Assignment

Subject: Energy Science and Technology (ME-211)

Name: ARIJIT PATOWARY
Scholar ID: 1812049
Section: ME(A)
B.Tech., 4th Semester, 2nd Year,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
NIT Silchar.
Q1. Describe briefly the construction and working principle of
biogas plants:
a)IARI biogas plants
b)KVIC biogas plants
c)JANTA biogas plants
d)Deenbandhu biogas plants
Ans: The construction and working principle of the various types of
biogas plants are mentioned below:

a) IARI biogas plants:

The distinctive features of this plant (first developed in 1941) were a
well type digester and a mild steel gasholder, which was balanced by
a counterweight connected through ropes and supporting poles. Dry
fermentation technology (solid state fermentation) was developed for
the production of energy and manure from agricultural residues and
kitchen wastes. Unlike the conventional biogas plant, the technology
can accommodate all types of fibrous organic wastes as alternate and
supplemental feedstock to cow dung for the production of biogas.

b) KVIC biogas plants:

Construction :-
A common gobar gas plant suggested by Khadi & Village Industries
commission (KVIC) is described below. These are small scale gas
production. It consist of slurry inlet tank, gas value, dome, outlet tank ac
inlet pipe, digester, partition wall.

The plant consist of digester made of masonry construction in the form a

well below the ground level and the floating gas holder also called as
dome, made of mild steel.
This mainly consists of a digester or pit for fermentation and a floating
drum for the collection of gas. Digester is 3.5-6.5 m in depth and 1.2 to
1.6 m in diameter. There is a partition wall in the center, which divides
the digester vertically and submerges in the slurry when it is full. The
digester is connected to the inlet and outlet by two pipes. Through the
inlet, the dung is mixed with water (4:5) and loaded into the digester.
The fermented material will flow out through outlet pipe. The outlet is
generally connected to a compost pit. The gas generation takes place
slowly and in two stages. In the first stage, the complex, organic
substances contained in the waste are acted upon by a certain kind of
bacteria, called acid formers and broken up into small-chain simple
acids. In the second stage, these acids are acted upon by another kind of
bacteria, called methane formers and produce methane and carbon
dioxide.

Fig. KVIC model biogas plant

c) JANTA biogas plants:

Janata model Construction of digester Successful construction of the
biogas plant requires a proper design and adherence to follow correct
construction methods. The success or failure of any biogas plant
primarily depends upon the quality of construction work.
The design of this plant is of Chinese origin but it has been
introduced under the name ―Janata biogas plant‖ by Gobar Gas
Research Station, Ajitmal in view of its reduced cost. This is a
plant where no steel is used, there is no moving part in it and
maintenance cost is low. The plant can be constructed by village
mason taking some pre-explained precautions and using all the
indigenously available building materials. Good quality of bricks
and cement should be used to avoid the afterward structural
problems like cracking of the dome and leakage of gas. This model
have a higher capacity when compared with KVIC model, hence it
can be used as a community biogas plant. This design has longer
life than KVIC models. Substrates other than cattle dung such as
municipal waste and plant residues can also be used in janata type
plants. The plant consists of an underground well sort of digester
made of bricks and cement having a dome shaped roof which
remains below the ground level is shown in figure. At almost
middle of the digester, there are two rectangular openings facing
each other and coming up to a little above the ground level, act as
an inlet and outlet of the plant. Dome shaped roof is fitted with a
pipe at its top which is the gas outlet of the plant. The principle of
gas production is same as that of KVIC model. The biogas is
collected in the restricted space of the fixed dome, hence the
pressure of gas is much higher, which is around 90 cm of water
column
d) Deenbandhu biogas plants:
A domestic bio-gas unit is a digesting chamber where manure, from
both cows and humans, ferments to provide biogas, through the
release of methane. Biogas is seen as a clean fuel, and provides a
feasible alternative to cooking gas. In colder climates like the lower
regions of the Himalaya the Deenbandhu fixed model is ideal because
the digestion chamber is underground providing good insulation
against the cold.

Deenbandhu model was developed in 1984, by Action for Food

Production (AFPRO), a voluntary organization based in New
Delhi. Schematic diagram of a Deenabandhu biogas plant entire
biogas programme of India as it reduced the cost of the plant half
of that of KVIC model and brought biogas technology within the
reach of even the poorer sections of the population. The cost
reduction has been achieved by minimizing the surface area
through joining the segments of two spheres of different diameters
at their bases. The cost of a Deenbandhu plant having a capacity of
2 m3/day is about Rs.8000. The Deenbandhu biogas plant has a
hemispherical fixed-dome type of gas holder, unlike the floating
dome of the KVIC-design is shown. The dome is made from pre-
fabricated ferrocement or reinforced concrete and attached to the
digester, which has a curved bottom. The slurry is fed from a
mixing tank through an inlet pipe connected to the digester. After
fermentation, the biogas collects in the space under the dome. It is
taken out for use through a pipe connected to the top of the dome,
while the sludge, which is a by-product, comes out through an
opening in the side of the digester. About 90 percent of the biogas
plants in India are of the Deenbandhu type.

d) Fig. Deenbandhu model biogas plant

Q2. Describe the factors which affect the generation of biogas plants.
Ans: The following factors affect biogas generation:
1) Temperature of the substrate:
Temperature for fermentation will greatly effect biogas production.
Depending on prevailing conditions methane can be produced within a
fairly wide range of temperature. The process of anaerobic fermentation
and methane forming bacteria works best in the temperature between 29°C
to 41°C or between 49°C to 60°C and pressure of about 1.1 to 1.2 bars
absolute. This is due to fact that two different types of bacteria multiply best
in these two different ranges, but the high temperature bacteria are much
more sensitive to ambient influences. The process of anaerobic fermentation is
temperature dependent. It is found that the process of digestion in gasification is
maximum when the temperature is in the mesophyllic rate, i.e., 35-38oC. Below
this temperature, the process is retarded and almost stops below 15. Above 40-
45oC, the process slows down and then reaches a peak between 55-60oC, which is
the thermophyllic range.
2) pH value or Hydrogen ion concentration: pH indicates the level of
alkalinity or acidity of a particular substance. Gas formation is optimum
between pH levels 7 and 8 (indicating neutral pH). For acidic pH, i.e.,
pH level below 7, the process may completely stop.
3) Retention period: Retention period refers to the time for which
fermentable material resides in the digester. Longer the retention period
larger is the digester size required. In KVIC (Khadi and Village
Industries Commission)'s design the retention period is 30 to 55 days
depending upon the climatic conditions.
4) Loading rate: For a given capacity of the digestive increase in
loading rate decreases the corresponding period of retention. Loading
rate for a given capacity should be preferably kept constant.
5) Solid concentration: 7 to 9 parts of solid in hundred parts of slurry,
i.e., 7 to 9% concentration is considered ideal. If the concentration is
diluted or increased fermentation is retarded. Therefore it is suggested to
mix 4 parts of cattle dung with 5 parts of water.
6) Toxic substance: If the digested slurry remain for longer periods of
time than required inside the digester it proves to be toxic to the
microorganisms and leads to fall in the fermentation rate. Presence of
calcium, magnesium, potassium, etc. in higher concentrations reduce the
rate biogas production.
7) Nutrient concentration: The major nutrients required by the
organisms in the digester are C, H2, O2, P, S and N2. Out of these, N2 and
P are short in supply, and substances rich in N and P have to be added to
cow dung for maximum production of gases.
8) Mixing or stirring of the contents of the digester: Proper mixing of
digester contents provides intimate contact between the micro organisms
and the substrate, maintains uniform temperature, maintains uniform
distribution of bacteria and volatile solids throughout the slurry. While
slight mixing improves fermentation, violent slurry agitation retards gas
production.
9) Digester shape and size: Digester size depends upon the desired rate
of biogas production. For maximum biogas production, the diameter to
depth ratio of the digester should be between 0.66 to 1.

Q3. a) What are the applications of geothermal energy.

b) Write down the advantages and disadvantages of geothermal energy.
c) Discuss different systems used for generating power using geothermal
energy in brief.
Ans:
a) The applications of geothermal energy are –
Geothermal applications for domestic and tertiary uses---
Near-surface geothermal energy, known as “very low enthalpy” energy, is
produced by extracting heat (at a maximum of 40°C) from the subsoil or in
near-surface aquifers at depths of a few metres to 200-300 metres.
These applications can be used for heating, cooling and producing
domestic hot water in individual housing, but also in the tertiary sector
and in collective housing.
Direct use of geothermal heat for district heating networks---
At greater depths (1000 – 2000 metres), the temperature of aquifers is in
the range of 50 to 80°C. Geothermal heat extraction at these temperatures
(“low-enthalpy”) involves double-flows systems: the water abstracted from
the water table flows through a heat exchanger and is then re-injected.
Power production --Power production is a “high-enthalpy” geothermal
application which involves extracting heat from subsurface areas at
temperatures reaching 200 to 250 °C.
1) Direct uses: Geothermal Energy is used directly for domestic purposes like
cooking or heating water in numerous buildings from a central supply source. It is
also used in industries for purposes like drawing fruits vegetables and timber, milk
pasteurization and large-scale snow melting
2) In Geothermal Heat Pumps: Geothermal Heat Pumps utilise the relatively
stable moderate temperature conditions that occur within the first three hundred
metres of the lithosphere to heat buildings in winter and cool them in summer. It's
system is made up of a heat exchanger with a loop of pipes buried in the ground
and a pump. The exchanger transfers heat energy between the ground and air at the
surface by means of a fluid that circulates through the pipes during warmer
months. Heat from warm air is transferred to the heat exchanger and into the fluid.
The heat is dispersed to the rocks soil and groundwater as it moves to the pipes and
the pump is reversed during the colder months.
3) Electric Power Generation: Geothermal Energy is utilised to generate
electricity depending upon the temperature and the fluid or steam flow.
Geothermal Power Plants control the behaviour of steam and direct it to a turbine
to drive electrical generators, thereby producing electricity.
The advantages of using geothermal energy are –
7) No Fuel Required: Since geothermal energy is a naturally occurring resource
there is no fuel required, such as with fossil fuels that are a finite resource which
needs mining or otherwise extracting from the earth.
5) Heating and Cooling: Effective use of geothermal for electricity generation
requires water temperatures of over 150°C to drive turbines. Alternatively, the
temperature difference between the surface and a ground source can be used. Due
to the ground being more resistant to seasonal heat changes than the air, it can act
as a heat sink/ source with a geothermal heat pump just two metres below the
surface.
4) Sustainable / Stable: Geothermal provides a reliable source of energy as
compared to other renewable resources such as wind and solar power. This is
because the resource is always available to be tapped into, unlike with wind or
solar energy.
3) Huge Potential: Worldwide energy consumption is currently around 15
terawatts, which is far from the total potential energy available from geothermal
sources. It is currently estimated that geothermal power plants could provide
between 0.0035 and 2 terawatts of power.
2) Renewable: Geothermal energy is a renewable and sustainable source of energy
as the hot reservoirs within the Earth are naturally replenished.
6) Reliable: Energy generated from this resource is easy to calculate since it does
not fluctuate in the same way as other energy sources, such as solar and wind. This
means we can predict the power output from a geothermal plant with a high degree
of accuracy.
8) Rapid Evolution: There is a great deal of exploration into geothermal energy at
the moment, meaning that new technologies are being created to improve the
energy process. There are an increasing number of projects to improve and grow
this area of industry. With this rapid evolution many of the current cons of
geothermal energy will be mitigated against.
The disadvantages of using geothermal energy are –
1) High Costs: Geothermal energy is an expensive resource. However,
where the upfront costs are high, the outlay can be recouped as part of a
long-term investment.
2) Sustainability: In order to maintain the sustainability of geothermal
energy fluid needs to be pumped back into the underground reservoirs
faster than it is depleted. This means that geothermal energy needs to be
properly managed to maintain its sustainability.
3) Earthquakes: Geothermal energy also runs the risk of triggering
earthquakes. This is due to alterations in the Earth’s structure as a result
of digging. This problem is more prevalent with enhanced geothermal
power plants, which force water into the Earth’s crust to open up fissures
to greater exploitation of the resource. However, since most geothermal
plants are away from population centres, the implications of these
earthquakes are relatively minor.
4) Location Restricted: Geothermal plants need to be built in places where
the energy is accessible, which means that some areas are not able to
exploit this resource. Of course, this is not a problem if you live in a
place where geothermal energy is readily accessible, such as Iceland.
5) Environmental Side Effects: Although geothermal energy does not
typically release greenhouse gases, there are many of these gases stored
under the Earth’s surface which are released into the atmosphere during
digging. While these gases are also released into the atmosphere
naturally, the rate increases near geothermal plants. However, these gas
emissions are still far lower than those associated with fossil fuels.

B)The different systems for generating power using geothermal energy

can be listed as follows –
1)Flash Steam Plants: Flash steam plants differ from dry steam because
they pump hot water, rather than steam, directly to the surface. These
flash steam plants pump hot water at a high pressure from below the
earth into a ―flash tank‖ on the surface. The flash tank is at a much
lower temperature, causing the fluid to quickly ―flash‖ into steam. The
steam produced powers the turbines. The steam is cooled and condenses
into water, where it is pumped back into the ground through the injection
well.
2) Binary Cycle Plants: In binary cycle plants, the main difference is
that the water or steam from below the earth never comes in direct
contact with the turbines. Instead, water from geothermal reservoirs is
pumped through a heat exchanger where it heats a second liquid—like
isobutene (which boils at a lower temperature than water.)
This second liquid is heated into steam, which powers the turbines that
drives a generator. The hot water from the earth is recycled into the earth
through the injection well, and the second liquid is recycled through the
turbine and back into the heat exchanger where it can be used again.

Q4. Describe the term "greenhouse effect" in detail.

Ans: Greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a
planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above
what it would be without the atmosphere. Radiatively active gases or
greenhouse gases in a planet's atmosphere radiate energy in all
directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming
it. The intensity of the downward radiation – that is, the strength of the
greenhouse effect – will depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on
the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains. Earth
receives energy from the Sun in the form of ultraviolet, visible and near
infrared radiation. About 26% of the incoming solar energy is reflected
to space by the atmosphere and clouds, and 19% is absorbed by the
atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the
surface of Earth. Because the Earth’s surface is colder than the Sun, it
radiates at wavelengths that are much longer than the wavelengths that
were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the
atmosphere and warms it. The atmosphere also gains heat by sensible
and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy
both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed
by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium temperature
than if the atmosphere did not radiate. Earth's natural greenhouse effect
is critical to supporting life, and initially was a precursor to life moving
out of the ocean onto land. Human activities, however, mainly the
burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have accelerated the
greenhouse effect and led to global warming. Increase in atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane and
nitrous oxide due to human activities have been the dominant cause of
global warming.

Q5. Describe global warming in detail.

Ans: Global warming is the mainly human-caused rise of the average
temperature of the Earth’s climate change and has been demonstrated by
direct temperature measurements and by measurements of various
effects of the warming. It is a major aspect of climate change which, in
addition to rising global surface temperatures, also includes its effects,
such as changes in precipitation. The effects of global warming include
rising sea levels, regional changes in precipitation, more frequent
extreme weather events such as heat waves, and expansion of deserts.
Surface temperature increases are greatest in the Arctic, which have
contributed to the retreat of glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice. Overall,
higher temperatures bring more rain and snowfall, but for some regions
droughts and wildfires increase instead. Climate change threatens to
diminish crop yields, harming food security, and rising sea levels may
flood coastal infrastructure. Environmental impacts include the
extinction or relocation of many species as their ecosystems change,
most immediately in coral reefs, mountains, and the Arctic. Some
impacts, such as loss of snow cover, increased water vapour, and
melting permafrost, cause feedback effects that further increase the rate
of global warming. Ocean acidification caused by increased CO2 levels
is commonly grouped with these effects even though it is not driven by
temperature. Mitigation efforts to address global warming include the
development and deployment of low carbon energy technologies,
policies to reduce fossil fuel emissions, reforestation, forest preservation,
as well as the development of potential climate engineering
technologies. Societies and governments are also working to adapt to
current and future global warming impacts, including improved coastline
protection, better disaster management, and the development of more
resistant crops.

Q6. Describe the term "carbon sinks" in detail.

Ans: A carbon sink is any natural reservoir that absorbs more carbon
than it releases, and thereby lowers the concentration of CO2 from the
atmosphere. Globally, the two most important carbon sinks are
vegetation and the ocean. The natural sinks are:
a) Soil: Soil is the Earth's greatest carbon store and active carbon sink.
They represent a short to long-term carbon storage medium, and contain
more carbon than all terrestrial vegetation and the atmosphere combined.
Plant litter and other biomass including charcoal accumulates as organic
matter in soils, and is degraded by chemical weathering and biological
degradation. More recalcitrant organic carbon polymers such as
cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin, aliphatic compounds, waxes and
terpenoids are collectively retained as humus.
b) Terrestrial Plants: Photosynthesis by terrestrial plants with grass and
trees serve as carbon sinks during growing seasons. Plants store some
amount of carbon from CO2 taken in for photosynthesis, and the amount
of CO2 released during respiration is much less compared to the amount
taken in.
c) Ocean: Absorption of carbon dioxide by the oceans via
physicochemical and minor biological processes makes ocean another
prominent carbon sink. They are capable of absorbing about 50% of the
carbon emitted into the atmosphere. In particular, plankton, corals, fish,
algae and other photosynthetic bacteria are responsible for this capture.

Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide means increase in global

temperature. The amount of carbon dioxide varies naturally in a dynamic
equilibrium with photosynthesis of land plants. The Kyoto Protocol of
1992, dedicated to the cause of reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
promotes the use of carbon sinks as a form of carbon offset.
Enhancement of natural sequestration process in natural sinks
for controlling the levels of CO2 in the environment. However, natural
carbon sinks have a maximum limit, and attempts are being made to
develop artificial carbon sinks. While the creation of artificial sinks has
been discussed, no major artificial systems remove carbon from the
atmosphere on a material scale.