness to deeper defects.
Indeed, even in the best cases 80% of the induced current density is circumscribed to
the top half of the total penetration depth. Lower inspection frequencies would be
recommended to increase the penetration depth, but their use leads to greater
sensitivity to the uncontrollable changes in material properties, limitations in
inspection velocity, and smaller signal-to-noise ratio. Ultrasonic inspection is generally
better at detecting sub-surface defects.

5. False. While it is true that the presence of water in the rail-wheel interface
indeed plays a crucial role in crack propagation, the statement is wrong when it posits
that water inhibits this phenomenon. Under the foregoing circumstances, additional
hydraulic pressure causes high tensile stresses and hence promotes faster crack
propagation. Thus, one may surmise that crack propagation in dry environments is
very different from that in wet environments. While the shear stress in dry
environments is relatively shallow, such that surface cracks penetrate no more than 3
mm deep, under wet conditions the surface cracks propagate to a much greater depth,
say, as much as 15 mm deep. This is largely due to the hydraulic crack propagation
mechanism.

► ANSWER SUMMARY
Problem 1 B
Problem 2 T/F
3A B
Problem 3
3B D
Problem 4 T/F
Problem 5 C
Problem 6 C
Problem 7 D
Problem 8 C
Problem 9 B
Problem 10 A
Problem 11 T/F

► REFERENCES
 AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY
ASSOCIATION. (2010). 2010 Manual for Railway Engineering. Lanham: AREMA.
 ESVELD, C. (2001). Modern Railway Track. 2nd edition. Delft: Delft University of
Technology.
 INDRARATNA, B., SALIM, W., and RUJJIKIATKAMJORN, C. (2011). Advanced Rail
Geotechnology – Ballasted Track. London: Taylor and Francis.
 LI, D., HYSLIP, J., SUSSMAN, T., and CHRISMER, S. (2016). Railway Geotechnics.
Boca Raton: CRC Press.
 SELIG, E. and WATERS, J. (1994). Track Geotechnology and Substructure
Management. London: Thomas Thelford.
 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD. (2012). Track Design Handbook for Light
Rail Transit. 2nd edition. Washington: Transportation Research Board.

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