Introduction to DBMS and SQL

Database:
A database is a collection of related data. By data, we mean known facts that can be
recorded and that have implicit meaning.

Database Management System:

A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain
a database. The DBMS is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of defining,
constructing, manipulating, and sharing databases among various users and applications.

SQL
SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard. SQL
is a standard language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data in databases. All the Relational Database
Management Systems (RDMS) like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres and SQL Server
use SQL as their standard database language.

SQL is widely popular because it offers the following advantages:

• Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.
• Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-
compilers.
• Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
• Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
• Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.

SQL Commands
➢ The standard SQL commands to interact with relational databases are classified into the following groups based on
their nature

1. DDL - Data Definition Language

2. DML - Data Manipulation Language
3. DCL - Data Control Language
1. DDL - Data Definition Language
➢ Used to define, change and drop the structure of a table

Sl. Command & Description

No.
1 CREATE
Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other object in the database.

2 ALTER
Modifies an existing database object, such as a table.
3 DROP
Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other objects in the database.

2. DML - Data Manipulation Language

➢ Used to insert, modify, delete and retrieve data from a table

Sl.No. Command & Description

1 SELECT
Retrieves certain records from one or more tables.
2 INSERT
Creates a record.
3 UPDATE
Modifies records.
4 DELETE
Deletes records.

3. DCL - Data Control Language

➢ used to provide control over the data in a database

Sl.No. Command & Description

1 GRANT
Gives a privilege to user.
2 REVOKE
 Takes back privileges granted from
user.

SQL Data Types

▪ Numeric data types

• integer numbers of various sizes (INTEGER or INT, and SMALLINT)

• floating-point (real) numbers of various precision (FLOAT or REAL, and DOUBLE PRECISION).

• Formatted numbers can be declared by using DECIMAL(i,j)—or DEC(i,j) or NUMERIC(i,j)—where

i -precision, total number of decimal digits

j - scale, number of digits after the decimal point.

▪ Character-string data types

• fixed length—CHAR(n) or CHARACTER(n), where n is the number of characters

• varying length—VARCHAR(n) or CHAR VARYING(n) or CHARACTER VARYING(n), where n is the

maximum number of characters

• When specifying a literal string value, it is placed between single quotation marks (apostrophes), and it is case
sensitive

• A Boolean data type has the traditional values of TRUE or FALSE

• In SQL, because of the presence of NULL values, a three-valued logic is used, so a third possible value for a
Boolean data type is UNKNOWN

• The DATE data type has ten positions, and its components are YEAR, MONTH, and DAY in the form YYYY-
MM-DD

• The TIME data type has at least eight positions, with the components HOUR, MINUTE, and SECOND in the
form HH:MM:SS.

Specifying Key and Referential Integrity Constraints

➢ Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on a table

▪ Primary key: uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table

▪ Foreign key: uniquely identifies a row/record in another table

▪ NOT NULL: ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

CREATE Table
▪ used to create a new table.

▪ Syntax:

TABLE table_name (column1 datatype,column2 datatype,column3

., columnN datatype, PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns ) );

INSERT
▪ used to add new rows of data to a table in the database.

▪ Syntax:

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3, ...columnN) VALUES

(value1, value2, value3,...valueN);
- Here, column1, column2, column3,...columnN are the names of the columns in the table
into which you want to insert the data.

SELECT
▪ used to fetch the data from a database table which returns this data in the form of a result table.

▪ Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2, columnN FROM table_name;

Here, column1, column2... are the fields of a table whose values you want to fetch.
▪ If you want to fetch all the fields available in the field, then you can use the following syntax.

SELECT * FROM table_name;

WHERE
▪ clause is used to specify a condition while fetching the data from a single table or by joining with multiple
tables.
▪ Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, columnN FROM table_name WHERE [condition]
UPDATE
▪ used to modify the existing records in a table. You can use the WHERE clause with the UPDATE query to
update the selected rows, otherwise all the rows would be affected.

▪ Syntax

UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2...., columnN = valueN

WHERE [condition];
▪ You can combine N number of conditions using the AND or the OR operators.

DROP TABLE
▪ used to remove a table definition and all the data, indexes, triggers, constraints and permission specifications for
that table.

▪ Syntax:
DROP TABLE table_name;
 Lab Programs

1. Consider the following schema for a Library Database:

BOOK (BOOK_ID, TITLE, PUBLISHER_NAME, PUB_YEAR)
BOOK_AUTHORS (BOOK_ID, AUTHOR_NAME)
PUBLISHER (NAME, ADDRESS, PHONE)
BOOK_COPIES (BOOK_ID, BRANCH_ID, NO_OF_COPIES)
BOOK_LENDING (BOOK_ID, BRANCH_ID, CARD_NO, DATE_OUT, DUE_DATE)
LIBRARY_BRANCH (BRANCH_ID, BRANCH_NAME, ADDRESS)
CARD (CARD_NO)
Write SQL queries to
a) Retrieve details of all books in the library – id, title, name of publisher, authors, number of copies in each branch.
b) Get the particulars of borrowers who have borrowed more than 3 books, but from Jan 2017 to Jun 2017.
c) Partition the BOOK table based on year of publication. Demonstrate its working with a simple query.
d) Create a view of all books and its number of copies that are currently available in the library.
e) Delete a book in the BOOK table. Update the contents of other tables to reflect this data manipulation operation.

Table Creation

CREATE TABLE PUBLISHER (NAME VARCHAR2 (20) PRIMARY KEY,PHONE INTEGER, ADDRESS
VARCHAR2 (20));

CREATE TABLE BOOK (BOOK_ID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,TITLE VARCHAR2 (20), PUB_YEAR
VARCHAR2 (20), PUBLISHER_NAME REFERENCES PUBLISHER (NAME) ON DELETE CASCADE);

CREATE TABLE BOOK_AUTHORS(AUTHOR_NAME VARCHAR2 (20),

BOOK_ID REFERENCES BOOK (BOOK_ID) ON DELETE CASCADE,PRIMARY KEY (BOOK_ID,
AUTHOR_NAME));

CREATE TABLE LIBRARY_BRANCH (BRANCH_ID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,BRANCH_NAME

VARCHAR2 (50), ADDRESS VARCHAR2 (50));

CREATE TABLE BOOK_COPIES(NO_OF_COPIES INTEGER,

BOOK_ID REFERENCES BOOK (BOOK_ID) ON DELETE CASCADE,
BRANCH_ID REFERENCES LIBRARY_BRANCH (BRANCH_ID) ON DELETE
CASCADE, PRIMARY KEY (BOOK_ID, BRANCH_ID));

CREATE TABLE CARD (CARD_NO INTEGER PRIMARY KEY);

CREATE TABLE BOOK_LENDING(DATE_OUT DATE, DUE_DATE DATE,

BOOK_ID REFERENCES BOOK (BOOK_ID) ON DELETE CASCADE, BRANCH_IDREFERENCES
LIBRARY_BRANCH (BRANCH_ID) ON DELETE CASCADE, CARD_NO REFERENCES CARD
(CARD_NO) ON DELETE CASCADE,PRIMARY KEY (BOOK_ID, BRANCH_ID, CARD_NO));
Queries:

a) Retrieve details of all books in the library – id, title, name of publisher, authors,number
of copies in each branch, etc.

SELECT B.BOOK_ID, B.TITLE, B.PUBLISHER_NAME, A.AUTHOR_NAME,

C.NO_OF_COPIES, L.BRANCH_ID FROM BOOK B, BOOK_AUTHORS A, BOOK_COPIES
C, LIBRARY_BRANCH LWHERE B.BOOK_ID=A.BOOK_ID AND
B.BOOK_ID=C.BOOK_ID AND L.BRANCH_ID=C.BRANCH_ID;
 b) Get the particulars of borrowe rs who have borrowe d more than 3 books, but fromJan
2017 to Jun 2017.

SELECT CARD_NO FROM

BOOK_LENDING
WHERE DATE_OUT BETWEEN ‘01-JAN-2017‘ AND ‘01-JUL-2017‘GROUP
BY CARD_NO
HAVING COUNT (*)>3;

c) Delete a book in BOOK table. Update the contents of other tables to reflect this data
manipulation operation.

DELETE FROM BOOKWHERE

BOOK_ID=3;

d) Partition the BOOK table based on year of publication. Demonstrate its working with a
simple query.

CREATE VIEW V_PUBLICATION AS

SELECT PUB_YEAR
FROM BOOK;
e) Create a view of all books and its number of copies that are currently available in the
Library.

CREATE VIEW V_BOOKS AS

SELECT B.BOOK_ID, B.TITLE, C.NO_OF_COPIES
FROM BOOK B, BOOK_COPIES C, LIBRARY_BRANCH LWHERE
B.BOOK_ID=C.BOOK_ID
AND C.BRANCH_ID=L.BRANCH_ID;
2. Consider the following schema for Order Database:
SALESMAN (SALESMAN_ID, NAME, CITY, COMMISSION)
CUSTOMER (CUSTOMER_ID, CUST_NAME, CITY, GRADE, SALESMAN_ID)
ORDERS (ORD_NO, PURCHASE_AMT, ORD_DATE, CUSTOMER_ID, SALESMAN_ID)

Write SQL queries to

a) Count the customers with grades above Bangalore’s average.
b) Find the name and numbers of all salesmen who had more than one customer.
c) List all the salesman and indicate those who have and do not have customers in their cities (Use
UNION operation.)
d) Create a view that finds the salesman who has the customer with the highest order of a day.
e) Demonstrate the DELETE operation by removing salesman with id 1000. All his orders must also be
deleted.

Table Creation
create table Salesman(
Salesman_ID int primary key,
Name varchar(20),
City varchar(20),
Commission varchar(20));

insert into Salesman values(&Salesman_ID,'&Name','&City','&Commission');

SALESMAN_ID NAME CITY COMMISSION

----------- -------------------- -------------------- --------------------
1000 John Bangalore 25 %
2000 Ravi Bangalore 20 %
3000 Kumar Mysuru 15 %
4000 Smith Delhi 30 %
5000 Harsha Hyderabad 15 %

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------
Create table Customer(Customer_ID int primary key,
Cust_Name varchar(20),
City varchar(20),
Grade int,
Salesman_ID references Salesman(Salesman_ID) on delete set null);

insert into Customer values(&Customer_ID,'&Cust_Name','&City',&Grade,&Salesman_ID);

CUSTOMER_ID CUST_NAME CITY GRADE SALESMAN_ID

----------- -------------------- -------------------- ---------- -----------
10 Preethi Bangalore 100 1000
11 Vivek Mangalore 300 1000
12 Bhaskar Chennai 400 2000
13 Chethan Bangalore 200 2000
14 Mamatha Bangalore 400 3000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------
create table Orders(Ord_No int primary key,
Purchase_Amt Number,
Ord_Date date,
Customer_ID references Customer(Customer_ID) on delete set null,
Salesman_ID references Salesman(Salesman_ID) on delete set null);
insert into Orders values(&Ord_No,&Purchase,'&Ord_Date',&Customer_ID,&Salesman_ID);

ORD_NO PURCHASE_AMT ORD_DATE CUSTOMER_ID SALESMAN_ID

---------- ------------------------ ------------------- --------------------- -------------------
50 5000 04-MAY-17 10 1000
51 450 20-JAN-17 10 2000
52 1000 20-JAN-17 13 2000
53 3500 13-APR-17 14 3000
54 550 9-MAR-17 12 2000

Queries :
a. select count(*) from Customer where Grade > (select avg(Grade) from Customer where city =
'Bangalore');

COUNT(*)
----------------
3

b. select grade,count(Customer_ID) from customer having grade >

(Select avg(grade) from Customer where city='Bangalore') group by grade;

GRADE COUNT(CUSTOMER_ID)
---------- ------------------
400 2
300 1

c. select Salesman_ID, Name from Salesman S having

(select count(*) from Customer where Salesman_ID=S.Salesman_ID) > 1 group by Name,
Salesman_ID;
SALESMAN_ID NAME
----------- --------------------
1000 John
2000 Ravi

d. select Salesman.Salesman_ID,Name,Cust_Name from Salesman,Customer

where Salesman.City=Customer.City
Union
select Salesman.Salesman_ID,Name,'No-Match'
from Salesman where not City=any (select City from Customer);

SALESMAN_ID NAME CUST_NAME

----------- ---------------- --------------------
1000 John Chethan
1000 John Mamatha
1000 John Preethi
2000 Ravi Chethan
2000 Ravi Mamatha
2000 Ravi Preethi
3000 Kumar No-Match
4000 Smith No-Match
5000 Harsha No-Match

e. create view salesman_order as select b.Ord_Date, a.Salesman_ID,Name

from Salesman a, Orders B where A.Salesman_ID=b.Salesman_ID and b.Purchase_Amt=
(select max(Purchase_Amt) from Orders C where C.Ord_Date=b.Ord_Date);

ORD_DATE SALESMAN_ID NAME

--------------- ------------------- --------
04-MAY-17 1000 John
20-JAN-17 2000 Ravi
13-APR-17 3000 Kumar
09-MAR-17 2000 Ravi

f. delete from Salesman where Salesman_ID=1000;

SALESMAN_ID NAME CITY COMMISSION

-------------------- -------- --------- ---------------------
2000 Ravi Bangalore 20 %
3000 Kumar Mysuru 15 %
4000 Smith Delhi 30 %
5000 Harsha Hyderabad 15 %

CUSTOMER_ID CUST_NAME CITY GRADE SALESMAN_ID

-------------------- ------------------ ---------- ------------- -----------------
10 Preethi Bangalore 100
11 Vivek Mangalore 300
12 Bhaskar Chennai 400 2000
13 Chethan Bangalore 200 2000
14 Mamatha Bangalore 400 3000
3. Consider the schema for Company Database: Exercise
EMPLOYEE(SSN, NAME, ADDRESS, SEX, SALARY, SUPERSSN, DNO)
DEPARTMENT(DNO, DNAME, MGRSSN, MGRSTARTDATE)
DLOCATION(DNO,DLOC)
PROJECT(PNO, PNAME, PLOCATION, DNO)
WORKS_ON(SSN, PNO, HOURS)
Write SQL queries to
a) Make a list of all project numbers for projects that involve an employee whose last name is ‘Scott’,
either as a worker or as a manager of the department that Controls the project.
b) Show the resulting salaries if every employee working on the ‘IoT’ project is Given a 10 percent
raise.
c) Find the sum of the salaries of all employees of the ‘Accounts’ department, as well as the
maximum salary, the minimum salary, and the average salary in this department
d) Retrieve the name of each employee who works on the entire projects controlled by department
number 5.
e) For each department that has more than five employees, retrieve the department number and
the number of its employees who are making more than Rs. 6,00,000.

Create table Depts (Dname varchar(20),Dno int Primary Key,Mgrstrdate date);

Alter table Depts add Mgrssn references Emp(SSN) on delete set NULL;

update emp set dno = 50 where ssn = 1;

Create table Emp(SSN int Primary Key,

FName varchar(20),LName varchar(20),
Address varchar(20),
Sex char(1),
Salary int,superssn references emp(ssn) on delete cascade,Dno references Depts(Dno) on delete cascade);
Create table Deptloc ( Dno references Depts(dno) ,
Dloc varchar(20));
insert into Deptloc values(&dno , '&dloc');

DNO DLOC
---------- --------------------
1 Banglore
2 Mysore
3 Hubli
4 Punjab
5 Guwahati

Create table Prj (Pno int Primary Key , Pname varchar(20), Ploc varchar(20), Dno references Depts(dno));
insert into Prj values(&pno, '&pname' , '&ploc', &dno);
 Create table Work(SSN references Emp(SSN), Pno references Prj(pno), hours number(2,2));
insert into work values(&SSN,&Pno, &hours);

Queries:

a. Select distinct p.pno from Prj p, Depts d, Emp e where e.dno=d.dno and d.dno = p.dno and (e.lname =
'scott' or d.mgrssn in (select ssn from Emp where lname='scott'));

PNO
------
60
10

b. Select e.ssn , e.fname,e.lname, 1.1*e.salary as raisedsal from emp e , prj p, work w where p.pname =
'IOT' and p.pno = w.pno and e.ssn = w.ssn;

c. Select sum(salary) as sumsal, avg(salary) as avgsal, min(salary) as minsal, max(salary) as maxsal from
Emp e, Depts d where e.dno = d.dno and d.dname='Accounts';
d. select e.fname , e.lname from Emp e where not exists ((select pno from Prj where dno='5') minus (select
pno from WORK where e.ssn=ssn));

e. select d.dno,d.dname,e.fname,e.lname ,count(*) as noofemp from Emp e, Depts d where e.dno=d.dno and
e.salary>600000 and d.dno in(select e1.dno from Emp e1 group by e1.dno having count(*)>5) group by
d.dno,d.dname,e.fname,e.lname;

DNO DNAME FNAME LNAME NO OF EMP

---------- ------------ ----------- ---------- -------------
1 research Kavya Bind 1

4. The following relations keep track of airline flight information: Exercise

FLIGHTS (FLNO: INTEGER, SOURCE: STRING, DESTINATION: STRING, DISTANCE: INTEGER,
DEPARTS:TIME, ARRIVES: TIME, PRICE: INTEGER)
AIRCRAFT (AID: INTEGER, ANAME: STRING, CRUISINGRANGE: INTEGER)
CERTIFIED (EID: INTEGER, AID: INTEGER)
EMPLOYEES (EID: INTEGER, ENAME: STRING, SALARY: INTEGER)
Note that the Employees relation describes pilots and other kinds of employees as well; every pilot is certified
for some aircraft, and only pilots are certified to fly.
Write SQL queries to
a) Find the names of aircraft such that all pilots certified to operate them earn more than $80,000.
b) For each pilot who is certified for more than three aircraft, find the eid and the maximum cruisingrange
of the aircraft for which she or he is certified.
c) For all aircraft with cruisingrange over 1000 miles, find the name of the aircraft and the average salary
of all pilots certified for this aircraft.
d) Print the enames of pilots who can operate planes with cruising range greater than 3000 miles but are
not certified on any Boeing aircraft.
e) Print the name and salary of every nonpilot whose salary is more than the average salary for pilots.
create table Flights(Flno int primary key, Source varchar(20), Destination varchar(20),Distance
int,DepartTime varchar(10),ArrivalTime varchar(10), Price int);

insert into Flights values(&Flno, '&Source', '&Destination', &Distance, '&DepartTime', '&ArrivalTime',

&Price);

create table AirCraft(Aid int primary key, Aname varchar(20), CrusingRange int);

insert into AirCraft values(&Aid,'&AName',&CruisingRange);

create table Employees(Eid int primary key, Ename varchar(20), Salary int);

insert into Employees values(&Eid,'&Ename',&Salary);

 create table Certified(Eid references Employees(Eid), Aid references AirCraft(Aid));

insert into Certified values(&Eid,&Aid);

EID AID
---------- ----------
11 3003
11 1001
11 2002
13 4004
12 2002

Queries:
a. select Aname from AirCraft A, Employees E, Certified C where A.Aid = C.Aid and E.Eid = C.Eid and
E.Salary > 80000;

ANAME
--------------------
Dishan
KingFisher
Deccan
GoIbibo
b. select E.Eid, Max(CrusingRange) from Employees E, Certified C, AirCraft A where E.Eid=C.Eid and
A.Aid = C.Aid group by E.Eid having count(*) > 3;

EID MAX(CRUSINGRANGE)
---------- -----------------
11 3000

c. select A.Aname ,avg(Salary) from Employees E, Certified C , Aircraft A where C.Eid = E.Eid and A.Aid
= C.Aid and A.CrusingRange>1000 group by A.Aname;

ANAME AVG(SALARY)
---------------- -----------
Deccan 112500
KingFisher 90000
Dishan 150000

d. (select Ename from Employees E, Certified C where C.Aid in

( select A.Aid from Aircraft A, Certified C where A.Aid not in
( select Aid from Aircraft where Aname = 'boeing' or CrusingRange=3000)
group by A.Aid
) and E.Eid = C.Eid)
Minus
(select ename from Employees E, Certified C where C.Aid in (
select A.Aid from Aircraft A, Certified C where A.Aid in
(select Aid from Aircraft where Aname = 'boeing')
group by A.Aid) and E.Eid = C.Eid);
e. select Eid, Ename, Salary from Employees where salary > (select avg(salary) from Employees) and Eid
not in ( select Eid from Certified);

5. Consider the following relations Structured Enquiry

STUDENT(SNUM: INTEGER, SNAME: STRING, MAJOR: STRING, LEVEL: STRING, AGE: INTEGER)
CLASS(CNAME: STRING, MEETS AT: STRING, ROOM: STRING, FID: INTEGER)
ENROLLED(SNUM: INTEGER, CNAME: STRING)
FACULTY(FID: INTEGER, FNAME: STRING, DEPTID: INTEGER)
The meaning of these relations is straightforward; for example, Enrolled has one record per student-class
pair such that the student is enrolled in the class.
Write the following queries in SQL. No duplicates should be printed in any of the answers.
a) Find the names of all Juniors (level = JR) who are enrolled in a class taught by Rakesh.
b) Find the age of the oldest student who is either a history major or enrolled in a course taught by Ravi.
c) Find the names of all students who are enrolled in two classes that meet at the same time.
d) For each faculty member that has taught classes only in room R128, print the faculty member’s name
and the total number of classes she or he has taught.
Create a view that contains the details of students along with the name of the courses enrolled.

Create table Student (Snum int Primary Key,Sname varchar(20),Major varchar(10), Lev varchar(20),age int);

Insert into Student values(&Snum,'&Sname','&Major','&Lev',&age);

Create table Faculty(Fid int Primary Key,Fname varchar(20),Depid int);

Insert into Faculty values(&Fid , '&Fname',&Depid);

Create table Class(Cname varchar(20) Primary Key, Meets_at varchar(20),Room varchar(20),Fid references
Faculty(Fid) on delete set NULL);
Insert into Class values ('&Cname' , '&Meets_at' ,'&Room' , &Fid);

Create table Enrolled (Snum references Student(Snum),Cname references Class(Cname));

Insert into Enrolled values(&Snum ,'&Cname');

drop table Class cascade constraints;

drop table Faculty cascade constraints;

a. Select Distinct S.Snum, S.Sname from Student S,Class C, Enrolled E,Faculty F where S.Snum =
E.Snum and E.Cname = C.Cname and C.Fid = F.Fid and F.Fname = 'Rakesh' and S.Lev = 'JR'
order by Snum;
b. Select MAX(S.age) as Age from Student S where (S.Major = 'History') OR S.Snum in (Select E.Snum
from Class C , Enrolled E, Faculty F where E.cname = C.cname and C.Fid = F.Fid and F.Fname =
'Ravi');

AGE
------
26

c. Select Distinct S.Sname from Student S where S.Snum in (Select E1.Snum from Enrolled E1,Enrolled
E2, Class C1, Class C2 where E1.snum = E2.snum and E1.cname <> E2.cname and E1.cname =
C1.cname and E2.cname = C2.cname and C1.meets_at = C2.meets_at);

SNAME
----------------
Helen
Zola

d. Select Distinct F.Fname , count(*) as CourseCount from CLass C , Faculty F where C.FID not in
(Select Fid from Class where Room IN (Select Room from Class where Room!= 'R128')) AND C.Fid =
F.Fid group by F.Fname;

FNAME COURSECOUNT
------------- -----------
Kera 2
Jane 2
 Viva Questions

1. What is SQL?
Structured Query Language
2. What is database?
A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning, representing some
aspect of real world and which is designed, built and populated with data for a specific purpose.
3. What is DBMS?
It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a database. In other
words it is general-purpose software that provides the users with the processes of defining,
constructing and manipulating the database for various applications.
4. What is a Database system?
The database and DBMS software together is called as Database system.
5. Advantages of DBMS?
➢ Redundancy is controlled.
➢ Unauthorized access is restricted.
➢ Providing multiple user interfaces.
➢ Enforcing integrity constraints.
➢ Providing backup and recovery.
6. Disadvantage in File Processing System?
➢ Data redundancy & inconsistency.
➢ Difficult in accessing data.
➢ Data isolation.
➢ Data integrity.
➢ Concurrent access is not possible.
➢ Security Problems.
7. Describe the three levels of data abstraction?
There are three levels of abstraction:
➢ Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.
➢ Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are stored indatabase
and what relationship among those data.
➢ View level:The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire database.
8. Define the "integrity rules"
There are two Integrity rules.
➢ Entity Integrity:States that ―Primary key cannot have NULL value‖
➢ Referential Integrity:States that ―Foreign Key can be either a NULL value or should be Primary
Key value of other relation.
9. What is extension and intension?
Extension - It is the number of tuples present in a table at any instance. This is time dependent.
Intension -It is a constant value that gives the name, structure of table and the constraints laid on
it.
10. What is Data Independence?
Data independence means that ―the application is independent of the storage structure and
access strategy of data‖. In other words, The ability to modify the schema definition in one level
should not affect the schema definition in the next higher level.
Two types of Data Independence:
➢ Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level should not affect the logical level.
➢ Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should affect the view level.
NOTE: Logical Data Independence is more difficult to achieve.

11. What is a view? How it is related to data independence?

A view may be thought of as a virtual table, that is, a table that does not really exist in its
own right but is instead derived from one or more underlying base table. In other words, there is no
stored file that direct represents the view instead a definition of view is stored in data dictionary.
Growth and restructuring of base tables is not reflected in views. Thus the view can insulate
users from the effects of restructuring and growth in the database. Hence accounts for logical data
independence.
12. What is Data Model?

A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships data semantics and constraints.
13. What is E-R model?
This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities and of
relationship among these objects. Entities are described in a database by a set of attributes.
14. What is Object Oriented model?
This model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in instance
variables within the object. An object also contains bodies of code that operate on the object. These
bodies of code are called methods. Objects that contain same types of values and the same methods
are grouped together into classes.
15. What is an Entity?
It is an 'object' in the real world with an independent existence.
16. What is an Entity type?
It is a collection (set) of entities that have same attributes.
17. What is an Entity set?
It is a collection of all entities of particular entity type in the database.
18. What is an Extension of entity type?
The collections of entities of a particular entity type are grouped together into an entity
set.
19. What is an attribute?
It is a particular property, which describes the entity.
20. What is a Relation Schema and a Relation?
A relation Schema denoted by R(A1, A2, …, An) is made up of the relation name
R and the list of attributes Ai that it contains. A relation is defined as a set of tuples. Let r
be the relation which contains set tuples (t1, t2, t3, ...,tn). Each tuple is an ordered list of n-
values t=(v1,v2, ..., vn).
21. What is degree of a Relation?
It is the number of attribute of its relation schema.
22. What is Relationship?
It is an association among two or more entities.
23. What is Relationship set?
The collection (or set) of similar relationships.
24. What is Relationship type?
Relationship type defines a set of associations or a relationship set among a given set of
entity types.
25. What is degree of Relationship type?
It is the number of entity type participating.
26. What is DDL (Data Definition Language)?
A data base schema is specified by a set of definitions expressed by a special language
called DDL.
27. What is VDL (View Definition Language)?
It specifies user views and their mappings to the conceptual schema.
28. What is SDL (Storage Definition Language)?
This language is to specify the internal schema. This language may specify the mapping
between two schemas.
29. What is Data Storage - Definition Language?
The storage structures and access methods used by database system are specified by a
set of definition in a special type of DDL called data storage- definition language.
30. What is DML (Data Manipulation Language)?
This language that enable user to access or manipulate data as organized by appropriate
data model.
➢ Procedural DML or Low level: DML requires a user to specify what data are neededand how to
get those data.
➢ Non-Procedural DML or High level: DML requires a user to specify what data areneeded
without specifying how to get those data.
31. What is DML Compiler?
It translates DML statements in a query language into low-level instruction that the
query evaluation engine can understand.
32. What is Relational Algebra?
It is a procedural query language. It consists of a set of operations that take one or
two relations as input and produce a new relation.
33. What is Relational Calculus?
 It is an applied predicate calculus specifically tailored for relational databases proposed
by E.F. Codd. E.g. of languages based on it are DSL, ALPHA, QUEL.
34. What is normalization?
It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their Functional
Dependencies (FDs) and primary key to achieve the properties
➢ Minimizing redundancy
➢ Minimizing insertion, deletion and update anomalies.
35. What is Functional Dependency?
A Functional dependency is denoted by X Y between two sets of attributes X and Y that
are subsets of R specifies a constraint on the possible tuple that can form a relation state r of
R. The constraint is for any two tuples t1 and t2 in r if t1[X] = t2[X] then they have t1[Y] = t2[Y].
This means the value of X component of a tuple uniquely determines the value of component Y.
36. When is a functional dependency F said to be minimal?
➢ Every dependency in F has a single attribute for its right hand side.
➢ We cannot replace any dependency X A in F with a dependency Y A where Y is a proper subset
of X and still have a set of dependency that is equivalent to F.
➢ We cannot remove any dependency from F and still have set of dependency that is equivalent to F.
37. What is Multivalued dependency?
Multivalued dependency denoted by X Y specified on relation schema R, where X and
Y are both subsets of R, specifies the following constraint on any relation r of R: if two tuples t1
and t2 exist in r such that t1[X] = t2[X] then t3 and t4 should also exist in r with the following
properties
➢ t3[x] = t4[X] = t1[X] = t2[X]
➢ t3[Y] = t1[Y] and t4[Y] = t2[Y]
➢ t3[Z] = t2[Z] and t4[Z] = t1[Z]
where [Z = (R-(X U Y)) ]
38. What is Lossless join property?
It guarantees that the spurious tuple generation does not occur with respect to relation
schemas after decomposition.
39. What is 1 NF (Normal Form)?
The domain of attribute must include only atomic (simple, indivisible) values.
40. What is Fully Functional dependency?
It is based on concept of full functional dependency. A functional dependency X Y isfully
functional dependency if removal of any attribute A from X means that the dependency does not
hold any more.
41. What is 2NF?
A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is fully
functionally dependent on primary key.
42. What is 3NF?
A relation schema R is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and for every FD X A either of the following
is true
➢ X is a Super-key of R.
➢ A is a prime attribute of R.
In other words, if every non prime attribute is non-transitively dependent on primary key.
43. What is BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)?
A relation schema R is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and satisfies additional constraints that for
every FD X A, X must be a candidate key.
44. What is 4NF?
A relation schema R is said to be in 4NF if for every Multivalued dependency X Y
that holds over R, one of following is true
➢ X is subset or equal to (or) XY = R.
➢ X is a super key.
45. What is 5NF?
A Relation schema R is said to be 5NF if for every join dependency {R1, R2, ...,Rn} that
holds R, one the following is true
➢ Ri = R for some i.
➢ The join dependency is implied by the set of FD, over R in which the left side is key of R.
46. What is Domain-Key Normal Form?
A relation is said to be in DKNF if all constraints and dependencies that should hold on the
constraint can be enforced by simply enforcing the domain constraint and key constraint on the
relation.