- what is matter

- in gravitation just like electrostatics why do

we make reference to point masses (or charges)
GRAVITATION

Gravitational field is caused by the existence of matter. It is influenced greatly by the mass of
matter, i.e. the higher the mass, the greater the gravitational field strength.

Each object, due to its mass, creates a gravitational field around it which is capable of attracting
other objects towards it. The object being attracted also has its own field and thus pulls the
other object pulling it with a force of the same magnitude (but some forces are too small to be
measured e.g. a person pulling the earth).

Massive bodies like the earth, sun, create a gravitational field which attracts small masses
which are free to move. The path of the freely moving mass is known as a field line.

Figure b

A uniform field is one in which the field strength has the same value at all points in the field
(fig b). Note that the field of the earth is not uniform but is considered uniform over small
distances over the earth’s surface.

Gravitational field strength or intensity, 𝒈, at a point in a field is defined as “the force per
unit mass at that point” (constant for a uniform field such as that near the surface of the earth).
It is measured in 𝑁𝑘𝑔−1 .

𝐹
i.e. 𝑔=𝑚

where F is the force on a point mass m placed in the field,

g is the gravitational field strength or intensity at the point where the mass m is placed.

1
An object near the surface of the earth will accelerate (fall freely) towards it due to the pull of
gravity.

From Newton’s force equation,

𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑔
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚

=𝑔

Thus the gravitational field strength, 𝑔, near the earth’s surface is 9.81 𝑁𝑘𝑔−1 since the
acceleration of free fall above the earth’s surface is 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −2 .

Note: the lines are all equally separated in terms of field strength but the radial distance between
them increases as you move further from the planet. This means that there is little change in 𝑔
with distance near the earth’s surface.

Gravitational Potential (V)

Recall that potential energy is the energy stored in a mass due to its position in in the
gravitational field. At infinity, potential energy is considered to be zero.

If a mass is to be taken out of the earth’s field, work must be done on it (i.e. it must be given
energy) that will take it to a potential of zero out of the earth’s field. Thus, for points at the
earth’s surface, the potential is negative indicating that the mass at these points is bound by the
earth’s gravitational field.

Gravitational potential (V) at a point in a field is defined as the work done (P.e.) per unit
mass in bringing the unit mass from infinity to that point.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
i.e. 𝑉= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝐹×𝑟
= 𝑚

But F on the mass is against the force due to the field

𝐹𝑟
⟹𝑉=−
𝑚
It has unit of 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 .

Note that V decreases a 𝑟 increases.

2
Equipotential and Potential Gradients

An equipotential surface is defined as one that joints points of equal potentials in the field (fig
a). No work is done in moving a mass on an equipotential surface.

Note:

- Equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to field lines

- As the field becomes weaker, the lines (surfaces) are more spaced out.

Gravitational potential gradient is defined as the rate of change of gravitational potential with
distance in the field.

Fig c

Suppose a small point mass 𝑚, is being taken out of a gravitational field from the point A to
the point B, through a small distance ∆𝑟, against the gravitational force. There must be a work
done on the mass by a force 𝐹, which is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
field.
Note W = Fscos(theta)
and since theta = 180
i.e. 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = − 𝐹𝑟 cos(theta) = 0
thus, W = -Fs
Similarly, 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝑎𝑡 𝐵 = − 𝐹(𝑟 + ∆𝑟)

Therefore, 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 = − 𝐹∆𝑟

This work is equal to the increase in potential energy of the mass 𝑚.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐹𝑟
But 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣. 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = =−
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚

𝐹∆𝑟
Therefore, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑉 = − 𝑚

𝑚∆𝑉
⟹𝐹=−
∆𝑟
Since gravitational field strength
𝐹
𝑔=
𝑚
𝐹 ∆𝑉
⟹𝑔= =−
𝑚 ∆𝑟

3
Taking limits as ∆𝑟 → 0,
∆𝑉 𝑑𝑉
⟹ lim =
∆𝑟→0 ∆𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑉
⟹𝑔=−
𝑑𝑟
Thus, gravitational potential gradient (𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝑚−1) is the change in potential per meter at a point
in the field and is equal to −𝑔.

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Kepler’s laws were formulated to describe the motion of planetary bodies. However, the laws
still apply to any other circular motion and they are very much made use of when dealing with
the motion of satellites about the earth.

Kepler’s laws start that:

1ST law (The Law of Orbits): All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one focus.
2ND law (The Law of Areas): A straight line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas
in equal times.
3RD law (The Law of Periods): The Square of the period (T) of rotation of a planet about the
sun is directly proportional to the cube of the mean distance (R) between the sun and the planet.
i.e. 𝑇 2𝛼 𝑅3

Kepler used the Tycho Brahe’s data in making out the above observations about the motion of
planets around the sun. Newton used his three laws of motion and that of gravitation to explain
Kepler’s laws. Later, the existence of Neptune and Pluto were predicted by applying the law
of gravitation to the slight irregularities in the orbits of the inner planets.
Newton’s Law of Gravitation

It states that “Every particle in the universe attracts every other with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their
separation”.

1
i.e. 𝐹 ∝ 𝑚1 𝑚2 and 𝐹 ∝ 𝑟2

4
 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
⟹𝐹= ..................................... 1
𝑟2
State using vector notation
Where G is the universal gravitational constant and has a numerical value of 6.67 ×
10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2.

Note: Equation (1) is concerned with particles (point masses) but in the circumstances below,
it can be used for bodies of masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 whose centres are a distance 𝑟 apart.

1. It is valid for two bodies of any size provided they each have spherical symmetry

2. It is a good approximation when one body has a spherical symmetry and the other is small
compared with the separation of the centres.

3. It is a good approximation when neither body has spherical symmetry but where both are
small compared with the separation of their centres.

Proof of Kepler’s Third Law

r m
Ms

Consider a planet of mass 𝑚, moving in a circular path around the sun of mass 𝑀 with constant
speed 𝑣 in a circular orbit of radius 𝑟. since the planet moves at constant speed, the centripetal
force on the planet is given by

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= 𝑟--
2
……………………………… a

and is produced by the gravitation force given by

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹= …………………………… b
𝑟2

Equating (a) and (b)

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
⟹ 2 = ---
𝑟 𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
⟹ 𝑣2 = ………………………….. c
𝑟

5
Since the planet moves at a constant speed, the periodic time is related to the speed by

2𝜋𝑟
𝑣=
𝑇

4𝜋 2 𝑟 2
⟹ 𝑣2 = ………………………….. d
𝑇2

Equating (c) and (d)

4𝜋 2
⟹ 𝑇2 = 𝑟3
𝐺𝑀

4𝜋 2
For any planet is a constant. It implies 𝑇 2 is proportional to 𝑟 3 which is Kepler’s third law.
𝐺𝑀

Relationship Between 𝒈 and 𝑮

The gravitational force of attraction between a mass 𝑚 on the surface of the earth and the earth
itself of mass 𝑀 is given by

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹=
𝑟𝐸2

Where 𝑟𝐸 is the radius of the earth (𝑟𝐸 = 6.37 × 106 𝑚)

From the surface of the earth, the earth is as if it were concentrated at its centre. Thus, when
we assume a non – rotating earth, the gravitational force is what is referred to as the weight of
the mass 𝑚, e.g. at the poles.

𝐺𝑀𝑚
i.e. 𝐹= = 𝑚𝑔
𝑟𝐸2

𝐺𝑀
⟹𝑔= 𝑟2

where 𝑀, is the mass of the earth (𝑀 = 5.97 × 1024 𝑘𝑔).

A useful relation obtained from the equation above is: 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑜 𝑟𝐸2

Variation of g

The variation of 𝑔 with points above the earth’s surface is analyzed as if the whole mass of the
earth is concentrated at its centre. For points below the surface of the earth, the variation of 𝑔
is analyzed by considering only the mass of the earth below the point of consideration.

6
a) Above the Earth’s Surface

Consider an object of mass 𝑚 at a point 𝑃 which is a distance ℎ above the earth’s surface. If
the acceleration due to gravity on the earth’s surface and at the point 𝑃 are respectively 𝑔0 and
𝑔′ .

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀
Gravitational force on earth’s surface is: 𝑚𝑔0 = ⟹ 𝑔0 =
𝑟𝐸2 𝑟𝐸2

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀
At the point 𝑃: 𝑚𝑔′ = 2 ⟹ 𝑔′ = 2
𝑟𝐸 +ℎ 𝑟𝐸 +ℎ

Assuming a constant value of 𝑔0 on the earth’s surface, it is useful to express 𝑔′ in terms of

𝑔0 . Thus,

𝑔′ 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑟𝐸2 𝑟𝐸2

= × =
𝑔0 𝑟𝐸 + ℎ 𝐺𝑀 (𝑟𝐸 + ℎ)2

𝑟𝐸2 2 1 2 1
⟹ 𝑔′ = 𝑔0 = 𝑔0 𝑟𝐸 = 𝑔0 𝑟𝐸
(𝑟𝐸 + ℎ)2 (𝑟𝐸 + ℎ)2 𝑟𝐸2 + 2ℎ𝑟𝐸 + ℎ2

1
= 𝑔0 𝑟𝐸2
2ℎ ℎ2
1+ 𝑟 + 2
𝐸 𝑟 𝐸

𝑔0 1
⟹ 𝑔′ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 → 0
2ℎ 𝑟𝐸
1+ 𝑟
𝐸

The last equation expresses in more details the relationship between 𝑔′ and ℎ particularly.
However, an easier equation can be obtained by letting 𝑟𝐸 + ℎ = 𝑎, in which case

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀
𝑚𝑔′ = 2
⟹ 𝑔′ = 2
𝑎 𝑎

𝑔0 𝑟𝐸2
′
⟹𝑔 = 2
𝑎

7
b) Below the Earth’s Surface:

Suppose a mass 𝑚 at a point 𝑃 which is at a depth ℎ below the earth’s surface, then, the mass
of the earth contributing to the gravitational force on 𝑚 is the mass contained in the sphere of
radius 𝑏 i.e. the mass of the unshaded region of the diagram below.

By letting the mass of the unshaded region be 𝑀′ , then, the gravitational force of attraction
between the mass 𝑚 and 𝑀′ would be

'
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀'
𝐹 ′ = 𝑚𝑔′ = ………. (i) ⟹ 𝑔′ = …………. (ii)
𝑏2 𝑏2

However, it is possible to eliminate 𝐺𝑀′ and express it in terms of 𝑔0 by assuming a uniform

core density 𝜌 of the earth and calculating the mass in the sphere of radius 𝑏.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

4 4
𝑀′ = 3 𝜋𝑏 3 𝜌 Similarly, 𝑀 = 3 𝜋𝑟𝐸3 𝜌

Substituting for 𝐺𝑀′ in eqn (ii) and letting 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔0 𝑟𝐸2 ,

4
𝐹′ 𝑔′ 𝐺𝑀′ 𝑚 𝑟𝐸2 𝑀′ 𝑟𝐸2 𝜋𝑏 3 𝜌𝑟𝐸2 𝑏
3
⟹ =𝑔 = × 𝐺𝑀𝑚 = = 4 =𝑟
𝐹 0 𝑏2 𝑀𝑏 2 𝜋𝑏 2 𝜌𝑟𝐸3 𝐸
3

𝑔0 𝑏
⟹ 𝑔′ =
𝑟𝐸

8
Note: The last equation shows that the acceleration due to gravity 𝑔′ for points below the
earth’s surface is directly proportional to the distance 𝑏 of the point from the centre of the earth.
This relationship can be stated as shown below

The sketch shows that g for points below the earth’s surface follow a linear relationship with
distance from the centre of the earth. for points above the earth’s surface, it follows an inverse
square law relationship.

Earth’s Satellite

Satellites are kept in orbit by the gravitational attraction of the earth. A satellite is anybody that
orbits a larger body under the influence of the mutual gravitational attraction.

𝐺𝑚𝑚
A given satellite of mass 𝑚 is acted upon by a force given by 𝐹 = = 𝑚𝑔. If the satellite
𝑟2

is near the surface of the earth, then,

𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹= = = 𝑚𝑔
𝑅 𝑅2

R – radius of earth.

Near the surface of the earth, the object must move with a velocity given by

𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
=
𝑅 𝑅2

𝐺𝑀
⟹ 𝑣2 =
𝑅

But 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅 2

⟹ 𝑣 2 = 𝑔𝑅

9
 ⟹𝑣= 𝑔𝑅

If 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑅 = 6.37 × 106 𝑚,

𝑣 = 7.9 𝑘𝑚/𝑠.

If the satellite is at a distance 𝑟 from the centre of the earth and has a periodic time T which is
equal to that of the earth as it turns abut its axis, then the satellite stays over the same place
above the earth. The orbit is called a geostationary orbit or a packing orbit.

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= = , but 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅 2 on the surface of the earth.
𝑟2 𝑟

𝑔𝑅 2 𝑣 2 2
𝑔𝑅 2
= ⟹ 𝑣 =
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟
2𝜋𝑟
But 𝑣 = 𝑇

4𝜋 2 𝑟 2
⟹ 𝑣2 =
𝑇2
4𝜋 2 𝑟 2 𝑔𝑅 2
⟹ =
𝑇2 𝑟

2
4𝜋 2 𝑟 3
𝑇 =
𝑔𝑅 2

4𝜋 2 𝑟 3
⟹𝑇= √
𝑔𝑅 2

2𝜋 𝑟 3
⟹𝑇= √
𝑅 𝑔

For a packing orbit, 𝑇 = 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 and 𝑟 can be calculated. 𝑟 is the distance from the centre
of the earth at which the satellite can be put so that it acts as a packing orbit.
𝑟 =𝑅+ℎ ⟹ℎ =𝑟−𝑅

10
Gravitational Potential
Recall:
The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is the work done by the field in
taking a unit test mass from infinity to that point.
The potential at infinity is zero. At infinity, no energy is needed to move the mass further
away from the earth against its gravitational field.
Assume that the earth is spherical with its mass concentrated at the centre,, a small mass
placed at the surface of the earth at a distance, 𝑟 from the centre will experience a
gravitational force given by Newton’s gravitational force equation
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹⃗ = 𝑟̂
𝑟2

r M
m
𝐹⃗
M

The force on unit mass of the body is given by

𝐹 𝐺𝑀
= (in magnitude)
𝑚 𝑟2

The work done per unit mass by the force in moving the object through a distance ∆𝑟 towards
the centre of the earth is given by the expression

∆𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . ∆𝑟⃗
𝐺𝑀𝑚
= ∆𝑟
𝑟2
The total work done in moving a unit mass from infinity to a certain point distance 𝑟 from the
centre of the earth is given by
𝑟
𝑊 = ∫ ∆𝑊
∞
𝑟
𝐺𝑀
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑟
∞ 𝑟

1𝑟
= 𝐺𝑀 [− ]
𝑟 ∞
𝐺𝑀
=−
𝑟

11
 𝐺𝑀
The gravitational potential associated with any particle of unit mass 𝑚, is given by 𝑉 = − ,
𝑟
where 𝑟 is the distance from the centre of the earth to the mass 𝑚.
𝐺𝑀
On the surface off the earth, gravitational potential is given by 𝑉 = , 𝑅 – the radius of the
𝑅
earth.
Thus the gravitational potential is inversely proportional to distance.
The negative sign shows that the bodies are bound to the earth by it gravitational field.

Example: The figure below shows the equipotential near a certain non – spherical body.
Calculate the p.e. of a 0.10 𝑘𝑔 mass in it.
a) P b) Q C) R
What is the work that must be done on 𝑚 to move it from
d) P to Q e) Q to R?

f) If a body is released at Q, will it fall towards P or S? Explain.

2. What are the gravitational potential on the earth’s surface due to
a) the earth b) the sun

12
(Mass of the earth = 6.0 × 1024 𝑘𝑔, rradius of earth = 6.4 × 106 𝑚, mass of sun = 2.0 ×
1030 𝑘𝑔, radius of earth’s orbit = 1.5 × 1011 𝑚, G = 6.7 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2 ).
Potential and Kinetic Energy of Satellite in a Gravitational Field
Consider a satellite of mass 𝑚, moving with a speed 𝑣 near the earth in orbit.

𝑟𝑜

𝑟𝑜 is the radius of the satellite’s orbit. Assuming that the earth is at rest when viewed from an
inertial frame of reference, then, the satellite possesses both kinetic and potential energy of
the earth satellite system.
𝑃. 𝑒. +𝐾. 𝑒. = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
The force between the satellite and the earth is given by
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹⃗ = 𝑟̂
𝑟2
It is this force that provides the centripetal force
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
⟹ = (in magnitude)
𝑟2 𝑟
𝐺𝑀 1
⟹ 𝑣2 = , 𝐾. 𝑒. = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑟𝑜

𝐺𝑀𝑚
⟹ 𝐾. 𝑒. = 2𝑟𝑜

Assuming that the potential energy, P.e. at infinity is zero, then, the P.e. of the mass 𝑚, in
orbit is given by
𝑃.𝑒
𝑉𝑟𝑜 = 𝑚

⟹ 𝑃. 𝑒 = 𝑚𝑉
𝐺𝑀𝑚
= 𝑟𝑜

The total energy of the 2 body system is given by

𝐸𝑇 = 𝐾. 𝑒 + 𝑃. 𝑒
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸𝑇 = + (− )
2𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑜

𝐺𝑀𝑚
= − 2𝑟𝑜

13
Thus, for circular orbits, total energy is negative and K.e is positive and is half the magnitude
of the P.e. The absolute value of the total energy is the binding energy of the system.
Change of P.e and K.e over small distances
1. Change in K.e
The K.e of a satellite is given by
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐾. 𝑒 = 2𝑟𝑜

Due to friction and air resistance, the satellite’s energy decreases and the radius of the orbit
𝐺𝑀𝑚
will have to fall from 𝑟𝑜 to 𝑟1 so the new K.e is given by 𝐾. 𝑒 = , where 𝑟1 < 𝑟𝑜
2𝑟1

⟹ 𝐾. 𝑒 > 𝐾. 𝑒𝑜
The K.e increases as the satellite speeds up when its radius reduces. This happens because its
P.e decreases twice as much as the K.e increases.
2. Change in P.e
𝐺𝑀𝑚
Let the satellite have P.e. given by − in one orbit.
𝑟

If the satellite moves through a distance ℎ to another orbit, the P.e. will now become 𝑃. 𝑒. =
𝐺𝑀𝑚
− and the change in P.e. is given by
𝑟+ℎ

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
∆𝑃. 𝑒. = − −−
𝑟+ℎ 𝑟
1 1
= 𝐺𝑀𝑚 ( − )
𝑟 𝑟+ℎ
𝐺𝑀𝑚ℎ
=
𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ)
If 𝑟 is very much greater that ℎ (𝑟 ≫ ℎ), then 𝑟 + ℎ ≈ 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚ℎ
⟹ ∆𝑃. 𝑒. =
𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
But =𝑔
𝑟2

⟹ ∆ 𝑃. 𝑒. = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Which is useful only when ℎ is very small (ℎ ≪ 𝑟) compared to 𝑟 i.e. when the object is close
to the surface of the earth.
Escape Velocity
The escape velocity is the velocity with which an object must be launched from the surface of
the earth so that it will just escape from the earth’s gravitation field to infinity.

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To escape from a position, distant 𝑟 from the centre of the earth to infinity, the P.e. must
𝐺𝑀𝑀
increase from − to 0 for a given mass 𝑚.
𝑟

This is possible only if the K.e. is greater that or equal to the P.e. i.e. 𝐾. 𝑒. ≥ 𝑃. 𝑒.
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑣 2 = 0 − −
2 𝑟
2𝐺𝑀𝑚
⟹ 𝑣2 =
𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
But = 𝑔 ⟹ 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑟 2
𝑟2

⟹𝑣= 2𝑔𝑟

At the surface of the earth, where 𝑟 = 6.37 × 106 𝑚, 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2 , 𝑣 = 11 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1.
𝑣 is independent of mass. An object is given an escape velocity from the surface of the earth
will have zero energy at infinity.
In practice, for an object to escape from the earth’s gravitational field, its velocity is greater
than the escape velocity because of air resistance.
Example:
A satellite X moves round the earth in a circular orbit of radius 𝑅. Another satellite Y of the
same mass movves round the earth in a circular orbit of radius 4𝑅. Show that
i) The speed of X is twice that of Y
ii) The kinetic energy of X is greater than that of Y
iii) The P.e. of X is less than that of Y
Has X or Y the greatest total energy (K.e. + P.e.)

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