Diode Applications

Part 1
(Half-Wave)
 LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
• The diode characteristics are placed on the same set of axes as a straight line
defined by the parameters of the network. The straight line is called a load line
because the intersection on the vertical axis is defined by the applied load R.

The point of operation is usually called

the quiescent point (abbreviated “Q-
point”) to reflect its “still,
unmoving” qualities as defined by a dc
network.
 Series Diode Configurations
• For all the analysis to follow in this module it is assumed that: The forward
resistance of the diode is usually so small compared to the other series elements
of the network that it can be ignored.
• This is a valid approximation for the vast majority of applications that employ
diodes.

An open circuit can have any voltage across its terminals, but the current is always 0 A. A
short circuit
has a 0-V drop across its terminals, but the current is limited only by the surrounding network.
 Source Notation
• The source notation below will be employed for the applied voltage.
It is a common industry notation and one with which you should
become very familiar.
 Parallel And Series-parallel Configurations
• Step 1: Mentally replace the diodes with resistive elements and note the
resulting current direction as established by the applied voltages
(“pressure”). If the resulting direction is a “match” with the arrow in the
diode symbol, conduction through the diode will occur and the device is in
the “on” state. Otherwise, the diode is in the “off” state or open.
• Step 2: The network is then redrawn with the appropriate equivalent
model for the forward- or reversed-biased diode. Note that the polarity of
VD or VK is the same as would result if in fact the diode were a resistive
element.
• Step 3: Write the equation for the network involving ID and VK using KVL.
Always keep in mind that under any circumstances - dc, ac instantaneous
values, pulses, and so on - Kirchhoff’s voltage law must be satisfied!
Sample Problems
 Sample Problems
• Load-line Analysis
 Sample Problems
• Load-line Analysis
Ans.
 Sample Problems
• Diode Configuration

Ans.
 Sample Problems
• Diode Configuration

Ans.
 Sample Problems
• Diode Configuration

Ans.
 Sample Problems
• Diode Configuration

Ans.
 Sample Problems
• Diode Configuration (Assessment)
 Sample Problems
• Diode Configuration (Assessment)
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

• Over one full cycle, defined by the period T of figure, the average value (the algebraic
sum of the areas above and below the axis) is zero. The circuit above, called a half-wave
rectifier, will generate a waveform 𝐕𝐎 that will have an average value of particular use in
the ac-to-dc conversion process. When employed in the rectification process, a diode is
typically referred to as a rectifier (its power and current ratings are typically much higher than those
of diodes employed in other applications).
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
• The process of removing one-half the input
signal to establish a dc level is called half-
wave rectification.
• The output signal 𝑽𝒐 now has a net positive
area above the axis over a full period and an
average value determined by:

𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑽𝒅𝒄 =
𝝅
𝑽𝒅𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟖𝑽𝒎
 Effect of Knee Voltage

𝑽𝒎 − 𝑽𝒌
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑽𝒅𝒄 = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟖(𝑽𝒎 − 𝑽𝒌 )
𝝅
 Form Factor (ff) and Ripple Factor (rf)
• Form Factor
• Describe the rectified wave form.
• Gives idea about the smoothness of the waveform i.e as ff decreases and
approaches 1 , smoothness of waveform improves towards pure dc.
• The ratio of, rms value of waveform, to the, average value of the waveform.
• Ripple Factor
• Defined as the ratio of, rms value of ac component of waveform, to the,
average value of the waveform.
• Gives idea about the amount of harmonics present in the dc waveform.
• Tells how much ac is present in the rectified dc signal.
 Most Important Parameter in Rectification
• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) [or PRV (Peak Reverse Voltage)
• For a simple rectifier diode, the maximum value of reverse voltage,
designated as PIV, occurs at the peak of each negative alternation of the input
voltage when the diode is reverse-biased.
• A diode should be rated at least 20% higher than the PIV.
Sample Problems
 Sample Problems
• Half-wave Rectifier

Ans.
 Sample Problems
• Half-wave Rectifier

Ans.
 Sample Problems
• Solve for the Form Factor (ff) and Ripple Factor

Ans.
Form factor (ff) = 1.57 or 157% (Half-wave)
Ripple factor (rf) = 1.21 of 121 % (Half-wave)
 Form Factor (ff) and Ripple Factor (rf) Values

Half-Wave Rectified (HW) Full-Wave Rectified (FW)

• RMS Value: • RMS Value:
VP VP
Vrms = Vrms =
2 2
• Average (DC) Value: • Average (DC) Value:
VP 2VP
Vave = Vave =
π π
• Form Factor (ff): • Form Factor (ff):
VPൗ VP
Vrms Vrms ൘
ff = = 2 = 1.57 2
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 VPൗ ff = = = 1.11
𝜋 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 2VPൗ
𝜋
• Ripple Factor (rf): • Ripple Factor (rf):
Vr(rms) Vr(rms)
rf = = 1.21 rf = = 0.48
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒
 Ripple Factor (rf)
• Ripple Factor (rf):
𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝟐 − 𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝟐
𝐫𝐟 =
𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝟐
Or
𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝟐 − 𝐈𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝟐
𝐫𝐟 =
𝐈𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝟐
Or simply;
𝐫𝐟 = 𝐟𝐟 𝟐 − 𝟏
 Crest Factor/Peak Factor (pf) or (Kp)
• Peak Factor
• a parameter of a waveform, such as alternating current or sound, showing the
ratio of peak values to the effective value.
• In other words, crest factor indicates how extreme the peaks are in waveform.
• Crest factor 1 indicates no peaks, such as direct current or a square wave.

VP
pf =
Vrms

pf HW = 2
pf HW = 2 or 1.414
 Importance of Crest Factor
• The crest factor 1 indicates no peaks. Higher crest factor indicates peaks.
• The crest factor of DC current or voltage is equal to unity because RMS value of
the DC is equal to the peak value.
• The crest factor of the perfect sinusoidal voltage or current is 1.414.
• The crest factor of AC other than 1.414 shows that the waveform is not
sinusoidal.
• When the sinusoidal voltage is fed to semiconductor devices the current through
the devices is not linear and the current is non sinusoidal.
• The crest factor of the current drawn by the semiconductor devices is much
higher than 1.414.
• Crest factor different than 1.414 indicates distortion in waveform.
• Typically distorted current waveform have crest factors higher than 1.414 or may
have lower than 1.414.
• Distorted voltage waveform with crest factor lower than 1.414 are called flat top
voltage waveform.
 Must Know (FAQs)
• When is the practical model of a diode useful in diode circuit
analysis? The complete model?
• The practical model is useful when you are troubleshooting in lower-voltage circuits.
In these cases, the 0.7 V drop across the diode may be significant and should be
taken into account. The practical model is also useful when you are designing basic
diode circuits.

• For troubleshooting work, it is unnecessary to use the complete model, as it involves

complicated calculations. This model is generally suited to design problems using a
computer for simulation.
 Must Know (FAQs)
• Generally, what are some ways to determine if diode is still ‘good’
(still useful) or already ‘bad’ (should be replaced)?
1) Voltmeter Testing
• Diode must have a small voltage drop in forward bias condition.
• An OL indication in both directions is an indication of an open or defective
diode.
2) Ohmmeter Testing
• A high resistance reading in both directions indicates an open (defective-
device) condition,
• whereas a very low resistance reading in both directions will probably
indicate a shorted device.
 Must Know (FAQs)
• When diodes are being used as rectifiers, what is the most
important consideration in the design?
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) [or PRV (peak reverse voltage) rating of the
diode is of primary importance in the design of rectification systems.
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) equals the peak or maximum value of the input
voltage, and the diode must be capable of withstanding this amount of
repetitive reverse voltage.
For a simple rectifier diode, the maximum value of reverse voltage,
designated as PIV, occurs at the peak of each negative alternation of the input
voltage when the diode is reverse-biased.
A diode should be rated at least 20% higher than the PIV.
Diode Application
Part 2
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
• A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current through
the load during the entire 360° of the input cycle, whereas a half-
wave rectifier allows current through the load only during one-half of
the cycle. The result of full-wave rectification is an output voltage
with a frequency twice the input frequency and that pulsates every
half-cycle of the input, as shown in Figure.
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
• The number of positive alternations that make up the full-wave
rectified voltage is twice that of the half-wave voltage for the same
time interval. The average or dc value, which is the value measured
on a dc voltmeter, for a full-wave rectified sinusoidal voltage is twice
that of the half-wave, as shown in the following formula:

𝟐𝐕𝐦
𝐕𝐝𝐜 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝐕𝐦
𝛑
 Bridge-type Rectifier
• The most familiar network for performing full-rectification appears in
the figure with its four diodes in a bridge configuration.
Bridge-type Rectifier
 Bridge-type Rectifier
• If silicon rather than ideal diodes are employed as shown in Fig.

Bridge Output Voltage:

𝐕𝐢 − 𝐕𝐤 − 𝐕𝐨 − 𝐕𝐤
𝐕𝐨 = 𝐕𝐢 − 𝟐𝐕𝐤
 Bridge-type Rectifier
• Maximum output voltage and its DC value
 PIV of Bridge Configuration

• The required PIV of each diode can be determined from Fig. 4.4
obtained at the peak of the positive region of the input signal. For the
indicated loop the maximum voltage across R is 𝑉𝑚 and the PIV rating
is defined by
PIV > Vm PIV of each ideal diode in the bridge configuration

PIV > Vm + VK PIV of each practical diode in the bridge configuration

 Center-tapped Rectifier
• A second popular full-wave rectifier appears in the figure below with
only two diodes but requiring a center-tapped (CT) transformer to
establish the input signal across each section of the secondary of the
transformer.
 Center-tapped Rectifier
• For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the polarities of the
secondary voltages are as shown in the figure. This condition forward-
biases diode D1 and reverse-biases diode D2. The current path is through
D1 and the load resistor RL, as indicated.
 Center-tapped Rectifier
• For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the voltage polarities on the secondary are
as shown in the figure. This condition reverse-biases D1 and forward-biasesD2. The
current path is through D2 and RL, as indicated.
• Because the output current during both the positive and negative portions of the input
cycle is in the same direction through the load, the output voltage developed across the
load resistor is a full-wave rectified dc voltage, as shown.
 Center-tapped Output Voltage

Vo = Vp(pri) / 2
Peak value of a full-wave rectified voltage using ideal diode with n = 1
Vo = Vi / 2 = Vm / 2
Vo = Vp(pri)
Peak value of a full-wave rectified voltage using ideal diode with n = 2
Vo = Vi = Vm
 Center-tapped Output Voltage
• Practical diode

𝐕𝐩 (out) = 𝐕𝐦 (out) = Vm – 𝐕𝐤 Peak value of a full-wave rectified voltage using practical diode.

𝐕𝐝𝐜 (out) = 2 (𝐕𝐦 –𝐕𝐤 )/𝛑 = 0.637(𝐕𝐦 – 𝐕𝐤 ) DC value of a full-wave rectified voltage using
𝐕𝐝𝐜 (out) = 2 𝐕𝐩 (out)/ 𝛑 = 0.637 𝐕𝐩 (out) practical diode.
 PIV of Center-tapped

PIV = Vp(sec) + VR = Vm + Vm
PIV of each ideal diode in the center-tapped configuration
PIV = 2Vm

PIV > 2Vm + VK PIV of each practical diode in the center-tapped configuration
 Must Know (FAQs)
• What is a transformer and what are the advantages of
using it in a basic power supply?
 A transformer is often used to couple the ac input voltage from the
source to the rectifier.
 Transformer coupling provides two advantages.
 First, it allows the source voltage to be stepped down as needed.
 Second, the ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier, thus
preventing a shock hazard in the secondary circuit.
 The amount that the voltage is stepped down is determined by the
turns ratio, or “the number of turns in the secondary (Nsec) divided
by the number of turns in the primary (Npri)”, of the transformer.
 Thus, a transformer with a turns ratio less than 1 is a step-down
type and one with a turns ratio greater than 1 is a step- up type.
 To show the turns ratio on a schematic, it is common practice to
show the numerical ratio directly above the windings. However,
transformer datasheets rarely show the turns ratio.
 A transformer is generally specified based on the secondary voltage
rather than the turns ratio.
WAVE-SHAPING CIRCUITS
 WAVE-SHAPING CIRCUITS
• Limiters or Clippers
• are sometimes used to clip off portions of signal voltages above or below
certain levels.
• Clamper or DC Restorers
• used to add or restore a dc level to an electrical signal.
 Clippers or Diode Limiters
• Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of
an input signal without distorting the remaining part of the applied
waveform.
• The half-wave rectifier is an example of the simplest form of diode
clipper— one resistor and a diode.
• Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or negative
region of the applied signal is “clipped” off.
• There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel.
 Series Clipper
• The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series
with the load.

Note: The analysis of diode clippers may involve either an ideal or practical diode. When practical
diodes are considered, output waveforms must reflect the corresponding diode drop, VK.
Series Clipper
 Parallel Clipper
• The parallel configuration is defined as one where the diode is in
parallel with the load.
Parallel Clipper
 Clampers or DC Restorers
• A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor, and a capacitor that
shifts a waveform to a different dc level without changing the appearance of the
applied signal.
• Clamping networks have a capacitor connected directly from input to output with
a resistive element in parallel with the output signal.
• The diode is also in parallel with the output signal, as shown in the figure, but
may or may not have a series dc supply as an added element.
 Time Constant (𝜏)
• The chosen resistor and capacitor of the network must be chosen
such that the time constant (t = RC) is sufficiently large to ensure that
the voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly
during the interval the diode is nonconducting. Throughout the
analysis we assume that for all practical purposes the capacitor fully
charges or discharges in five time constants (5t).
Sample Problems
 Sample Problems
•v

Ans.
 Sample Problems

Ans.
 Sample Problems

Ans.
Sample Problems
 Sample Problems
Ans.
Diode Application
Part 3
(Voltage multiplication and Regulation)
 Voltage multiplication and Regulation
• Voltage multipliers use clamping action to increase peak rectified
voltages without the necessity of increasing the transformer’s voltage
rating. Multiplication factors of two, three, and four are common.
Voltage multipliers are used in high-voltage, low-current applications
such as cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) and particle accelerators.
• The use of the Zener diode as a regulator is so common that three
conditions surrounding the analysis of the basic Zener regulator are
considered. The analysis provides an excellent opportunity to become
better acquainted with the response of the Zener diode to different
operating conditions. The analysis is first for fixed quantities, followed
by a fixed supply voltage and a variable load, and finally a fixed load
and a variable supply.
 VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS
• Half-wave Voltage Doubler
• A voltage doubler is a voltage multiplier with a multiplication factor of two.
• A halfwave voltage doubler is shown in figure.
 Full-Wave Voltage Doubler

• A full-wave doubler is shown in figure above. When the secondary voltage is

positive, D1 is forward-biased and C1 charges to approximately Vp, as shown in
part
(a) During the negative half-cycle D2 is forward-biased and C2 charges to approximately Vp, as
shown in part
(b) The output voltage, 2Vp, is taken across the two capacitors in series.
 Voltage Tripler

• The addition of another diode-capacitor section to the half-wave voltage doubler creates
a voltage tripler, as shown in the figure.
• The operation is as follows: On the positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, C1
charges to Vp through D1.
• During the negative half-cycle, C2 charges to 2Vp through D2, as described for the
doubler. During the next positive half-cycle, C3 charges to 2Vp through D3. The tripler
output is taken across C1 and C3, as shown in the figure on the right.
 Voltage Quadrupler

• Addition of still another diode-capacitor section, as shown in the figure, produces

an output four times the peak secondary voltage. C4 charges to 2Vp through D4
on a negative half-cycle. The 4Vp output is taken across C2 and C4, as shown.

Note: In both the tripler and quadrupler circuits, the PIV of each diode is 2Vp.
ZENER DIODE
 ZENER DIODE
• A zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that is designed
for operation in the reverse-breakdown region.
• The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully
controlling the doping level during manufacture. Recall, from
the discussion of the diode characteristic curve in the previous
modules, that when a diode reaches reverse breakdown (see figure), its voltage
remains almost constant even though the current changes drastically, and this is
the key to zener diode operation.
• The analysis of networks employing Zener diodes is quite similar to the analysis of
semiconductor diodes in previous sections. First the state of the diode must be
determined, followed by a substitution of the appropriate model and a
determination of the other unknown quantities of the network.
 ZENER DIODE

Approximate equivalent circuits for the Zener diode

General Zener diode characteristic
in regions of application
 Zener Breakdown
• Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown.
• Two types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode are avalanche and zener.
• Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages. A zener
diode is heavily doped to reduce the breakdown voltage. This causes a very
thin depletion region. As a result, an intense electric field exists within the
depletion region. Near the zener breakdown voltage (VZ), the field is in-
tense enough to pull electrons from their valence bands and create
current.
• Zener diodes with breakdown voltages of less than approximately 5 V
operate predominately in zener breakdown. Those with breakdown
voltages greater than approximately 5 V operate predominately in
avalanche breakdown.
• Both types, however, are called zener diodes. Zeners are commercially
available with breakdown voltages from less than 1 V to more than 250 V
with specified tolerances from 1% to 20%.
 Zener Diodes for Reference Voltage
• Consider the figure. Note that the silicon diode
was used to create a reference voltage of 4 V because
 Zener Regulation
• The ability to keep the reverse voltage across its terminals essentially
constant is the key feature of the zener diode.
• A zener diode operating in breakdown acts as a voltage regulator
because it maintains a nearly constant voltage across its terminals
over a specified range of reverse-current values.
 Basic Zener Regulator
• Vi and R Fixed
• The simplest of Zener diode regulator networks appears in the figure. The
applied dc voltage is fixed, as is the load resistor. The analysis can
fundamentally be broken down into two steps.
 Basic Zener Regulator
• Step 1
• Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it from the network and
calculating the voltage across the resulting open circuit.

If V≥VZ, the Zener diode is on, and the

appropriate equivalent model can be substituted.
If V < VZ, the diode is off, and the open-circuit
equivalence is substituted.
 • Step 2
• Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for the desired
unknowns.

For the “on” state,

VL = VZ

Note: Before continuing, it is particularly important to realize

that the first step was employed only to determine
the state of the Zener diode. If the Zener diode is in the “on”
state, the voltage across the diode is not V volts.
When the system is turned on, the Zener diode will turn
on as soon as the voltage across the Zener diode
PZ = VZIZ
is VZ volts. It will then “lock in” at this level and never
reach the higher level of V volts.
 Basic Zener Regulator
• Fixed Vi and Variable RL
• Due to the offset voltage VZ, there is a specific range of resistor values (and
therefore load current) that will ensure that the Zener is in the “on” state. Too
small a load resistance RL will result in a voltage VL across the load resistor
less than VZ, and the Zener device will be in the “off” state. To determine the
minimum load resistance of Fig. 6.0 that will turn the Zener diode on, simply
calculate the value of RL that will result in a load voltage VL = VZ.
• Establishing the minimum RL, we can specifies the maximum IL as

• Once the diode is in the “on” state, the

voltage across R remains fixed at
VR = Vi – VZ
IR remains fixed at
IR = VR / R
The Zener current
IZ = IR - IL
• Maximum load resistance
 Basic Zener Regulator
• Fixed RL and Variable Vi
• For fixed values of RL in the figure, the voltage
Vi must be sufficiently large to turn the Zener
diode on. The minimum turn-on voltage
Vi = Vimin is determined by
Sample Problems
 Sample Problems

Ans.
 Sample Problems

Ans.
 Sample Problems

Ans.
Sample Problems

(Elex-Math Combination)