SURVEYING & GEOMATICS Module 2

SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 2 (2.3)- Sullabus

2.3- THEODOLITE SURVEY – Instruments, Measurement of horizontal and vertical
angles, Principles of stadia and tangential tacheometry (introduction only)

THEODOLITE

The Theodolite is the most precise instrument designed for the measurement of horizontal
and vertical angles and has wide applicability in surveying such as laying off horizontal
angles, locating points on line, prolonging survey lines, establishing grades, determining
difference in elevation, setting out curves etc.

Theodolites may be classified as:

i. Transit theodolite
ii. Non- transit theodolite

A transit theodolite (or simply „transit‟) is one in which the line of sight can be reversed by
revolving the telescope through 1800 in the vertical plane. The non-transit theodolites are
either plain theodolites or Y-theodolites in which the telescope cannot be transited. The
transit is mainly used and non- transit theodolites have now become obsolete.

THE ESSENTIALS OF THE TRANSIT THEODOLITE

A transit consists of the following essential parts:

i. The Telescope
ii. The Vertical Circle
iii. The Index Frame ( or T- Frame or Vernier Frame)
iv. The Standards (or A-Frame)
v. The Levelling Head
vi. The Two Spindles (or Axes or Centres)
vii. The Lower Plate (or Scale Plate)
viii. The Upper Plate (or Vernier Plate)
ix. The Plate Levels
x. Tripod
xi. The Plumb Bob
xii. The Compass

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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

(1) The vertical axis: The vertical axis is the axis about which the instrument can be
rotated in a horizontal plane. This is the axis about which the lower and upper plates
rotate.

(2) The horizontal axis: The horizontal or trunnion axis is the axis about which the
telescope and the vertical circle rotate in vertical plane.

(3) The line of sight or line of collimation: It is the line passing through the intersection
of the horizontal and vertical cross-hairs and the optical centre of the object glass and its
continuation.

(4) The axis of level tube: The axis of the level tube or the bubble line is a straight line
tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level tube at its centre. The axis of the level-tube
is horizontal when the bubble is central.

(5) Centring: The process of setting the theodolite exactly over the station mark is known
as centring.

(6) Transiting: It is the process of turning the telescope in vertical plane through 180 0
about the trunnion axis. Since the line of sight is reversed in this operation, it is also
known as plunging or reversing.

(7) Swinging the telescope: It is the process of turning the telescope in horizontal plane.
If the telescope is rotated in clock-wise direction, it is known as right swing. If telescope is
rotated in the anti-clockwise direction, it is known as the left swing.

(8) Face left observation: If the face of the vertical circle is to the left of the observer, the
observation of the angle (horizontal or vertical) is known as face left observation.

(9) Face right observation: If the face of the vertical circle is to the right of the observer,
the observation is known as face right observation.

(10) Telescope normal: A telescope is said to be normal or direct when the face of the
vertical circle is to the left and the “bubble (of the telescope) up”.

(11) Telescope inverted: A telescope is said to inverted or reversed when of the vertical
circle is to the right and the “bubble down”.

(12) Changing face: It is an operation of bringing the face of the telescope from left to
right and vice versa.

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SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 2 (2.4)- Sullabus

2.4 – TRIANGULATION – Triangulation figures, Triangulation stations, Intervisibility

of stations, Satellite stations and reduction to center.

TRIANGULATION

GEODETIC SURVEYING

The object of the Geodetic surveying is to determine very precisely the relative or absolute
positions on the earth's surface of a system of widely separated points. The relative positions
are determined in terms of the lengths and azimuths of the lines joining them. The absolute
positions are determined in terms of latitude, longitude, and elevation above mean sea level.

Triangulation. The horizontal control in Geodetic survey is established either by

triangulation or by precise traverse. In triangulation, the system consists of a number of inter-
connected triangles in which the length of only one line, called the base line, and the angles
of the triangles are measured very precisely. Knowing the length of one side and the three
angles, the lengths of the other two sides of each triangle can be computed. The apexes of the
triangles are known as the triangulation stations and the whole figure is called the
triangulation system or triangulation figure. The defect of triangulation is that it tends to
accumulate errors of length and azimuth, since the length and azimuth of each line is based
on the length and azimuth of the preceding line. To control the accumulation of errors,
subsidiary bases are also selected. At certain stations, astronomical observations for azimuth
and longitude are also made. These stations are called Laplace Stations.

The objects of Geodetic Triangulation are:

1) To provide the most accurate system of horizontal control points on which the less
precise triangles may be based, which in turn may form a framework to which
cadastral, topographical, hydro-graphical, engineering and other surveys may be
referred.

2) To assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by making
observations for latitude, longitude and gravity.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRIANGULATION SYSTEM

The basis of the classification of triangulation figures is the accuracy with which the length
and azimuth of a line of the triangulation are determined. Triangulation systems of different
accuracies depend on the extent and the purpose of the survey.

The accepted grades of triangulation are:

1) First order or Primary Triangulation

2) Second order or Secondary Triangulation

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3) Third order or Tertiary Triangulation

(1) First Order or Primary Triangulation

The first order triangulation is of the highest order and is employed either to determine the
earth's figure or to furnish the most precise control points to which secondary triangulation
may be connected. The primary triangulation system embraces the vast area (usually the
whole of the country). Every precaution is taken in making linear and angular measurements
and in performing the reductions. The following are the general specifications of the primary
triangulation:

1. Average triangle closure : Less than 1 second

2. Maximum triangle closure : Not more than 3 seconds

3. Length of base line : 5 to 15 kilometers

4. Length of the sides of triangles : 30 to 150 kilometers

(2) Second Order or Secondary Triangulation

The secondary triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the framework of
primary triangulation. The stations are fixed at close intervals so that the sizes of the triangles
formed are smaller than the primary triangulation. The instruments and methods used are not
of the same utmost refinement. The general specifications of the secondary triangulation are:

1. Average triangle closure : 3 sec

2. Maximum triangle closure : 8 sec

3. Length of base line : 1.5 to 5 km

4. Length of sides of triangles : 8 to 65 km

(3) Third-Order or Tertiary Triangulation

The third-order triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the framework of
secondary triangulation, and form the immediate control for detailed engineering and other
surveys. The sizes of the triangles are small and instrument with moderate precision may be
used. The specifications for a third-order triangulation are as follows:

1. Average triangle closure : 6 sec

2. Maximum triangle closure : 12 sec

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3. Length of base line : 0.5 to 3 km

4. Length of sides of triangles : 1.5 to 10 km

TRIANGULATION FIGURES OR SYSTEM

A triangulation figure is a group or system of triangles such that any figure has one side, and
only one, common to each of the preceding and following figures. The common Figures or
Systems are:

(1) Single chain of triangles

(2) Double chain of triangles

(3) Central point Figures

(4) Quadrilaterals

(i) Single chain of triangles:

This figure is used-where a narrow strip of terrain is to be covered. Though the system is
rapid and economical, it is not so accurate for primary work since the number of conditions to
be fulfilled in the figure adjustment is relatively small. Also, it is not possible to carry the
solution of triangles through the figures by two independent routes. If the accumulation of
errors is not be become excessive, base lines must be introduced frequently.

(ii) Double chain of triangles:

It is used to cover greater area.

(iii) Centred figures:

Centred figures are used to cover area, and give very satisfactory results in flat country. The
centred figures may be quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons with central stations. The
system provides the desired checks on the computations. However, the progress of work is
slow due to more settings of the instrument.

(iv) Quadrilaterals:

The quadrilateral with four corner stations and observed diagonal forms the best figures.
They are best suited for hilly country. Since the computed lengths of the sides can be carried
through the system by different combinations of sides and angles; the system is the most
accurate.

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SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 3 (3.1)-

Sullabus 3.1- TRAVERSE SURVEYING – Methods of traversing, Checks in closed
traverse, Traverse computations, Balancing the traverse – Bowditch’s rule, Transit rule,
Graphical method based on bowditch rule, Gales teaverse table, Omitted measirements (a
line and an angle only)

TRAVERSE SURVEYING

Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines from the
framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an
angle (or direction) measuring instrument and a tape (or chain) respectively. When the lines from
a circuit which ends at starting point, it is known as a closed traverse. If the circuit ends
elsewhere, it is said to be an open traverse. The closed traverse is suitable for locating the
boundaries of lakes, woods etc., and for the survey of large areas. The open traverse is suitable
for surveying a long narrow strip of land as required for a road or canal or the coast line.

METHODS OF TRAVERSING

There are several methods of traversing, depending on the instruments used in

determining the relative directions of the traverse lines. The following are the principal methods
I. Chain methods
II. Chain and compass traversing (loose needle method)
III. Transit tape traversing
a) By fast needle method
b) By measurement of angles between the lines
IV. Plane-table traversing
Traverse survey differs from chain surveying in that arrangement of the survey lines is
not limited to any particular geometrical figure as in chain surveying, where a system of
connected triangles forms the fundamental basis of the skeleton. Also check lines etc. are not
necessary in traversing as the traverse lines may be arranged near the details. The details etc. are
directly located with respect to the survey lines either by offsetting (as in chain survey) or by any
other method.

I. CHAIN TRAVERSING

In this method, the whole of the work is done with the chain and tape. No angle
measuring instrument is used and the directions of the lines are fixed entirely by liner
measurements. Angles fixed by linear or tie measurements are known as chain angles.
Fig. (a) Shows a closed chain traverse. At A, the directions AB and AD are fixed by internal
measurements Aa1, Ad1 and a1d1. However, the direction may also be fixed by external
measurements such as at station B. fig. (b) Shows an open chain traverse. The method is
unsuitable for accurate work and is generally not used if an angle measuring instrument such as a
compass, sextant or theodolite is available.

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c2

b2 B c1 C

b1

A
(a)

C
C2

B c1
b2
b1

(b)

II.CHAIN AND COMPASS TRAVERSING (FREE OR LOOSE NEEDLE METHOD)

In chain and compass traversing, the magnetic bearings of the survey lines are measured
by a compass and the lengths of the lines are measured either with a chain or with a tape. The
direction of magnetic meridian is established at each traverse station independently. The method
is also known as free or loose needle method. A theodolite fitted with a compass may also be
used for measuring the magnetic bearings of the traverse line. However, the method is not so
accurate as that of transit tape traversing. The methods of taking the details are almost the same
as for chain surveying.

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III.TRANSIT TAPE TRAVERSING

(a): By Fast Needle Method

In this method also, the magnetic bearings of traverse lines are measured by a theodolite
fitted with a compass. However, the direction of the magnetic meridian is not established at each
station but instead, the magnetic bearings of the lines are measured with reference so the
direction of magnetic meridian established at the first station. The method is therefore more
accurate than the loose needle method. The lengths of the lines are measured with a 20 m or 30
m steel tape. There are three methods of observing the bearing of lines by fast needle method.
i. Direct method with transiting
ii. Direct method without transiting
iii. Back bearing method

(i) Direct method with transiting

 Set the theodolite at P and level it. Set the vernier A exactly to zero reading. Loose the
clamp of the magnetic needle. Using lower clamp and tangent screw, point the telescope
to magnetic meridian.
 Loose the upper clamp and rotate the telescope clockwise to sight Q. bisect Q accurately
by using upper tangent screw. Read vernier A which gives magnetic bearing of the line
PQ.

P R

 With both the clamps clamped, move the instrument and set up at Q. using lower clamp
and tangent screw, take a book sight on P. See that the reading on the vernier A is still the
same as the bearing of PQ.
 Transit the telescope. The line of sight will now be in the direction of PQ while the
instrument reads bearing of PQ. The instrument is therefore oriented.
 Using the upper clamp and tangent screw, taken a foresight on R. Read vernier A which
gives the magnetic bearing of QR.

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 Continue the process at other stations. It is to be noted here that the telescope will be
normal at one station and inverted at the next station. The method is therefore suitable
only if instrument is in adjustment.

(ii) Direct method without transiting

 Set the instrument at P and orient the line of sight in magnetic meridian.
 Using upper clamp and tangent screw tale a foresight on Q. the reading on vernier A
gives the magnetic bearing of PQ.

P R

 With both plates clamped, move the instrument and set it at Q. Take a backsight on P.
check the reading on vernier A which should the same as before. The line of sight is out
of orientation by 1800.
 Loosen the upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to take a foresight on R.
Read vernier. Since the orientation at Q is 1800 out, a correction of 1800 is to be applied
to the vernier reading to get the correct bearing of QR. Add 1800 if the reading on the
vernier is less than 1800 and subtract 1800 if it is more than 1800.
 Shift the instrument of R and take backsight on Q. The orientation at R will be out by
1800 with respect to that at Q and 3600 with respect to that at P. Thus, after taking a
foresight on the next station, the vernier reading will directly give magnetic bearing of
the line, without applying any correction of 1800.
The application of 1800 correction is therefore necessary only at 2nd, 4th, 6th station occupied.
Instead of applying correction at even station, opposite vernier may be read alternatively, i.e.,
vernier A at P, vernier B at Q, vernier A at R, etc. However, it is always convenient to read one
vernier throughout and apply the correction at alternate stations.

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(iii) Back bearing method

 Set instrument at P and measure the magnetic bearing of PQ as before.

 Shift instrument and set at Q. Taking backsight on P, set vernier A to read back bearing
of PQ, and fix the upper clamp.
 Using lower clamp and tangent screw, take a backsight on P. The instrument is now
oriented since the line of sight is along QP when the instrument is reading the bearing of
QP (or back bearing of PQ).
 Loose upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to take a foresight on R. The
reading on vernier A gives directly the bearing on QR.
 The process is repeated at other stations.

Of the three methods of fast needle, the second method is the most satisfactory.

(b): Traversing By Direct Observation Of Angles

In this method, the angles between the lines are directly measured by a theodolite. The
method is therefore most accurate in comparison to the previous three methods. The magnetic
bearing of any line can also be measured (if required) and the magnetic bearing of other lines can
be calculated. The angles measured at different stations may be either (a) included angles or (b)
deflection angles.

(i) Traversing by included angle

An included angle at a station is either of the two angles formed by the two survey lines
meeting there. The method consists simply in measuring each angle directly from a backsight on
the preceding station. The angles may also be measured by repetition, if so desired. Both face
observations must be taken and both the vernier should be read. Included angles can be measured
either clockwise or counter-clockwise but it is better to measure all angles clockwise, since the
graduations of the theodolite circle increase in this direction. The angles measured clockwise
from the back station may be interior or exterior depending upon the direction of progress round
the survey. Thus, in Fig (a), direction of progress is counter-clockwise and hence the angles
measured clockwise are directly the interior angles. In Fig (b), the direction of progress around
the survey is clockwise and hence angles measured clockwise are exterior angles.

Q R Q R

P S P S

(a) (b)

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(ii) Traversing by deflection angles

A deflection angle is the angle which a survey line makes with the prolongation of the
preceding line. It is designed as right (R) or left (L) according as it is measured clockwise or
anti-clockwise from the prolongation of the previous line.
This method of traversing is more suitable for survey of roads, railways, pipe-lines etc.
where the survey lines make small deflection angles. Great care must be taken in recording and
plotting whether it is right deflection angle or left deflection angle. However, except for
specialized work in which deflection angles are required, it is preferable to read the included
angles by reading clockwise from the back station. Lengths of lines are measured precisely using
a steel tape.

IV.PLANE TABLE TRAVERSING

Plane table traverse involves the same principles s a transit traverse. At each
successive station the table is set, a foresight is taken to the following station and its location is
plotted by measuring the distance between the two stations as in the radiation method described
earlier. Hence, traversing is not much different from radiation as far as working principles are
concerned --- the only difference is that in the case of radiation the observations are taken to
those points which are to be detailed or mapped while in the case of traversing the observations
are made to those points which will subsequently be used as instrument stations. The method is
widely used to lay down survey lines between the instrument stations of a closed or unclosed
traverse.

PROCEDURE

 Set the table at . Use plumbing fork for transferring on to the sheet. Draw the
direction of magnetic meridian with the help of trough compass.
 With the alidade pivoted about a, sight it to and draw the ray. Measure and
scale off to some scale. Similarly, draw ray towards measure and plot .
 Shift the table to and set it. Orient the table accurately by back-sighting . clamp
the table.
 Pivoting the alidade about , sight to . measure and plot it on the drawn ray to
the same scale. Similarly, the table can be set at other stations and the traverse is
completed.

It is to be noted here that the orientation is to be done by back-sighting. If there are n

stations in a closed traverse, the table will have to be set on at least (n---1) stations to know the
error of closure though the traverse may be closed even by setting it on (n—2) stations. At any
station a portion of the traverse may be checked if two or more of the preceding stations are
visible and are not in the same straight line with the station occupied.

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reference points (such as x and y in Fig.) are full chain points so that can be staked when the
traverse line is being chained.

Distance Distance

From A x y To B

(5) Locating by offsets from the traverse line

If points to be detailed are more and are near to traverse line, they can be located by
taking offsets to the points as explained in chain surveying. The offsets may be oblique or may
be perpendicular.

CHECKS IN CLOSED TRAVERSE

The errors involved in traversing are two kinds: linear and angular. For important work
the most satisfactory method of checking the linear measurements consists in chaining each
survey line a second time, preferably in reverse direction on different dates and by different
parties. The following are the checks for the angular work:

(i) Traverse by included angles

a) sum of measured interior angles should be equal to (2N---4) right angles, where
N=numbers of sides of the traverse.
b) If the exterior angles are measured, their sum should be equal to (2N + 4) right angles.

(ii) Traverse by deflection angles

The algebraic sum of deflection angles should equal to 3600, taking the right-hand deflection
angles as positive and left-hand angles as negative.

(iii) Traverse by direct observation of bearings

The fore bearing of the last line should be equal to its back bearing ± 1800 measured at the
initial station.

CHECKS IN OPEN TRAVERSE:

No direct check of angular measurement is available. However, indirect checks can be

made, as illustrated in Fig.

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SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 3 (3.2)-

Sullabus3.2- THEORY OF ERRORS- Types, theory of least squares, Weighting of

observations, Most probable value, Computation of indirectly observed quantities- method
of normal equations.

THEORY OF ERRORS

TYPES OF ERRORS

Errors of measurement are of three kinds: (i) mistakes (ii) systematic errors, and (iii) accidental
error.

(i) Mistakes
Mistakes are errors that arise from inattention, in experience, carelessness and poor
judgement or confusion in the mind of the observer.

(ii) Systematic Error

A systematic error is an error that under the same conditions, will always be of the same size
and sign. Such errors are of constant character and are regarded as positive or negative
according as they make the result too great or too small. Their effect is therefore, cumulative.

(iii) Accidental Error

Accidental errors are those which remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been
eliminated and are caused by a combination of reasons beyond the ability of the observer to
control. They tend sometimes in one direction and sometimes in other, i.e., they are equally
likely to make the apparent results too large or too small.

DEFINITIONS

Independent Quantity. An observed quantity may be classified as (i)independent and (ii)

conditioned. An independent quantity is the one whose value is independent of the values of
other quantities. It bears no relation with any other quantity and hence change in the other
quantities does not affect the value of this quantity.
Example: reclined levels of several bench marks.

Conditioned Quantity. A conditioned quantity is the one whose value is dependent upon the
values of one or more quantities. Its value bears a rigid relationship to some other quantity or
quantities. It is also called a dependent quantity . For example, in a triangle ABC, <A + < B+ <C
= 1800. In this conditioned equation any two angles may be regarded as independent and the
third as dependent or conditioned.

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Direct Observation. An observation is the numerical value of a measured quantity, and may be
either direct or indirect. A direct observation is the one made directly on the quantity being
determined, e.g., the measurement of a base, the single measurement of an angle etc.

Indirect Observation. An indirect observation is one in which the observed value is deducted
from the measurement of some related quantities, e.g., the measurement of angle by repetition (a
multiple of the angle being measured).

Weight of an Observation. The weight of an observation is a number giving an indication of its

precision and trustworthiness when making a comparison between several quantities of different
worth. Thus, if a certain observation is of weight 4, it means that it is four times a much reliable
as an observation of weight 1. When two quantities or observations are assumed to be equally
reliable, the observed values are said to be of equal weight or of unit weight. Observations are
called weighted when different weights are assigned to them. Observations are required to be
weighted when they are made with unequal care and under dissimilar conditions. Weights are
assigned to the observations or quantities observed in direct proportion to the number of
observations.

Observed Value of a Quantity. An observed value of a quantity is the value obtained when it is
corrected for all the known errors.

True Value of Quantity. The true value of a quantity is the value which is absolutely free from
all the errors. The true value of a quantity is indeterminate since the true error is never known.
Most Probable Value. The most probable value of a quantity is the one which has more chances
of being true than has any other. It is deduced from the several measurements on which it is
based.

True Error. A true error is the difference between the true value of a quantity and its observed
value.

Most Probable Error. The most probable error is defined as that quantity which added to, and
subtracted from, the most probable value fixes the limits within which it is an even chance the
true value of the measured quantity must lie.

Residual Error. A residual error is the difference between the most probable value of a quantity
and its observed value.

Observation Equation. An observation equation is the relation between the observed quantity
and its numerical value.

Conditioned Equation. A conditioned equation is the equation expressing the relation existing
between the several dependent quantities.

Normal Equation. A normal equation is the one which is formed by multiplying each equation
by the co-efficient of the unknown whose normal equation is to be found and by adding the

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equations thus formed. As the number of normal equations is the same as the number of
unknowns. the most probable values of the unknown can be found from these equations.

THE LAWS OF ACCIDENTAL ERRORS

Investigations of observations of various types show that accidental errors follow a definite law,
the law of probability. This law defines the occurrence of errors and can be expressed in the form
of equation which is used to compute the probable value or the probable precision of a quantity.
The most important features of accidental errors which usually occur are :
1. Small errors tend to be more frequent than the large ones; that is they are the most
probable.

2. Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that is, they
are equally probable.

3. Large errors occurs infrequently and are impossible.

Probability Curve. The theory of probability describes these features by stating that the relative
frequencies of errors of different extents can be represented by a curve as shown in figure.

Probability Curve
This curve, called the curve of error or probability curve, forms the basis for the mathematical
derivation of theory of errors.
The formula for probable error is difficult to derive. It is stated here categorically:
Probable error of a single measurement is given by

Es =  0.6745
v 2

n 1
where Es = Probable error of single observation.
v = Difference between any single observation and the mean (or average) of the series.
n = Number of observations in the series.

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Probable Error of an Average. Since the average of n measurements is the sum of the
n
measurements divided by n, the probable error of the average of n measurements is times the
n
probable error of one measurement. Thus, probable error of an average or mean is given by

Em = 
n
0.6745
 v = 0.6745  v = Es
2 2

n n 1 n(n  1) n
where Em = probable error of the mean.

Probable Error of a Sum. When a measurement is the result of the sums and differences of
several (n) observations having different probable errors E1, E2, E3….En, the probable error of
the measurement is the square root of the sum of the squares of the probable errors of the several
observations. Thus,
E E E  .......... E n
2 2 2 2
Probable error of measurement = 1 2 3

Most Probable Value. As defined earlier the most probable value of a quantity is the one which
has more chances of being true than any other. It can be proved from the theory of errors that:
i. The most probable value of a quantity is equal to the arithmetic mean if the observations
are of equal weight.

ii. The most probable value of a quantity is equal to the weighted arithmetic mean in case
of observations of unequal weights.

Average Error. An error in a series of observation of equal weight is defined as the arithmetical
mean of separate errors, taken all with the same sign, either plus or minus.

Mean Square Error (m.s.e.). The mean square error is equal to the square root of the arithmetic
mean of the squares of the individual errors.
2
v1 v2 v3 ......... v
2 2 2

Thus, m.s.e. =  
n
n
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LEAST SQUARES

According to the principle of least squares, the most probable value of an observed quantity
available from a given set of observations is the one for which the sum of the squares of the
residual errors is a minimum.
The arithmetic mean is the true value where the number of observed value is very large.
Hence the sum of the residuals equals zero and the sum of plus residual equals the sum of the
minus residuals.
The sum of the squares of the residuals found by the use of the arithmetic mean is a minimum.
This is thus, the fundamental law of least squares.

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LAWS OF WEIGHTS

From the method of least squares the following laws of weights are established:

(1) The weight of the arithmetic mean of the measurements of unit weight is equal to
the number of observations.

For example, let an angle A be measured six times, the following being the values:
<A Weight <A Weight

300 20’ 8” 1 300 20’10” 1

300 20’10” 1 300 20’ 9” 1

300 20’7” 1 300 20’ 10” 1

1
Arithmetic mean = 300 20’ + (8” + 10” + 7” + 10” + 9” + 10”) = 300 20’ 9”
6
Weight of arithmetic mean = number of observations = 6

(2) The weight of the weighted arithmetic mean is equal to the sum of the individual
weights.

<A Weight <A Weight

300 20’ 8” 2 300 20’ 10” 3

300 20’ 10” 3 300 20’ 9” 4

300 20’ 6” 2 300 20’ 10” 2

Sum of individual weights = 2 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 2 = 16
1
Weighted arithmetic mean = 300 20’ + (8”x 2) + (10” x 3) + (6” x 2) + (10” x 3) + (9” x
16
4) + (10” x 2) = 300 20’ 9”
Weight of the weighted arithmetic mean = 16
(3) The weight of algebraic sum of two or more quantities is equal to the reciprocal of
the sum of reciprocals of individual weights.

For example let α = 420 10’ 20”, weight 4

β = 300 40’ 10”, weight 2
1 1 3
Sum of reciprocals of individual weights =  
4 2 4

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1 1 4
 Weight of α + β (=720 50’ 30”) =  
1 1 3 3

4 2 4
1 1 4
Weight of α - β (=110 30’ 10”) =  
1 1 3 3

4 2 4
(4) If a quantity of given weight is multiplied by a factor, the weight of the result obtained
by dividing its given weight by the square of the factor.

For example , let α = 420 10’ 20”, weight 6.

6 6 2
Then, weight of 3α (=1260 31’) = 2
 
(3) 9 3

(5) If a quantity of given weight is divided by a factor, the weight of the result is

obtained multiplying its given weight by the square of the factor.

For example , let α = 420 10’ 30”, weight 4.


Then weight of (=140 3’ 30”) = 4(3)2 = 36.
3
(6) If an equation is multiplied by its own weight, the weight of the resulting equation is
equal to the reciprocal of the weight of the equation.
3
For example , let A+ B = 980 20’ 30”, weight .
5
3 1 5
Then, weight of (A+ B) = [ 590 0’ 18”] is equal to or .
5 3 3
5
(7) The weight of an equation remains unchanged, if all the signs of the equation are
changed or if the equation is added to or subtracted from a constant.

For example , let A+ B = 800 20’ , weight 3.

Then weight of 1800 - (A+B) or [990 40’] is equal to 3.

RULES OF ASSIGNING WEIGHTAGE TO THE FIELD OF OBSERVATIONS

The following rules may be employed in giving the weights to the various field observations:
(1) The weight of an angle varies directly as the number of the observations made for the
measurement of that angle.
(2) Weights vary inversely as the length of various routes in the case of lines of levels.
(3) If an angle is measured a large number of times, its weight is inversely proportional to the
square of the probable error.
(4) The corrections to be applied to various observed quantities are in inverse proportion to
their weights.

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SURVEYING & GEOMATICS — Module 4 (4.2)- Sullabus

4.2- TOTAL STATION — Concept of EDM, Principles and working, advantages and
applications

ELECTROMAGNETIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT (EDM)

INTRODUCTION

These are three methods of measuring distance between any two given points;
1. Direct distance measurement (DDM), such as the one by chaining or taping.
2. Optical distance measurement (ODM), such as the one by tacheometry, horizontal
subtense method or telemetric method using optical wedge attachments.
3. Electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM), such as the one by geodimeter,
tellurometer or distomat etc.
The method of direct distance measurement is unsuitable in difficult terrain, and

sometimes impossible when obstructions occur. The problem was overcome after the
development of optical distance measuring methods. But in ODM method also, the range
is limited to 150 to 150 m and the accuracy obtained is 1 in 1000 to 1 in
10000.Electromagnetic distance measurement(EDM) enables the accuracies up to | in 10°,
over ranges up to 100 km.

PRINCIPLE OF EDM

yr Jo ae
8 e nu 1

A c \G
E

D 7
One wavelength
. or cycle

EDM is a general term embracing the measurement of distance using electronic methods. In
electromagnetic method distances are measured with instrument that rely on propagation,
reflection and subsequent reception of either radio, visible light or infra-red waves.

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EDM units operate on the principle of transmitting electromagnetic waves from an

instrument to a retro-reflector, which instantly returns them to the transmitting instrument.
The instrument measures the time taken for the waves to travel this double path. Then
using Distance=Velocity (of light) x time, the distance between instrument and prism can
be obtained.

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves, though extremely complex in nature, can be represented in the
form of periodic sinusoidal waves shown in Figure below.

-B AY x
c = 299, 792.458km/s (in vacuum)

A: ama (m)
c: velocity (km/s)
f: frequency (Hz, hertz; one cycle per second)

It has the following properties:

4. The waves completes a cycle in moving from identical points A to E or B to For
Dto H.

. The number of times the wave completes a cycle in one second is termed as
frequency of the wave. The frequency is represented by ‘f hertz (Hz) where; 1
hertz (Hz) is one cycle per second. Thus if the frequency f is equal to 10°Hz, it
means that the waves completes 10? cycles per second.
. The length traversed in one cycle by the wave is termed as wavelength and is
denoted by (metres). Thus the wavelength of a wave is the distance between two
identical points(such as A and E or B and F) on the wave

The period is the time taken by the wave to travel through one cycle or one
wavelength. It is represented by T seconds.
. The velocity (v) of the wave is the distance travelled in one second. i.e.

v = 3x108m/s

The frequency, wavelength and period can all vary according to the wave producing
source. However, the velocity c of an electromagnetic wave depends upon the medium
through which it is travelling. The velocity of wave in a vacuum is termed as speed of

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light, denoted by symbol c, the value of which is presently known to be 299792.5 km/s.
For simple calculations, it may be assumed to be 3x10°m/s.
The above properties of an electromagnetic wave can be represented by the relation,

f=edr=1/T

Another property of the wave known as phase of the waves, and denoted by symbol 1p, is a very
convenient method of identifying fraction of a wavelength or cycle, in EDM. One cycle or
wavelength has a phase ranging from 0° to 360°. Figure shows the graph of periodic sinusoidal
waves.
Uses of EDM
1. Measuring distances
2. Measuring difference in height
3. Setting out distances

Modulation

In electronics and communications, modulation is the process of varying one or more

properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal that typically contains the
information to be transmitted.

In order to increase the accuracy, it is desirable to use an extremely high frequency of

propagation. However the available phase comparison techniques cannot be used at
frequencies greater than 5x10° Hz which corresponds to a wavelength 4=0.6m.On the other
hand, the lower frequency value in the range of 7.5x10° to 5x108Hz is not suitable for
direct transmission through atmosphere because of the interference, reflection, fading and
scatter. The problem can be overcome by the technique of modulation where in the
measuring wave used for phase comparison is superimposed on a carrier wave of much
higher frequency. The Modulation as shown below.

Camer UU UL
MTT H

tne ff

~ ath
= —J

40
~R
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EDM uses two methods of modulating the carrier wave:

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

As the name implies, this form modulation involves modulating the amplitude or intensity
of the signal. It is done in visible light instruments and infrared instruments using higher
carrier frequencies. Amplitude modulation was the first form of modulation to be used to
broadcast sound, and although other forms of modulation are being increasingly used,
amplitude modulation is still in widespread use.

. * Modulating
8 : waveform _

5 Minimum level on
$ . modulating waveform
‘ to minimum of
RF envelope

Frequency Modulation (FM)

This form of modulation varies frequency in line with the modulating signal. Frequency
modulation is used in all microwave EDM instruments and this modulation has the
advantage that, as amplitude variations do not carry any information on the signal, it can
be limited within the receiver to remove signal strength variations and noise. As a result
this form of modulation has been used for many applications including high quality
analogue sound broadcasting.

Modulating signal Re ee

Radio frequency signal

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TOTAL STATION

Total station is an instrument in which electronic theodolite, electronic distance meter,

microprocessor electronic data collector and storage systems are integrated. The instrument
can be used to measure vertical and horizontal angle as well as to measure distance.
Data collected is processed with microprocessor to compute:

1. Average of multiple angle measurement 4. Distance between two points

2. Avg. of multiple distance measurement 5. Elevation of objects
3. Slope corrections 6. Coordinates of points

Parts of Total Station

1. Handle 16. Optical plummet reticle cover

2. Handle securing screw 17. Optical plummet eyepiece

3. Data input/output terminal (Remove 18. Horizontal clamp

handle to view)
19. Horizontal fine motion screw
4. Instrument height mark
20. Data input/output connector (Besides
5. Battery cover the operation panel on SET 600/600S)

6. Operational panel 21. External power source connector (Not

included on SET 600/600S)
7. Tribrach clamp (SET300S 500S 6008S:
Shifting clamp) 22. Plate level

8. Base plate 23. Plate level adjusting screw

9. Levelling foot screw 24. Vertical clamp

10. Circular level and adjusting screws 25. Vertical fine motion screw

11. Circular level 26. Telescope eyepiece

12. Display 27. Telescope focussing ring

13. Objective lens 28. Peep sight

14. Tubular compass slot 29. Instrument centre mark

15. Optical plummet focusing ring

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Accessories of Total Station

1. Tripods: A large section of quality tripods for all applications.

2. Tribrachs: Original quality tribrachs to comply with all accuracies.

3. Reflectors: Highest quality glass and optical coatings for longevity.

4. Batteries and Chargers: Chargers and batteries that is perfect for each instrument.

5. Data Storage Media: Storage media that are perfectly matched to instruments.

6. Data Transfer Cables: Extremely reliable and secure cables for all instruments.

7. Carriers: Original carriers with quality features for high accuracy.

8. Poles: Original poles with optimal balance of weight and stability.

9. Eyepieces: Eyepieces and ancillary lenses for highest performance.

10. Bags and Containers: Bags and containers designed for maximum protection and comfort.

Main Functions (Important operations) of Total Station

1. Distance Measurement: Electronic Distance Measurement is a major part of total station. Its
range varies from 2.8km to 4.2km. The accuracy of measurements varies from 5mm to 10mm
per km measurement. The distance measured is always sloping distance from instrument to the
object.

2. Angle Measurements: The electronic theodolite part of total station is used for measuring
vertical and horizontal angle. The accuracy of angle measurement varies from 2 to 6 seconds.

3. Data Processing: The instrument is provided with an inbuilt microprocessor. With the help
of slope distance and vertical and horizontal angles measured, when height of axis of
instrument and targets are supplied, the microprocessor computes the horizontal distance and
X, Y, Z coordinates.

4. Display: Electronic display unit is capable of displaying various values when respective keys
are pressed. The system is capable of displaying horizontal distance, vertical distance,
horizontal and vertical angles, difference in elevations of two observed points and all the three
coordinates of the observed points.

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5. Electronic Book: Each point data can be stored in an electronic note book. The capacity of
electronic note book varies from 2000 points to 4000 points data.

6. Coordinate Measurement: The coordinates of an unknown point relative to a known

coordinate can be determined using the total station as long as a direct line of sight can be
established between two points. Angles and distances are measured from the total station to
points under survey, and the coordinates(X,Y and Z or easting, northing and elevation) of
surveyed points relative to the total station position are calculated using trigonometry and
triangulation.

Fundamental measurements

When aimed at an appropriate target, a total station measures three parameters.

1. The rotation of the instrument's optical axis from the instrument north in a horizontal
plane: ie, horizontal angle.

2. The inclination of the optical axis from the local vertical ie, vertical angle

3. The distance between the instrument and the target ie, slope distance.

All the numbers that may be provided by the total station are derived from three
fundamental measurements.

Line of sight

s
E Target
a (Reflector, R)

Instrument
north
Instrument

Ler
(1)

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Horizontal Angle

The horizontal angle is measured from the zero direction on the horizontal scale (or horizontal
circle). When the user first sets up the instrument the choice of the zero direction is made - this
is Instrument North. The user may decide to set zero (North) in the direction of the long axis of
the map area, or choose to orient the instrument approximately to True, Magnetic or Grid
North. Using a magnetic compass to determine the orientation of the instrument is not
recommended and can be very inaccurate. Most total stations can measure angle to at least 5
seconds or 0.0013888°. The best procedure when using a Total Station is to set a convening -
north and carry this through the survey by using back sights when the instrument is moved.

Vertical Angle
The vertical angle is measured relative to the local vertical (plumb) direction. The vertical
angle is usually measured as a zenith angle (0° is vertically up, 90° is horizontal, and 180° is
vertically down), although one is also given the option of making 0° horizontal. The zenith
angle is generally- easier to work with. The telescope will be pointing downward for zenith
angles greater than 90° and upward for angles less than 90°.Measuring vertical angles requires
that the instrument be exactly vertical. It is very difficult to level an instrument to the degree of
accuracy of the instrument.

Slope Distance
The instrument to reflector distance is measured using an Electronic Distance Meter (EDM).

Most EDM's use a Gallium Arsenide Diode to emit an infrared light beam. This beam is
usually modulated to two or more different frequencies. The infrared beam is emitted from the
total station, reflected by the reflector and received and amplified by the total station. The
received signal is then compared with a reference signal generated by the instrument (the same
signal generator that transmits the microwave pulse) and the phase-shift is determined. This
phase shift is measure of the travel time and thus the distance between the total station and the
reflector.

Basic Calculations
Total Stations only measure three parameters: Horizontal Angle, Ventral Angle and Slope
Distance.

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SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 5

Syllabus 5.1- GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM – Components and principles, Satellite
ranging- calculating position, signal structure, applications of GPS, GPS surveying
methods- Static, Rapid static, Kinematic methods – DGPS

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM

Identifying and remembering objects and landmarks as points of reference were the techniques
that the early man used to find his way through jungles and deserts. Leaving stones, marking
trees, and referencing mountains were the early navigational and positional aids in the Stone
Age.
Identifying points of reference was easy on land; but it became a matter of life and survival
when man started to explore the oceans, where the only visible objects were the sun, the moon,
and the stars. Naturally, they became the 'points of reference' and the era of celestial navigation
and positioning began. Celestial navigation and positioning was the first serious solution to the
problem of finding one's position in unknown territories, where the sun, the moon, and stars were
used as points of reference.
The idea of automatic computation of position through measurement of distances to points of
reference became a reality only recently, when radio signals were employed and the age of radio
navigation began. About the middle of the twentieth century, scientists discovered a way to
measure distances using radio signals. The concept was to measure the time taken for special
radio signals to travel from a transmitting station (tower) to a special device designed to receive
them. Multiplying the signal travel time by the speed of the signal gives the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver. The speed of radio signals is the same as the speed of light about 3 x
10 m/s (about 186,500 miles/s). LORAN (Long Range Navigation) is one such radio navigation
system that became operational around 1950.
However, these systems (such as LORAN) had a limited local coverage and were able to provide
only two-dimensional position information (latitude and longitude), and not any information
about height and, for example, could not be used in aviation to provide altitude. To overcome
these limitations, satellite-based radio navigation and positioning systems were conceived in
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give a wider coverage. Signals from navigation satellites can cover large areas of the earth, and
several satellites can cover the whole planet.
The theory behind the operation of the satellite-based navigation and positioning systems is
similar to that of the land-based systems. In land-based navigation systems, the transmitting
towers are the reference points located on the earth and the distance to them is measured by the
receivers to compute the two- dimensional position (longitude and latitude or x and y). In
satellite-based systems, the satellites act as the reference points and the distance to them is
measured to determine the three-dimensional position (longitude, latitude, and altitude or x, y.
and z).
The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is the standard generic term for satellite-based
navigation systems that provide autonomous geospatial positioning with global coverage. The
GNSS is a network of satellites that continuously transmits coded information, which makes it
possible to precisely identify locations on earth by measuring distance from the satellites. The
GNSSS involve satellites, ground stations, and user equipment to determine positions around the
world. GNSS systems allow small hand-held rover electronic devices (receivers) to determine
their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) within accuracy of few meters, using time signals
transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. Receivers on the ground with a fixed
position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments or
where high accuracy is required. Among currently used GNSSS, the GPS from the United States
is best known and most widely used.
How a radio signal transmitter receiver system could be used to determine a person's location"
Let us assume that a transmitting tower is installed at a known point, A, on the earth and we have
a special radio that can receive signals from transmitter A and measure the distance to the
transmitter. The exact location of point A is programmed in our special radio receiver .We are in
some unknown location. We turn on the receiver and measure our distance to the transmitter as
300 m This does not tell us where we are, but it narrows our position to a point on a circle with
the radius of 300 m around the transmitter, as shown in Fig (a) It can be said that , we are
anywhere on the circumference of this circle.

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Next, let us assume that a second transmitter tower is installed at another known point B, on the
earth. The same receiver measures our distance to transmitter B as 500 m. This tells us that we
are somewhere on a circle with the radius of 500 around the transmitter B. We now have two
pieces of information: our distance to point A is 300 m and our distance to point B is 500 m. So
we are on circle A and circle B at the same time. Therefore, we must be at the intersection of the
Two circles, one of the two points P or Q, as shown in Fig (b).
Measuring our distance to a third transmitter C, in the same manner, would identify exactly
where we are. Figure (c) shows that we must be at the point Q. where three circles intersect. This
process of determining one's location with the distance measured from three reference points
located on the ground is known as two-dimensional trilateration. However, this is a case for
determining two- dimensional (2D) position, where we need at least three reference points. In
this example, we have assumed that we are on the surface. Therefore, the surface of the earth
would act as an additional reference. But, if we are at some height from the earth's surface, we
need at least four reference points for determining three- dimensional (3D) locations. However, it

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is worth mentioning that GNSS can determine three-dimensional positions with reference to only
three points by means of mathematical and geometrical tricks.

SATELLITE-BASED NAVIGATION AND POSITIONING SYSTEMS

The first satellite navigation system was TRANSIT (currently not operational), a system
deployed by the US military in the 1960s. The experience gained from Transit and several other
experimental systems led to the development of the current GNSS.
A GNSS may have several layers of infrastructure
• Core satellite navigation systems or core GNSS - currently GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and
Compass.
• Global satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS).
• Regional SBAS including Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) of United Sates,
•European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) of European Union, Multi-
functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS) of Japan, and GPS-Aided Geo-Augmented
Navigation (GAGAN) of India.
•Regional satellite navigation systems such as Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) of Japan,
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) of India, and Beidou I of China.

COMPONENTS OF GPS
Since all of the GNSSS are based on similar concepts, it is not necessary to discuss all systems in
depth. We shall focus on the GPS, the most widely used system, to understand how a GNSS
works. The GPS consists of a space segment (the satellites), a control segment (the ground
stations), and a user segment (users and their GPS receivers). Let us now consider the three parts
of the system and discuss them in more detail. We shall then have a closer look at how GPS
works.

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Space segment
The space segment consists of at least 24 satellites (21 active plus 3 operating spares) and is the
heart of the system (Fig.). The satellites are in a 'high orbit’ about 20,200 km (13,000 miles)
above the earth's surface. Operating at such a high altitude allows the signals to cover a greater
area, The satellites are arranged in their orbits so a GPS receiver on the earth can always receive
signals or information from at least four of them at any given time.

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The satellites travel at a speed of 3870 m/s which allows them to Circle the earth once every 12h.
They are powered by solar energy and are built to last about 10-12 years. If the solar energy fails
(eclipses and such factors), they have back-up batteries on board to keep them running. They
also have small rocket boosters to keep them flying in the correct path.
The first GPS satellite was launched into space in 1978. A full constellation of 24 satellites was
achieved in 1994, completing the system. The satellites are geostationary as well as non-
geostationary. At any given time, there are 12 satellites on either side of the hemispheres.
The main functions of a GPS satellite are as follows:
• It receives and stores data from the control segment.
• It maintains a very precise time.
•It transmits coded signals to user receivers through the use of two frequencies, LI (1575.42
MHz) and L2 (1227.60 MHz). Another additional frequency, L5 (1176.45 MHz), will be used in
future.
These satellites transmit the coarse acquisition (C/A) code on LI band and precision or protected
(P) code on both LI and L2 bands. C/A code is available to the civilians whereas P code is used
by the US military. Therefore the GPS can provide two so-called services: the standard
positioning service (SPS) using C/A code and the precise positioning service (PPS) for high
precision positioning using P code.
Each satellite contains at least three high-precision atomic clocks and constantly transmits radio
signals using its own unique identification code The GPS receivers are designed to receive these
signals. The signal travels in the 'line of sight, which implies that it can pass through clouds,
glass, and plastic, but not go through most solid objects such as buildings and mountains.
Each signal contains pseudorandom codes (a complex pattern of digital code). The main purpose
of these coded signals is to allow for calculation of signal travel- time from the satellite to the
user's receiver) This travel time is also called the time of arrival or propagation time. The travel
time multiplied by the speed of light equals the satellite range (distance from the satellite to the
receiver). The satellite signals are timed using highly accurate atomic clocks. Because the speed
of light is about 3 x 10' m/s (precisely 2.9979246 X 10 m/s), a tiny fraction of error can produce
a wrong distance measurement.

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Control Segment
The control segment (also referred to as ground segment) does what its name implies. it 'controls'
the GPS satellites by tracking them and then providing them with corrected orbital and clock
(time) information. The GPS control segment consists of a master control station, and three
uploading stations. Six monitor stations are used to carry out the measurements required for the
definition of the data to be uploaded. These monitor stations are called Operational Control
Segment (OCS) monitor stations, Additionally, 10 National Geospatial Agency (NGA) stations
for monitoring are also there since September 2005.One backup master control station has also
been established. Figure gives details of the locations of the GPS ground segment. The main
functions of the ground segments are to
• Monitor the satellites.
•Estimate the on-board clock state and define the corresponding parameters to be broadcast (with
reference to the constellation's master time);
• Define the orbits of each satellite in order to predict the ephemeris (precise orbital
information), together with the almanac (coarse orbital information);
• Determine the attitude (orientation) and location of the satellites in order to determine the
parameters to be sent to the satellites for correcting their orbits; and
• Uploading (sending) the derived clock correction parameters, ephemeris, almanac, and orbit
correction commands to the satellites.
Monitor stations track the satellites continuously and provide tracking. information to the master
control station/ In the master control station, the information sent by the monitor stations is then
incorporated into precise satellite orbit and clock correction coefficients and the master control
station forwards them to the upload stations. The upload stations transmit these data to each
satellite at least once in a day. The satellites then send the orbital information to the GPS
receivers over radio signals. Figure illustrates this concept schematically.

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User Segment
The user segment just consists of the user and his GPS receiver. In general, GIS receivers are
composed of an antenna (internal or external), tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the
satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable clock (often a crystal oscillator).
Remember that receiver clocks are not as precise as the satellite atomic clocks. Generally,
receivers also include a display for providing location and other information to the user. A
receiver is often described by its number of channels: this signifies signals from how many
satellites it can process simultaneously. Originally limited to maximum of four or five, this has
progressively increased over the years so that, nowadays, receivers typically have between 12-
24 channels. However, special types of receiver may have as many as 48 channels or even more.
These special receivers can capture signals from satellites of more than one constellation (e.g.,
both GPS and GLONASS).
Many GPS receivers can relay the position data to a personal computer or other devices.
Receivers can interface with other devices using methods including a serial connection, USB, or
Bluetooth.

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The user segment is composed of a great variety of terminals which includes boaters, pilots,
hikers, hunters, the military, and anyone who would wish to know where they are, where they
have been, or where they are going. The major tasks of a receiver are to:
• Select the satellites in view;
•Acquire the corresponding signals and evaluate their health;
•Carry out the propagation time measurements;
• Calculate the location of the terminal and estimate the error;
• Calculate the speed of the terminal; and
• Provide accurate time.
Therefore, users will have at their disposal a single terminal allowing localization, time
reference, altitude determination, speed indicator, and so on.

GPS WORKING PRINCIPLE AND SATELLITE RANGING

The idea behind GPS is rather simple If the distances from a point on the earth (a GPS receiver)
to three GPS satellite are known along with the satellite locations, then the location of the point
(or receiver) can be determined by simply applying the well-known concept of resection.
GPS satellite continuously transmits a microwave radio signal composed of two carriers, two
codes and a navigation message. When a GPS receiver is switched on, it will pick up the GPS
signal through the receiver antenna. Once the receiver acquires the GPS signal, it will process it
using its built-in software. The partial outcome of the signal processing consists of the distance
to the GPS satellites through the digital codes (known as the pseudoranges) and the satellite
coordinates through the navigation massage.
GPS receivers calculate the position of objects in two dimensional or three dimensional spaces
using a mathematical process called trilateration. Trilateration can be either two-dimensional or
three dimensional. Trilateration is a method of determining the position of an object by
measuring its distance from other objects with known locations.
To determine the location of the receiver, the receiver has to known two things:
(i) Where the satellites are (satellites location in the space)
(ii) How far they are (distance between the satellite and the receiver)
Determination of "Where the Satellites are"

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The GPS receiver picks up two kinds of coded information from each GPS satellite, They àre
almanac and ephemeris data.

The almanac data contains the approximate positions (location) of the satellite. This data is
continuously transmitted and stored in the memory of the GPS receivers. From the almanac data,
the GPS receiver knows the orbits of the satellites and where, each satellite is supposed to be.
The aimanac data periodically updated with new information as the satellites move around Any
satellite can travel slightly out of its orbits, but the ground monitor station keeps the track or
satellite orbits, altitude, location and speed. The ground station send the orbital data to the master
control station, which in turns send corrected data up to the satellites. This corrected and exact
position data is called the ephemeris data, which is valid for about 4 to 6 hours and is transmitted
in the coded information to the GPS receiver.
So, by having received the almanac and ephemeris data, the GPS receiver knows the position
(location) of the satellites all times.
Determination of "How far Away the Satellites are"
Time is the most important parameter to known how far away the satellites are? There is a
simple formula that tells the receiver how far it is from each satellite. The distance from a given
satellite to the Object equals the velocity of the transmitted signal multiplied by the travel time of
radio. Waves transmitted from the satellites to reach the object (transit rime).
In this case the distance is calculated as
Distance = light velocity x travel time of the satellite signal (t)

GPS WORKS ON PRINCIPLE CALLED 'TIME OF ARRIVAL'

The receiver already knows the velocity of the satellite signal, it is the speed of the radio wave
(3 x 10 m/s). Now the GPS receiver needs to determine the time part of the formula. The time
part is in the coded signal transmitted by the satellite. The transmitted code is called Pseudo
Random Noise (PRN) Code, because it looks like a noise signal. When a satellite is generating
the PRN code, the OPS receiver is generating the same code and tries to match is upto the
satellites code. The receiver then compares the two codes to determine how much it needs to
delay (shift) its code to match the satellite code (ref. Fig (a)). This delay time is multiplied by the
velocity of light to get the distance (ref. Fig. (b))

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Once the satellites location in the space and distance between the satellite and the receiver are
known then the receiver position can be determined in 2 dimension (2D) and 3 Dimension (3D).

DETERMINING THE RECEVER POSITION

When a GPS receiver pick up a signal from one satellite the position of GPS receiver will be on
an imaginary sphere that has satellite at it-center with radius equal to the distance of the satellite
from the earth. As earth is also a sphere, the intersection of these two spheres creates a common
circle on the surface of earth. The position of the receiver will therefore be on the surface of a
large circle created by the intersection of the two spheres.
The GPS receiver than starts picking up signals from two satellites, This help to narrow down it
position. The position of GPS receiver will now be on one of the two points of intersection of the
two large circles formed due to the intersection of three spheres, one the earth and other two
spheres formed by the satellites, When the receiver picks up signals from third satellite, the
position of the receiver will be on the point of intersection of the three circles, Here the GPS
receiver gets a position but there is no check on its accuracy.
With four satellites the receiver will get a precise position and it will be able to compute the
elevation of the position with reference to selected datum. Fig. illustrates basic idea of GPS
positioning.

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GPS SIGNALS
How does a GPS satellite communicate to a receiver? It uses codes. The GPS codes are binary
0s and 1s, the language of computers. Codes are carried to GPS receivers by carrier waves.

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A series of waves transmitted at constant frequency and amplitude is called a wave. A

continuous wave is modified in some manner. This is called modulation. When this occurs, the
continuous wave serves as a carrier wave for information. In communication technology, a
carrier wave, or carrier is a waveform (shape and form of a signal) that is modulated (modified or
changed) with an input signal for the purpose of conveying information, for example voice or
data, to be transmitted, for example by radio wave. A carrier wave has at least one characteristic
such as phase, amplitude or frequency that may be modulated for the pull-pose of carrying
information. For example, the information, music, or speech received from an AM radio station
is placed on the carrier wave by amplitude modulation (e., the amplitude is changed), and the
information on the signal from a FM radio station is there because of frequency modulation (1.e.,
the frequency is changed). Any of several types of modulation may be used to carry the
information.

The phase of a wave is the amount by which the cycle has progressed from a specified origin. By
means of phase modulation using radio wave, GPS signal is carried from satellites to the
receivers. The signal carries two different types of information-navigation code and ranging
code.

Navigation Code

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The navigation code (also called navigation message), is the vehicle for telling the GPS
receivers some of the most important things they need to know. These information are: (I) what
time it is on the satellite, (2) the instantaneous position of a moving satellite (ephemeris data), (3)
some information about necessary atmospheric corrections, (4) some sort of satellite
identification system to tell the receiver from which satellite the signal came and where the
receiver may find the other satellites (almanac data), and (5) health information of the satellites
(whether the satellite can be considered for position calculation or not).
Ranging Codes
In addition to the navigation message, GPS satellites transmit a special type of code used to
determine the range (distance) from the satellite to the receiver. These codes carry the data from
which GPS receivers derive their propagation time and distance measurements. The raging codes
are complicated; so complicated, in fact, that they appear to be nothing but noise at first. And
even though they are known as pseudo-random noise or PRN codes, actually, these codes have
been carefully designed. This complex and specific design provides them the capability of
repetition and replication.
Observables-Pseudorange and Carrier Phase
The word observable is used throughout the GPS literature to indicate the signals whose
measurement yields the range or distance between the satellite and the receiver. The word is used
to draw a distinction between the thing being measured (the observable) and the measurement
(the observation). Observable may be thought as a basis or scale of a measurement. In GPS there
are two types of observables: the pseudorange and the carrier phase. The latter, also known as the
carrier beat phase, is the basis of the techniques used for high-precision GPS surveys On the
other hand, the pseudorange can serve applications when virtually instantaneous point positions
are required or relatively low accuracy can be considered.
The foundation of pseudoranges is the correlation of code carried on a modulated carrier wave
received from a GPS satellite with a replica of that same code generated in the receiver. This
technique is called code correlation. Most of the GPS receivers are capable of code correlation;
i.e., they can determine pseudoranges. High-precision receivers are capable of determining
carrier phase.

GPS APPLICATIONS

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Real time kinematic GPS has opened floodgates to new applications. GPS also being
increasingly used for machine guidance. One can actually have a map of the job site and display
it in the bulldozer with control down to see centimeters. It enables machine operator to go
directly to right coordinates. They are attached with machine. GPS can also contribute
significantly to account mapping of wetland. GPS can also serve as a watcher on structures
features where ground movements are common. GPS receivers placed on a dam or hill top linked
by a modem in a home base can measure the mover quickly through GPS position changes and
can send an e-mail or pager massage warning if danger threatens. The positional data from GPS
can be given as input into GIS software and contouring, cross-sections, cut and fill volume
calculation and alignment of roads, pipelines, tunnels etc., can be carried out easily. Geodetic
measurements provide very accurate determinations of positions of points on the earth surface
and GPS is highly useful for this measurement. Tectonic plate movement study requires
millimeter accuracy but navigational accuracy is a meter to few centimeters. Scientists,
sportsmen, farmers, soldiers pilots, surveyors, sailors, dispatchers, fire-fighters, and people from
many other walks of life are using GPS in many ways while makes their work more productive,
safer and sometimes even more easier.
GPS is very much useful in surveying. High end GPS are necessary for survey applications.
Time requirement for GPS surveying is very minimum compared with other conventional survey
equipment. Also it is possible to survey an area for industry or for other purpose aerially. A flight
fitted with GPS can survey an area with in a shorter time span.
One of the real "up-and-coming application, for GPS and the area perhaps most likely to directly
impact the "average" person, is in land navigation. This includes rail, trucking, emergency
(police, fire, ambulance, etc.), and private vehicles. Collectively, these land GPS navigation
applications are broadly referred to as IVS, or intelligent vehicle systems, or more specifically
IVHS: intelligent vehicle Highway systems. Another terms that is beginning to find increasingly
wide use is AVL, or Automated vehicle location.
Therefore, GPS is one of the fastest moving technologies in the world. It has find application in
almost all areas requiring spatial coordinate or time. The following is the list of some application
areas where GPS has been used widely:

 Utility industry

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 Natural resources
 Precision forming
 Civil engineering applications
 Structural deformations
 Open pit mining
 Land and marine seismic surveying
 Air borne mapping
 Seafloor mapping
 Vehicle navigation
 Transit system
 Retial industry
 Cadastral surveying
 Stakeout (way point navigation)
 Location Based Services (LBS)

GPS SURVEYING
Probably even more important to the surveyor or engineer than the theory behind GPS, are the
practicalities of the effective use of GPS.
Like any tool, GPS is only an good as it's operator. Proper planning and preparation are essential
ingredients of a successful survey, as well as awareness of the capabilities and limitations of
GPS.
Why use GPS?
GPS has numerous advantages over traditional surveying methods:
1. Intervisibility between points is not required.
2. Can be used at any time of the day or night and in any weather.
3. Produces results with very high geodetic accuracy.
4. More work can be accomplished in less time with fewer people

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Limitations
In order to operate with GPS it is important that the GIS Antenna has a clear view to at least 4
satellites. Sometimes, the satellite signals can be blocked by tall buildings, trees etc. Hence, GPS
cannot be used indoors. It is also difficult to use GPS in town centers or woodland.
Due to this limitation, it may prove more cost effective in some survey applications to use an
optical total station or to combine use of such an instrument with GPS.

GPS MEASURING TECINIQUES

There are several measuring techniques that can be used by most GPS Survey Receivers. The
surveyor should choose the appropriate technique tor the application.
Static - Used for long lines, geodetic networks, tectonic plate studies etc. Offers high accuracy
over long distances but is comparatively slow.
Rapid Static - Used for establishing local control networks, Network densification etc. Offers
high accuracy on baselines up to about 20km and is much faster than the Static technique.
Kinematic - Used for detail surveys and measuring mar points in quick succession. Very
efficient way of measuring many points that are close together. However, if there are
obstructions to the sky such as bridges, trees, tall buildings etc., and less than 4 satellites are
tracked, the equipment must be reinitialized which can take 5-10 minutes.
STATIC, RAPID STATIC AND KINEMATIC METHODS OF GPS SURVEYING
Static GPS Surveying
It is a relative positioning technique that depends on the carrier-phase measurement. It employs
two (or more) stationary receivers simultaneously tracking the same satellites. One receiver, the
base receiver, is set up over a point with precisely known coordinates such as a survey
monument (sometimes referred to the known point).

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SURVEYING & GEOMATICS – Module 5

Syllabus 5.2 – REMOTE SENSING – Definition- Electromagnetic spectrum- Energy

interactions with atmosphere and earth surface features- Spectral reflectance of vegetation,
soil and water- Classification of sensors- Active and passive, Resolution- special, spectral
radiometric and temporal resolution, Multi spectral scanning- Along track and across
track scanning.

REMOTE SENSING

“Remote” means far away, Remote sensing means sensing things from a distance. Of
our five senses we use three as remote sensors when we :
(i) Watch a football game from the stands (sense of sight)

(ii) Smell freshly baked in the oven (sense of smell)

(iii) Hear a telephone ring (sense of hearing)
The other two sense (sense of taste and sense of touch) are not used “remotely”.

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REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing is defined as an art and science of obtaining information about an
object or feature without physically coming in contact with that object or feature.

Earth observation from space and air

Remote Sensing is a technology to observe objects size, shape and character without
direct contact with them.
The reflected or radiated electromagnetic (EM) waves are received by sensors aboard
platform. The characteristics of reflected or radiated EM waves depend on the type or
condition of the objects. By understanding characteristics of EM response and comparing
observed information, we can know the size, shape and character of the objects.

Advantages of Satellite Observation

o Enables to observe a broad area at a time. Enables
to observe the area for a long period.
o Repeat pass observation (Time series data, Change detection)
o Enables to know the condition without visiting the area
Enables to know invisible information
o Sensors for various electromagnetic spectrum
(Infrared, microwave)

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Energy Source or Illumination (A) - The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.

Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - As the energy travels from its source to the target, it
will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction
may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.

Interaction with the Target (C) - Once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.

Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - After the energy has been scattered by, or emitted
from the target, we require a sensor (remote – not in contact with the target) to collect and
record the electromagnetic radiation.

Transmission, Reception, and processing (E) - The energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the date are
processed into an image (hardcopy and
/ or digital).

Interpretation and Analysis (F) – The processed image is interpreted, visually and / or
digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.

Application (G) - The final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply
the information that we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target, in order to
better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Visible light is only one of many forms of electromagnetic energy. Radio waves, heat,
ultraviolet rays, and X - rays are other familiar forms. All this energy is inherently similar and
radiates in accordance with basic wave theory. As shown in Figure, this theory describes
electromagnetic energy as travelling in a harmonic, sinusoidal fashion at the “Velocity of light”
C. The distance from one wave peak passing a fixed point in space per unit time is the wave

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SENSORS
Strength of reflection and radiation of EM waves from plants, earth and water varies in
each wavelength. Every material on earth shows its own strength of reflection in each
wavelength when it is exposed to the EM waves. Sensors aboard a platform are capable to
acquire the strength of reflection and radiation in each wavelength.
Passive and Active Remote sensing
Passive Sensors: Measure energy that is naturally available (e.g. Optical sensors)
Active Sensors: Provide their own energy source for illumination (e.g. Synthetic Aperture
Radar (SAR), Laser Scanner (LIDAR)
Fig (a) Passive Remote Sensing and (b) Active Remote Sensing Passive
Remote Sensing
Passive sensors detect sunlight reflected from the earth and thermal radiation in the
visible and infrared of the electromagnetic spectrum. They do not emit their own radiation, but
receive natural light and thermal radiation from the earth’s surface. Most passive sensors make
use of a scanner for imaging, e.g LANDSAT. Equipped with spectrometers they measure
signals at several spectral bands simultaneously, resulting in so- called multispectral images
which allow numerous interpretations.

 The sun provides a very convenient source of energy for remote sensing
 The sun’s energy is reflected for visible wavelengths, or absorbed and then reemitted
for thermal IR wavelengths.
 For all reflected energy. this can only take place during the time when the sun is
illuminating the Earth
 Energy that is naturally emitted (such as thermal infrared) can be detected day or night,
as long as the amount of energy is large enough to be recorded.

ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING

Active sensors (for example Radar and laser scanners) emit artificial radiation to
monitor the earth surface or atmospheric features. Radars are imaging instruments while radar
altimeters and scatter meters are non imaging. Radar is the abbreviation for Radio Detection
and Ranging, a method for the detection and ranging of earth surface features. Radar satellites

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use short pulses of electromagnetic radiation in the microwave spectral range, therefore they
do not depend on delight and are hardly affected by clouds, dust, fog, wind and bad weather
conditions. They measure the radar pulses reflected from the ground, analyse the signal
intensity in order to retrieve information on the structure of the earth surface, and detect the
elapsed time between pulse emission and return Results can be used to measure distances.
Depending on the satellite mission, different operations and procedures are used to process the
signals into viable information.
 An active sensor emits radiation which is directed toward the target to be
investigated. The radiation reflected from that target is detected and measured by the
sensor.

 However, active systems require the generation of a fairly large amount of energy to
adequately illuminate targets.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE SENSORS:

Advantages Disadvantages

Weather independent artificial The pulse power is mostly low and can

microwave radiation can penetrate clouds, be influenced or interfered by

other radiation sources.
light rain and snow.

Sunlight independent can be

operated day and night.

Radar penetrates vegetation and soil can Radar signals contain no spectral
gain information about surface characteristics.
layer from mm to m depth

Can given information about Complicated analysis, cost

moisture content of soil layer intensive.

Various applications: oceanography,

hydrology, geology, glaciology,
agriculture and forestry service

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