Chapter 3

Lesson Research Design

1
Types of Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative Research Designs have five general classifications: descriptive, correlational, ex

post facto, quasi-experimental, and experimental.

Descriptive Research. When little is known about the research problem, then it is
appropriate to use descriptive research design. It is a design that is exploratory in nature.
The purpose of descriptive research is basically to answer questions such as who, what,
where, when, and how much. So this design is best used when the main objective of the
study is just to observe and report a certain phenomenon as it is happening.

Correlational Research. The main goal of this design is to determine if variable increases
or decreases as another variable increases or decreases. This design seeks to establish an
association between variables. It does not seek cause and effect relationship like descriptive
research; it measures variables as it occurs. It has two major purposes: (a) to clarify the
relationship between variables and (b) predict the magnitude of the association. However,
the extent of the purpose of correlational research depends on the scope and delimitation of
the study.

Ex Post Facto. If the objective of the study is to measure a cause from a pre-existing
effects, then Ex Post Facto research design is more appropriate to use. In this design, the
researcher has no control over the variables in the research study. Thus, one cannot
conclude that the changes measured happen during the actual conduct of the study. The last
two types of quantitative research designs are identifiable for the existence of treatment or
intervention applied to the current research study. Intervention or treatment pertains to
controlling or manipulating the independent variable in an experiment. It is assumed that the
changes in dependent variables were caused by the independent variable. There are also
two groups of subjects, participants, or respondents in quasi experimental and experimental
research. The treatment group refers to the group subjected to treatment or intervention.
The group not subject to treatment or intervention is called the control group.

Quasi-Experimental. The term means partly, partially, or almost – pronounced as kwahz-

eye. This research design aims to measure the causal relationship between variables. The
effect measured is considered to have occurred during the conduct of the current study. The
partiality of quasi-experimental design comes from assigning subjects, participants, or
respondents into their groups. The groups are known to be already established before the
study, such as age educational background and nationality. Since the assignment of
subjects, participants, or respondents are not randomly assigned into an experimental or
control groups, the conclusion of results is limited.

Experimental Research. This research design is based on the scientific method called
experiment with a procedure of gathering data under a controlled or manipulated
environment. It is also known as true experimental design since it applies treatment and
manipulation more extensively compared to quasi-experimental design. Random assignment
of subjects or participants into treatment and control group is done increasing the validity of
the study. Experimental research, therefore, attempts to affect a certain variable by directly
manipulating the independent variable.
Chapter 3
Lesson Sample and Sampling Procedure
2
Population and Sample
The first step in determining the sample size is identifying the population of the topic of
interest. The population is the totality of all the objects, elements, persons, and
characteristics under consideration. It is understood that this population possesses common
characteristics about which the research aims to explore.

There are two types of population: target population and accessible population. The actual
population is the target population, for example, all Senior High School Students enrolled in
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in the Division of Cagayan de
Oro City. While the accessible population is the portion of the population in which the
researcher has reasonable access, for example all Senior High School enrolled, STEM
strand at Marayon Science High School – X.

When the whole population is too costly or time-consuming or impractical to consider, then, a
sample representative is identified. Sampling pertains to the systematic process of selecting
the group to be analyzed in the research study. The goal is to get information from a group
that represents the target population. Once a good sample is obtained, the generalizability
and applicability of findings increases.

The representative subset of the population refers to the sample. All the 240 Senior High
School Students enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)
Strand in a school, for example, constitute the population; 60 of those students constitute the
sample. A good sample should have characteristics of the represented population –
characteristics that are within the scope of the study with fair accuracy. Generally, the larger
the sample, the more reliable the sample be, but still, it will depend on the scope and
delimitation and research design of the study.

Approaches in Identifying the Sample Size

Heuristics. This approach refers to the rule of the thumb for sample size. The early
established approach by Gay (1976) stated by Cristobal and Dela Cruz-Cristobal (2017, p
172), sample sizes for different research designs are the following:

Literature Review. Another approach is by reading similar or related literature and

studies to your current research study. Since you are done writing your review of related
 literature and studies, you might want to recall how these studies determine sample size.
Using this approach increases the validity of your sampling procedure.

Formulas. Formulas are also being established for the computation of an acceptable
sample size. The common formula is Slovin’s Formula.

Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research

Simple Random Sampling. It is a way of

choosing individuals in which all members of the
accessible population are given an equal chance
to be selected. There are various ways of
obtaining samples through simple random
sampling. These are fish bowl technique, roulette
wheel, or use of the table of random numbers.

One can also use MS excel to list random

numbers

Stratified Random Sampling. The same with

simple random sampling, stratified random
sampling also gives an equal chance to all
members of the population to be chosen.
However, the population is first divided into strata strata
or groups before selecting the samples. The
samples are chosen from these subgroups and
not directly from the entire population. This
You can simply
procedure is bestfollow
used the steps
when the from this given
variables of theexample:
study are also grouped into classes such as
gender and grade level.
A population of 600 Junior High School students includes 180 Grade 7, 160 Grade 8, 150
Grade 9, and 110 Grade 10. If the computed sample size is 240, the following proportionate
sampling will be as follows.

The number of members per subgroup is divided by the total accessible sample size.
The percentage result of members per subgroup will be multiplied from the computed total
sample size. After obtaining the sample size per strata, then simple random sampling will be
done for the selection of samples fro m each group.

CLUSTER SAMPLING

This procedure is usually applied in large-

scale studies, geographical spread out of
the population is a challenge, and gathering
information will be very time-consuming.
Similar to stratified random sampling, cluster
sampling also involves grouping of the
population according to subgroups or
clusters. It is a method where multiple
clusters of people from the chosen
population will be created by the researcher
in order to have homogeno
us characteristics.
For example, a researcher would like to interview of all public senior high school students
across Mindanao. As a researcher cluster will be selected to satisfy the plan size. In the
given example, the first cluster can be by region, the second cluster can be by division, and
the third cluster can be by district.

Systematic Sampling. This procedure is as simple as selecting samples every nth

(example every 2nd, 5th) of the chosen population until arriving at a desired total number of
sample size. Therefore the selection is based on a predetermined interval. Dividing the
population size by the sample size, the interval will be obtained. For example, from a total
population of 75, you have 25 samples; using systematic sampling, you will decide to select
every 3rd person on the list of individuals.
Chapter 3
Lesson
Research Instrument, Reliability
3 and Validity

Research Instruments are basic tools researchers used to gather data for specific
research problems. Common instruments are performance tests, questionnaires,
interviews, and observation checklist. The first two instruments are usually used in
quantitative research, while the last two instruments are often in qualitative research.
However, interviews and observation checklists can still be used in quantitative research
once the information gathered is translated into numerical data.

In constructing the research instrument of the study, there are many factors to be
considered. The type of instrument, reasons for choosing the type, and the description and
conceptual definition of its parts are some of the factors that need to be decided before
constructing a research instrument. Furthermore, it is also very important to understand the
concepts of scales of research instruments and how to establish validity and reliability of
instruments.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

Concise. Have you tried answering a very long test, and because of its length, you just pick
the answer without even reading it? A good research instrument is concise in length yet can
elicit the needed data.

Sequential. Questions or items must be arranged well. It is recommended to arrange

it from simplest to the most complex. In this way, the instrument will be more favorable to the
respondents to answer.

Valid and reliable. The instrument should pass the tests of validity and reliability to get
more appropriate and accurate information.

Easily tabulated. Since you will be constructing an instrument for quantitative research, this
factor should be considered. Hence, before crafting the instruments, the researcher makes
sure that the variable and research questions are established. These will be an important
basis for making items in the research instruments.

Ways in Developing Research Instrument

There are three ways you can consider in developing the research instrument for your
study. First is adopting an instrument from the already utilized instruments from previous
related studies. The second way is modifying an existing instrument when the available
instruments do not yield the exact data that will answer the research problem. And the third
way is when the researcher made his own instrument that corresponds to the variable and
scope of his current study.
Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research
Likert Scale. This is the most common scale used in quantitative research. Respondents
were asked to rate or rank statements according to the scale provided.

Example: A Likert scale that measures the attitude of students towards distance
learning.

Strongly Strongly
Items Agree Disagree
Agree Disagree
There would be difficulty in
communicating our concerns to
our teacher.
There would be many distractions
when learning at home than in
school.
17
Semantic Differential. In this scale, a series of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the
respondents. This scale seems to be more advantageous since it is more flexible and easy
to construct.

Example: On a description of an active student in school activities.

Pleasant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
Enthusiastic 5 4 3 2 1 Not Enthusiastic
Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent

Another important consideration in constructing a research instrument is how to

establish its validity and reliability.

Validity
A research instrument is considered valid if it measures what it supposed to measure. When
measuring oral communication proficiency level of students, speech performance using
rubric or rating scale is more valid than students are given multiple choice tests. Validity also
has several types: face, content, construct, concurrent, and predictive validity.

Types of Validity of Instrument

Face Validity. It is also known as “logical validity.” It calls for an initiative judgment of the
instruments as it “appear.” Just by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it is
valid.

Content Validity. An instrument that is judged with content validity meets the objectives of
the study. It is done by checking the statements or questions if this elicits the needed
information. Experts in the field of interest can also provide specific elements that should be
measured by the instrument.

Construct Validity. It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical

construct of the study. It is concerning if a specific measure relates to other measures.
 Concurrent Validity. When the instrument can predict results similar to those similar tests
already validated, it has concurrent validity.

Predictive Validity. When the instrument is able to produce results similar to those similar
tests that will be employed in the future, it has predictive validity. This is particularly useful
for the aptitude test.

Reliability of Instrument

Reliability refers to the consistency of the measures or results of the instrument.

Types of Reliability Test

Test-retest Reliability. It is achieved by giving the same test to the same group of
respondents twice. The consistency of the two scores will be checked.

Equivalent Forms Reliability. It is established by administering two identical tests except

for wordings to the same group of respondents.

Internal Consistency Reliability. It determines how well the items measure the same
construct. It is reasonable that when a respondent gets a high score in one item, he will also
get one in similar items. There are three ways to measure the internal consistency; through
the split-half coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha, and Kuder-Richardson formula.

Chapter 3
Lesson
Planning for Data Collection
4 Procedure

Quantitative Data

Generally, data are any pieces of information or facts that people have known. Once these
data answers the research problem, it becomes helpful to research. When research data
appears to be measurable in the numerical form, it is considered quantitative data. However,
some qualitative data can also be useful to quantitative research once it is given a numerical
value. For example, if you study about adjustment experiences of students to distant
learning, if it is categorized and numbered accordingly, then it can be quantified during
analysis.

Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data

The following are the common quantitative data gathering technique. Each technique
corresponds to specific instrument which will be further discussed in Module 5.

Observation. It is gathering information about a certain condition by using senses. The researcher
records the observation as seen and heard. This is done by direct observation or indirect
observation by the use of gadgets or apparatus. An observation checklist aid the researcher in
recording the data gathered.

Survey. Data gathering is done through interview or questionnaire. By means of questionnaire you
use series of questions or statements that respondents will have to answer. Basically, respondents
write or choose their answer from given choices. On the other hand, interview is when you ask
respondents orally to tell you the responses. Since you are doing quantitative research, it is
expected that responses have numerical value either it is nominal or ordinal in form.

Experiment. When your study is an experimental design, it was already discussed in the previous
lesson that it would use treatment or intervention. After the chosen subjects, participants, or
respondents undergone the intervention, the effects of such treatment will be measured.

Three Phases in Data Collection

In doing research, data collection is a major component of research. Neglecting to clarify the
collection procedure would result in acquiring inaccurate data that will make you research study
invalid. Hence, the data collection procedure is given meticulous attention to gather appropriate
data. You are making sure that data you will gather answers to your research questions.

The data gathering procedure is presented in a paragraph format in your research paper.
Basically, the contents are the steps you are going to follow: (1) before you will gather the data,
(2) what to do during the actual gathering of data, and (3) the things to consider after data has
been gathered. The following are the suggested steps but not limited to it, are the procedures in
gathering quantitative data.
•Prepare the research •Clear the instructions •Summarize the data
instruments provided to the gathered, in a tabular
•Identify the authorities respondents. form
that will be involved and •Administer the research •Analyze the summarize
need to ask permission instrument or implement data corresponding to
•Determine the samples the research the research questions.
size and corresponding intervention, if
respondents; per group applicable.
if applicable. •Collect or gather or take
•Ask consent form (if note of the responses.
respondents are 18
years old above) or
parent's consent (if
minor).
•Pilot test the research
instrument if needed.

Before During After

Chapter 3
Lesson Planning for Data Analysis
 5
Data Analysis

Data analysis in research is a process in which gathered information are summarized in

such a manner that it will yield answers to the research questions. During quantitative data
analysis gathered information were break down and ordered into categories in order to draw
trends or patterns in a certain condition. In quantitative research, the numerical data
collected is not taken as a whole. In order to understand it better, it is analyze into
components based on the chosen research variables and research questions you are going
to answer.

These numerical data are usually subject to statistical treatment depending on the
nature of data and the type of research problem presented. The statistical treatment
makes explicit the different statistical methods and formulas needed to analyze the
research data.

Planning your Data Analysis

Before choosing what statistical test is appropriate for your research study it is important to
determine what statistical formation is applicable to your current study. In immersing
yourself into planning your data analysis, you have to decide what basic descriptive
statistical technique you are going to use. Although this technique does not give you the
degree of association or effect between variables, this will help you to code and simply
tabulate your data.

Descriptive Statistical Technique provides a summary of the ordered or

sequenced data from your research sample. Frequency distribution, measure of central
tendencies (mean, median, mode), and standard deviation are the sets of data from
descriptive statistics. Inferential Statistics is used when the research study focuses on
finding predictions; testing hypothesis; and finding interpretations, generalizations, and
conclusions. Since this statistical method is more complex and has more advanced
mathematical computations, you can use computer software to aid your analysis.

You also have to identify types of statistical analysis of variable in your

quantitative research. A univariate analysis means analysis of one
variable. Analysis of two variables such as independent and dependent
variables refers to bivariate analysis while the multivariate analysis
involves analysis of the multiple relations between multiple variables.

Furthermore, selecting what test to use is basically done by identifying whether you
will use parametric test or non-parametric test. As these were already discussed in your
Statistics and Probability subject, a summary of what to consider is presented below:

Points to Consider Type of Test

 Interval or Ratio Parametric Tests
Scale
Ordinal or Nominal Scale Non-parametric Tests
30 or more per group Parametric Tests
Sample Size
Fewer than 30 Non-parametric Tests
Normal Distribution Parametric Tests
Distribution of Data Data deviates from Normal Non-parametric Tests
Distribution

31
In addition, in choosing statistical techniques in quantitative research, the
purpose or objective of the research study should be considered.

Test of Relationship between Two Variables

➢ Pearson’s r (parametric)
➢ Phi coefficient (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous variables)
➢ Spearman’s rho (non-parametric for ordinal variable)

Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from One

Group
➢ T-test for dependent samples (parametric)
➢ McNemar change test (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous
variables) ➢ Wilcoxon signed-rank test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)

Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from Two

Different Groups
➢ T-test for independent samples (parametric)
➢ Two-way chi-square (non-parametric for nominal variable)
➢ Mann-Whitney U test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)

Test More than Two Population Means

➢ Analysis of Variance or ANOVA (parametric)

Test the Strength of Relation or Effect or Impact

➢ Regression (parametric)
Summary
• In order to integrate all the components of the research study, the research design
describes the overall strategy of the research. Types of quantitative research are
descriptive, correlational, ex post facto, quasi-experimental, and experimental research.
• Population refers to all the members of a particular group relevant to the research.
Sample is a part of the population that serves as a representative. Sample are chosen
through sampling which is a process of selecting of who will participate. The usual
sampling procedures in quantitative research are simple random sampling, stratified
random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling.
• Research Instrument refers to the tools used in research for the purpose of gathering
the data. Common scales used in quantitative research are Likert Scale and Semantic
Differential.
• It is important in quantitative research to use valid instruments. Validity refers to the
appropriateness of the research instrument. Types of validity are face, content,
construct, concurrent, and predictive validity.
• The consistency in research findings provided by instruments refers to reliability.
Types of reliability are test-retest, equivalent forms, and internal consistency.
• For quasi-experiment and experimental research designs, intervention is applied in
order to know who will receive the intervention and to what extent.
• Data gathering in quantitative research usually observes survey, observation, and
experiment. There are three phases in data gathering of research that need to be
presented in the research paper: before, during, and after procedures.
• Data Analysis is a process in which gathered information are summarized in such a
manner that it will yield answers to the research questions. There are two major
statistical technique in data analysis, these are descriptive and inferential statistics.