Importance of Geology

in the construction of
Tunnels
 TUNNELS
Definition
⚫ Tunnels may be defined as underground routes or
passages driven through the ground without disturbing the
overlying soil or rock cover.
⚫ Tunnels are driven for a variety of purposes and are
classified accordingly.
⚫ Chief classes of tunnels are:
⚫ Traffic Tunnels
⚫ hydro-power tunnels and
⚫ public utility tunnels.
• Tunnels do not occupy any space on the surface.
 Terminology
⚫ Tunnels are joined at either side by open cuts, called
Approaches.
⚫ The approach is very short in case of steep hill slopes and
very long when the hill slope is very flat.
⚫ The bed slope in the tunnel is called the grade.
⚫ The roof of the tunnel is called crown and the floor is
called invert.
⚫ The spring line of a tunnel is the meeting point of the
roof arch and the sides.
⚫ Vault head is the topmost part of the tunnel and the
support is the structure used to take the load.
⚫ Excavation work of tunnel is generally executed from its
two ends, known as inlet bulkhead or inlet portal and
outlet bulkhead or outlet portal.
⚫ The vertical passage from ground to tunnel is called shafts
and used to facilitate entry and excavation work of the
tunnel.
⚫ Drift is a small length tunnel that is bored nearly at the
same level or close to the main tunnel line for the purpose
of visual observation and instrumental tests of the rock
quality.
⚫ Adit is a drift which provides passage for entry of men and
machines to conduct tunneling work in additional faces.
Shapes of the Tunnel Cross-section
(a) D-shaped Tunnel:
Usually adopted in rocks where unlined tunnels are proposed.
Such a section has an arch roof and straight vertical sides.
The arch roof can easily take vertical loads and transfer them to
the sides.
This section is suitable for subways and for navigation tunnels.
This section has a nearly flat invert, which provide additional
working floor space.
(b) Circular section:
Usually lined and offers strong resistance to external pressure
from water bearing soils or soft grounds as well as internal
pressure of fluids (if passing through the tunnel).
Provides the largest cross-sectional area for the least perimeters.
Most suitable for sewers, water conduits etc.
But not suitable for roads and railways as more filling will be
required for obtaining a flat base.
It is best suited for non-cohesive soils.
Horse –shoe section:

When lined this section offers good resistance to external

ground pressure and serve to combine the advantages of both
the D-shaped and circular sections.
Most suitable for soft rocks
 Type of Tunnels
Depending upon their use, the tunnels may be classified into
the following groups:
1. traffic tunnels
2. hydropower tunnels and
3. public utility tunnels
Objectives of Geological Investigations:
1.Selection of Tunnel Route: The alignment of the tunnel has to
be selected through the rocks having minimum deformations,
which can be detected by the geological investigations.
2. Selection of Excavation Methods: The methods and machines
to be adopted for excavation will certainly depends upon the
nature and type of rocks, which can be known only by
thorough geological investigations.
3. Designing the Tunnel Section: the shape of the tunnel is
guided by the geology of the route. For example, in self
supported massive rocks, D-shaped or Horse-shoe shaped may
be adopted but are not suitable in soft ground or in weak rocks.
4. Assessment of Cost and Stability: Cost and stability will
depend upon the type of rocks or soils, confirmed through
geological investigations.
Methods of Geological Investigations:
(1) Preliminary survey, conducted well before the actual
planning of the project;
(2) Detailed surveys, conducted simultaneously with
planning and plotting the geological profile; and
(3) Concurrent explorations conducted during the
execution of the project.
 1. Preliminary surveys
⚫ Preliminary surveys are generally conducted with
routine geological, geophysical and geochemical
methods to obtain accurate information about
(i) The general topography of the area marking the
highest and the lowest points, valley, depression, bare
and covered slope, hilly regions etc.
(ii) The composition, attitude and thickness of various
rock formations;
(iii) Hydrological conditions such as depth of water-table,
possibility of simple and artesian aquifers and likely
hydrostatic heads;
(iv) The extent and attitude of major geological
structures such as folds, faults, unconformities and
demarcation of their critical regions such as fold
axis, shear zones etc.
(v) Possible reserves of rocks in the region that can be
used for construction of tunnel support.
2. Detailed Survey:
⚫ Once the geological run of the tunnel has been decided,
planning for its construction begins.
⚫ The plan required accurate data which can be obtained by
direct methods such as borehole drilling and shafts.
⚫ Samples of rocks obtained by these methods are tested in
the laboratories for their mineralogical composition,
mechanical properties (such as compressive and shear
strength, modulus of elasticity, porosity, permeability etc.)
⚫ The exploratory shafts enable the visual observation of the
geological defects such as fault and shear zone, folds,
joints and above all the actual succession of strata at the
proposed line.
⚫ Geological profile: When all the geological information
gathered from preliminary and detailed surveys is plotted
along a longitudinal section, the axis of the proposed tunnel
being the section line, a geological profile is obtained.
⚫ It is the most important geological record available with the
project engineer.
⚫ Such profile provides the following information:
(i)Location and depth of bore holes and shafts.
(ii) Types of the rocks and their nature i.e. whether
consolidated or unconsolidated, fissured and decayed or
fresh.
(iii) Structures of the rocks, i.e. whether stratified or
massive, horizontal or inclined, folding and faulting.
(iv) Hydrological conditions of the area; position of the axis
with respect to water-table and aquifers, if any.
(v) Ground temperature conditions, projected down to the
tunnel axis based on calculations and observations.

(3) Exploration during construction:

The necessity of exploration during construction arises
because rocks are heterogeneous and show abrupt
variations within short distances.
Small-sized openings of suitable length ahead of
full-section of the tunnel are driven.
These are named as exploratory drifts, if long or
exploratory or pilot headings if driven for short length.
 GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
IN
TUNNELLING
⚫ Rocks may be broadly divided into two categories in
relation to tunneling:
1.consolidated and 2. unconsolidated or soft ground
(1) Consolidated Rocks
❖ Tunnel design, method of its excavation and stability are
greatly influenced by following geological conditions:

❖ lithology,
❖ geological structures and
❖ ground water conditions.
 Lithology
⚫ It is quite obvious that information regarding
mineralogical composition, textures and structures of the
rocks through which the proposed tunnel is to pass is of
great importance in deciding
the method of tunneling
the strength and extent of lining and, thus
the cost of the project.
Hard and Crystalline Rocks
⚫ These are excavated by using conventional rock blasting
methods and also by tunnel boring method
⚫ In the blasting method, full face or a convenient section of
the face is selected for blasting up to a pre-selected depth
⚫ These are loaded with predetermined quantities of
carefully selected explosives of known strength.
⚫ The loaded or charged holes are ignited or triggered and
the pre-estimated rocks get loosened as a result of the
blast.
⚫ The blasting round is followed by a mucking period
during which the broken rock is hauled out of the
excavation so created.
⚫ The excavations in hard and crystalline rocks are very
often self supporting so that these could be left unlined
and next round of blasting in the new face created is
undertaken, ensuring better advance rate.
⚫ Rocks falling in this group include granites, diorites,
syenites, gabbros, basalts and all the related igneous rocks,
sandstones, limestones, dolomites, quartzites, arkose,
greywackes and the like from sedimentary group and
marbles, gneisses, quartzites, from the metamorphic
groups.
⚫ When any one of these rocks is stressed, such as during
folding or fractured as during faulting, tunnelling in these
rocks proves greatly hazardous.
⚫ Rock bursts which occur due to falling of big rock blocks
from roofs or sides due to release of stresses or falling of
rock block along fractures already existing in these rocks
often cause many accidents.
⚫
Soft Rocks
This group includes shales, friable and poorly compacted
sandstones, chalk and porous varieties of limestones and
dolomities, slates and phyllites with high degree of
cleavage and also decomposed varieties of igneous rocks.
Their excavation cost, volume for volume, might be lower
than those in hard rocks.
⚫ Hence, temporary and permanent lining becomes
necessary that would involve extra cost and additional
time.
⚫ Rocks like clays, shales, argillaceous and ferruginous
sandstones, gypsum bands and cavernous limestones have
to be viewed specially with great caution during tunnelling
⚫
Fissured Rocks
⚫ Fissured Rocks form a category in themselves and include
any type of hard and soft rock that has been deformed
extensively due to secondary fracturing as a result of
folding, faulting and metamorphic changes of shearing type.
 Geological Structures
(A) Dip and Strike

⚫ These two quantitative properties of rocks determine the

attitude (disposition in space) of the rocks and hence
influence the design of excavation (tunnel) to a great
extent.
⚫ Three general cases may be considered.
(i)Horizontal Strata
When encountered for small tunnels or for short lengths of
long tunnels, horizontally layered rocks might be
considered quite favourable.
⚫ In massive rocks, that is, when individual layers are very
thick, and the tunnel diameter not very large, the situation
is especially favourable because the layers would then
over bridge flat excavations by acting as natural beams.
⚫ But when The layers are thin or fractured, they cannot be
depended upon as beams; in such cases, either the roof has
to be modified to an arch type or has to be protected by
giving a lining.
⚫ Sides of tunnels, however, could be left unsupported
except when the rocks are precariously sheared and
jointed.
(ii) Moderately Inclined Strata.
⚫ Such layers that are dipping at angles up to 45° may be said
as moderately inclined.
⚫ The tunnel axis may be running parallel to the dip direction,
at right angles to the dip direction or inclined to both dip
and strike directions.
⚫ In the first situation, that is, when the tunnel axis is
parallel to the dip direction the layers offer a uniformly
distributed load on the excavation.
⚫ The arch action where the rocks at the roof act as natural
arch transferring the load on to sides comes into maximum
play.
⚫ Even relatively weaker rocks might act as self-supporting
in such cases. It is a favourable condition from this aspect.
⚫ It also implies that the axis of the tunnel has to pass through a
number of rocks of the inclined sequence while going through
parallel to dip.

⚫ In the second case, that is, when the tunnel is driven parallel
to strike of the beds (which amounts to same thing as at right
angles to the dip)
⚫ The pressure distributed to the exposed layers is
unsymmetrical along the periphery of the tunnel opening; one
half would have bedding planes opening into the tunnel and
hence offer potential planes and conditions for sliding into the
opening.
⚫ The bridge action, though present in part, is weakened due to
discontinuities at the bedding planes running along the arch
⚫ Such a situation obviously requires assessment of forces
liable to act on both the sides and along the roof and might
necessitate remedial measures.
⚫ In the third case, when the tunnel axis is inclined to both the
dip direction and the strike direction, weak points of both the
above situations would be encountered.
(iii)Steeply Inclined Strata
⚫ In rock formations dipping at angles above 45°, quite
complicated situations would arise when the tunnel axis is
parallel to dip or parallel to strike or inclined to both dip
and strike directions.
⚫ In almost vertical rocks for example, when the tunnel axis
is parallel to dip direction, the formations stand along the
sides and on the roof of the tunnel as massive girders.
⚫ An apparently favourable condition, of coarse, provided all
the formations are inherently sound and strong
(B) Folding
⚫ Folds signify bends and curvatures and a lot of strain
energy stored in the rocks.
⚫ Their influence on design and construction of tunnels is
important from at least three angles:
⚫ Firstly, folding of rocks introduces considerable variation
and uncertainty in a sequence of rocks so that entirely
unexpected rocks might be encountered along any given
direction.
⚫ This situation becomes especially serious when folding is
not recognized properly in preliminary or detailed surveys
due either to its being localized or to misinterpretation.
⚫ Secondly, folding of rocks introduces peculiar rock
pressures.
⚫ In anticlinal fold, loads of rocks at the crest are transferred
by arch action to a great extent on to the limbs which may
be highly strained
⚫ These conditions are reversed when the folds are of
synclinal types. In such cases, rocks of core regions are
greatly strained.
⚫ Again, the axial regions of folds, anticlinal or synclinal,
having suffered the maximum bending are more often
heavily fractured.
⚫ The alignment of a tunnel passing through a folded region
has to take these aspects in full consideration
⚫ When excavations are made in folded rocks, the strain
energy is likely to be released immediately, soon after or
quite late to tunneling operations, very often causing the
dreaded rock bursts.
⚫ Thirdly, folded rocks are often best storehouses for artesian
water and also ideal as aquifers.
⚫ When encountered during tunneling unexpectedly, these
could create uncontrollable situations.
⚫ The shattered axial regions being full of secondary joint
systems are highly permeable.
⚫ As such very effective drainage measure are often required
to be in readiness when excavations are to pass through
folded zones.
(C)Faulting
⚫ Similarly, fault zones and shear zones are highly
permeable zones, likely to form easy avenues for ground
water passage.
⚫ Inclined fault planes and shear zones over the roof and
along the sides introduce additional complications in
computation of rock pressure on the one hand and of rock
strengths on the other.
⚫ wherever tunnel is intersected by fault planes or shear
zones, it is to be considered as passing through most
unsafe situations and hence designed accordingly by
providing maximum support and drainage facilities.
 (D)Joint Systems
⚫ Joints are cracks or fractures developed in rocks due to a
variety of causes. although all types of joints tend to close
with depth (due to load of overburden), their presence and
orientation, has to be investigated.
⚫ Joints are planes of weakness and must always be
suspected when the rocks are folded and faulted.
⚫ Even originally closed joints may become reactive and
open up in the immediate vicinity of tunnel excavation.
⚫ Jointed rocks cannot be considered as self-supporting
although these might belong to massive.
Ground Water Conditions
⚫ Determination of ground water conditions in the region of
tunnel project is not to be under-estimated at any cost.
⚫ In fact ground water level vis-a -vis tunnel axis is a major
factor governing computations of overhead loads on
tunnels and also in the choice of method of tunneling.
⚫ Groundwater conditions effect the tunnel rocks in two
ways
⚫ Firstly, through its physico-chemical action, it erodes and
corrodes (dissolves) the susceptible constituents from
among the rocks and thereby alters their original
properties constantly with the passage of time.
⚫ It might have already done much of this type of job when
the tunnel is excavated through such water-rich rocks.
⚫ Secondly, it effects the rock strength parameters by its
static and dynamic water heads.
⚫ Such an action may become highly pronounced when an
artesian aquifer is actually intercepted by tunnel
excavation.
⚫