PPE-UNIT-3 HYDEL POWER PLANT

HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT: Water power – hydro-logical cycle / flow

measurement – drainage area characteristics - hydro graphs - storage and pondage -
classification of dams and spill ways.
HYDRO PROJECTS AND PLANT: Classification – typical layouts – plant auxiliaries – plant
operation pumped storage plants.

Introduction
Hydro-electric power plant utilizes the potential energy of water stored in a dam built
across the river. The potential energy of water is used to run water turbine to which the electric
generator is coupled. The mechanical energy available at the shaft of the turbine is converted into
electrical energy means of the generator.

ELEMENTS OF HYDEL POWER PLANT

The schematic representation of a hydro-electric power plant is shown in figure.

1. Water reservoir
Continuous availability of water is the basic necessity for a hydro-electric power plant.
Water collected from catchment area during rainy season is stored in the reservoir. Water
surfaces in the storage reservoir us known as head race.

2. Dam
Dams are structures built over rivers to stop the water flow and form a reservoir. The reservoir
stores the water flowing down the river. This water is diverted to turbines in power stations. The
dams collect water during the rainy season and stores it, thus allowing for a steady flow through
the turbines throughout the year. Dams are also used for controlling floods and irrigation. The
dams should be water-tight and should be able to withstand the pressure exerted by the water on
it. There are different types of dams such as arch dams, gravity dams and buttress dams. The
height of water in the dam is called head race.
3. Spillway
A spillway as the name suggests could be called as a way for spilling of water from dams. It is
used to provide for the release of flood water from a dam. It is used to prevent over toping of the
dams which could result in damage or failure of dams. Spillways could be controlled type or
uncontrolled type. The uncontrolled types start releasing water upon water rising above a
particular level. But in case of the controlled type, regulation of flow is possible.
4. Penstock and Tunnels
Penstocks are pipes which carry water from the reservoir to the turbines inside power station.
They are usually made of steel and are equipped with gate systems. Water under high pressure
flows through the penstock. A tunnel serves the same purpose as a penstock. It is used when an
obstruction is present between the dam and power station such as a mountain.
5. Surge Tank
Surge tanks are tanks connected to the water conductor system. It serves the purpose of reducing
water hammering in pipes which can cause damage to pipes. The sudden surge of water in
penstock is taken by the surge tank, and when the water requirements increase, it supplies the
collected water thereby regulating water flow and pressure inside the penstock.
6. Water turbine
Water through the penstock enters into the turbine through and inlet valve. Prime movers
which are in common use are Pelton turbine, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine. The potential
energy of water entering the turbine is converted into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy
available at the turbine shaft is used to run the electric generator. The water is then discharged
through the draft tube.
7. Tail race
Tail race is a water way to lead the water discharged from the turbine to the river.
The water held in the tail race is called tail race water level.
8. Step-up transformer
Its function is to raise the voltage generated at the generator terminating before
transmitting the power to consumers.
9. Power Station
Power station contains a turbine coupled to a generator. The water brought to the power station
rotates the vanes of the turbine producing torque and rotation of turbine shaft. This rotational
torque is transferred to the generator and is converted into electricity.
The used water is released through the tail race. The difference between head race and tail race is

called gross head and by subtracting the frictional losses we get the net head available to the
turbine for generation of electricity.
Advantages
-Water the working fluid is natural and available plenty.
-Life of the plant is very long.
-Running cost and maintenance are very low.
-Highly reliable.
-Running cost is low.
-Maintenance and operation costs are very less.
-No fuel transport problem.
-No ash disposal problem.
Disadvantages
-Initial cost of plant is very high.
-Power generation depends on quantity of water available which depends on rainfall.
-Transmission losses are very high.
-More time is required for erection.

SITE SELECTION OF HYDROELECTRIC  POWER PLANT

1. Availability of water
2. Water storage
3. Geological investigation
4. Water pollution
5. Sedimentation Environmental effect
6. Aces to site

1. Availability of water 
The river run off data pertain to many years should be available so that and estimate of the power
potential of the project and the made. The data should include minimum Flo and maximum flow
and their periods.
2. Water storage 
Because of white fluctuation in stream flows storage is needed most hydroelectric project to store
the water during high flow periods and use it during the leading flow periods. The storage
capacity can be calculated from the hydro graph.
3. Geological investigation 
It is need to see that the foundation roof from the demand and other structure is stable and strong
enough to with stand water thrust and other stress.
4. Water pollution 
Polluted water may cause excessive corrosion and damage to metallic structure. This may make
the operation of the plant un reliable and UN economical so it is necessary to see the water is of
good quality .
5. Sedimentation 
The capacity of storage reserve wire is reduced due to the gradual deposition of snit
snit may cause damage to turbine plate.
6. Environmental effect 
Hydro project submerge use areas and many villages the environmental effect are also
importation. The site should ensure safe surroundings; avoid health hazard and presser important
cultural and storage aspect of the area. 
7. Access to site 
A hydro electric plant installed at the suitable location should be connected through the rail and
road facilities so that row material and heavy machinery can be transfer at the suitable location
very easily it is also a important factor for selecting the suitably location for hydroelectric plant. 

Classification of Hydro-Power plants

Hydro-plants are classified according to the head of water under which they work.
When the operating head of water exceeds 70 meters, the plant is known as “high head
power plant”. Pelton turbine is used as prime mover in such power plants. When the head of
water ranges from 15 to 70 meters then the power plant is known as “medium head plant”. It
uses Francis turbine. When the head is less than 15 meters the plant is named as “low head
plant”. It uses Francis or Kaplan turbine as prime mover.

Conventional plants:
Conventional plants use potential energy from dammed water. The energy extracted depends on
the volume and head of the water. The difference between height of water level in the reservoir
and the water outflow level is called as water head.

Pumped storage plant:

In pumped storage plant, a second reservoir is constructed near the water outflow from the
turbine. When the demand of electricity is low, the water from lower reservoir is pumped into the
upper (main) reservoir. This is to ensure sufficient amount of water available in the main
reservoir to fulfill the peak loads.

Run-of-river plant:
In this type of facility, no dam is constructed and, hence, reservoir is absent. A portion of river is
diverted through a penstock or canal to the turbine. Thus, only the water flowing from the river is
available for the generation. And due to absence of reservoir, any oversupply of water is passed
unused.

Advantages of a hydroelectric power plant

 No fuel is required as potential energy is stored water is used for electricity generation
 Neat and clean source of energy
 Very small running charges - as water is available free of cost
 Comparatively less maintenance is required and has longer life
 Serves other purposes too, such as irrigation
Disadvantages
 Very high capital cost due to construction of dam
 High cost of transmission – as hydro plants are located in hilly areas which are quite
away from the consumers

Introduction to Water Power:

Hydro power or water power (from Greek) is power derived from the energy of falling water or
fast running water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydro
power from many kinds of watermills has been used as a renewable energy source for irrigation
and the operation of various mechanical devices, such as gristmills, sawmills, textile mills, trip
hammers, dock cranes, domestic lifts, and ore mills. A tromp, which produces compressed air
from falling water, is sometimes used to power other machinery at a distance.

Hydro Cycle / Water Cycle / Hydro-logical Cycle:

  The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates
as water vapor into the air.  Some ice and snow sublimates directly into water vapor. 
 Evapo-transpiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The
water molecule H₂O has smaller molecular mass than the major components of the
atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen, N₂ and O₂, hence is less dense. 
 Due to the significant difference in density, buoyancy drives humid air higher. As altitude
increases, air pressure decreases and the temperature drops (see Gas laws). 
 The lower temperature causes water vapor to condense into tiny liquid water droplets
which are heavier than the air, and fall unless supported by an updraft. A huge
concentration of these droplets over a large space up in the atmosphere become visible as
cloud. 
 Some condensation is near ground level, and called fog. Atmospheric circulation moves
water vapor around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper
atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and
can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of
years. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water flows
over the ground as surface runoff. 
 A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with stream flow moving
water towards the oceans. Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater)
may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks
into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes
aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. 
 Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water
bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. 
 Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater
springs. In river valleys and floodplains, there is often continuous water exchange
between surface water and ground water in the hyporheic zone. Over time, the water
returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.

Processes:

Precipitation
Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most precipitation occurs as rain, but
also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet.

Canopy interception
The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage eventually evaporates back to the
atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.

Snow melt
The runoff produced by melting snow.

Runoff
The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and
channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become
stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.

Infiltration
The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes
soil moisture or ground water. A recent global study using water stable isotopes, however, shows
that not all soil moisture is equally available for groundwater recharge or for plant transpiration.

Subsurface flow
The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return to
the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water
returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity
or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly and is replenished slowly, so it
can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.

Evaporation
The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of
water into the overlying atmosphere. The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar
radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they
are specifically referred to as evaporation, transpiration. 

Sublimation
The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor by passing the liquid
state.

Deposition
This refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.

Advection
The movement of water through the atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over
the oceans could not precipitate over land.

Condensation
The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.

Transpiration
The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air.

Percolation
Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity.
Plate tectonics
Water enters the mantle via seduction of oceanic crust. Water returns to the surface via
volcanism.

The water cycle involves many of these processes.

Scales for study of hydrologic cycle: 

From the point of view of hydrologic studies, two scales are readily distinct. These are the global
scale and the catchment scale. 
Global scale From a global perspective, the hydrologic cycle can be considered to be comprised
of three major systems; the oceans, the atmosphere, and the land sphere. Precipitation, runoff and
evaporation are the principal processes that transmit water from one system to the other. This
illustration depicts a global geophysical view of the hydrologic cycle and shows the interactions
between the earth (lithosphere), the oceans (hydrosphere), and the atmosphere. The study at the
global scale is necessary to understand the global fluxes and global circulation patterns. The
results of these studies form important inputs to water resources planning for a national, regional
water resources assessment, weather forecasting, and study of climate changes. These results
may also form the boundary conditions of small-scale models/applications.  
Catchment Scale 
While studying the hydrologic cycle on a catchment scale, the spatial coverage can range from a
few square km to thousands of square km. The time scale could be a storm lasting for a few
hours to a study spanning many years. When the water movement of the earth system is
considered, three systems can be recognized: the land (surface) system, the subsurface system,
and the aquifer (or geologic) system. When the attention is focused on the hydrologic cycle of
the land system, the dominant processes are precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, infiltration,
and surface runoff. The land system itself comprises of three subsystems: vegetation subsystem,
structural subsystem and soil subsystem. These subsystems subtract water from precipitation
through interception, depression and detention storage. This water is either lost to
the atmospheric system or enters subsurface system. The exchange of water among these
subsystems takes place through the processes of infiltration, exhilaration, percolation, and
capillary rise.

Timescales in the hydrologic cycle 

The time required for the movement of water through various components of the hydrologic
cycle varies considerably. The velocity of stream flow is much higher compared to the velocity
of groundwater. The time-step size for analysis depends upon the purpose of the study, the
availability of data, and how detailed the study is. The estimated periods of renewal of water
resources in water bodies on the earth is given in Table. The time step should be
sufficiently small so that the variations in the processes can be captured in sufficient detail but at
the same time, it should not put an undue burden on data collection and computational efforts.
Drainage Area Characteristics:
 A drainage basin is an area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a
common outlet, such as into a river, bay, or another body of water. 
 The drainage basin includes all the surface water from rain runoff, snowmelt, and nearby
streams that run down slope towards the shared outlet, as well as the groundwater
underneath the earth's surface. 
 Drainage basins connect into other drainage basins at lower elevations in a hierarchical
pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins, which in turn drain into another common
outlet.
 Other terms used interchangeably with drainage basin are catchment area, catchment
basin, drainage area, river basin, and water basin. 
 In North America, the term watershed is commonly used to mean a drainage basin,
though in other English-speaking countries, it is used only in its original sense, that of a
drainage divide.
 In a closed drainage basin or endorheic basin, the water converges to a single point inside
the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake, a dry lake, or a point where
surface water is lost underground.
 The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by
the basin and channeling it to a single point. 
 Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter, the
drainage divide, making up a succession of higher geographical features (such as a ridge,
hill or mountains) forming a barrier.
 Drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage
areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. 
 Hydrologic units are defined to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks. In a strict sense, all
drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins.

Characteristics:
Topography
generally, topography plays a big part in how fast runoff will reach a river. The rain that falls in
steep mountainous areas will reach the primary river in the drainage basin faster than flat or
slightly sloping areas (e.g., > 1% gradient).
Shape
The shape will contribute to the speed with which the runoff reaches a river. A long thin
catchment will take longer to drain than a circular catchment.
Size
Size will help determine the amount of water reaching the river, as the larger the catchment the
greater the potential for flooding. It is also determined on the basis of length and width of the
drainage basin.
Soil type
Soil type will help determine how much water reaches the river. Certain soil types such as sandy
soils are very free-draining, and rainfall on sandy soil is likely to be absorbed by the ground.
However, soils containing clay can be almost impermeable and therefore rainfall on clay soils
will run off and contribute to flooding volumes. After prolonged rainfall even free-draining soils
can become saturated, meaning that any further rainfall will reach the river rather than being
absorbed by the ground. If the surface is impermeable the precipitation will create surface run-
off which will lead to higher risk of flooding; if the ground is permeable, the precipitation will
infiltrate the soil.
Land use
Land use can contribute to the volume of water reaching the river, in a similar way to clay soils.
For example, rainfall on roofs, pavements, and roads will be collected by rivers with almost no
absorption into the groundwater.
Classification of Dams & Spillways:
Based on the functions of the dam, it can be classified as follows:
Storage dams:
They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there is a large flow in the
river. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for later use in dry summers. Storage dams
may also provide a water supply or improved habitat for fish and wildlife. They may store water
for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation or for a flood control project. Storage dams are the
most common type of dams and in general, the dam means a storage dam unless qualified
otherwise.

Diversion dams:
A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the river into an off-taking
canal (or a conduit). They provide sufficient pressure for pushing water into ditches, canals, or
other conveyance systems. Such shorter dams are used for irrigation, and for diversion from a
stream to a distant storage reservoir. A diversion dam is usually of low height and has a small
storage reservoir on its upstream. The diversion dam is a sort of storage weir which also diverts
water and has small storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs and diversion dams are used
synonymously.

Detention dams:
Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam retards the flow in the river
on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water. Thus the effect of sudden floods is
reduced to some extent. The water retained in the reservoir is later released gradually at a
controlled rate according to the carrying capacity of the channel downstream of the detention
dam. Thus the area downstream of the dam is protected against the flood.

Debris dams: 
A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and driftwood flowing in the
river with water. The water after passing over a debris dam is relatively clear.

Cofferdams:
It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to exclude water so that the
construction can be done in dry. A cofferdam is thus a temporary dam constructed for facilitating
construction. A cofferdam is usually constructed on the upstream of the main dam to divert water
into a diversion tunnel (or channel) during the construction of the dam. When the flow in the
river during construction of the dam is not much, the site is usually enclosed by the cofferdam
and pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer dam on the downstream of the dam is also required.

1) Ogee (over flow) spillway:

The upper part of the spillway surface matches closely to the profile of the lower nappe of a
ventilated sheet of water falling freely from a sharp-crested weir. The lower part of the spillway
surface is tangential to the upper curve and supports the falling sheet of water. The downstream
end of the spillway is in the form of a reverse curve, which turns the flow onto the apron of a
stilling basin or into the spillway discharge channel. Ogee spillway is generally used for concrete
and masonry dams. It is ideally suited to wider valleys where sufficient crest length may be
provided
2) Siphon spillway
A siphon spillway (Fig.) is essentially a closed conduit system which uses the principle of
siphonic action. The conduit system is in the shape of an inverted U of unequal legs with its inlet
end at the normal reservoir storage level. When the reservoir water level rises above the normal
level, the initial flow of water is similar to the flow over a weir. When the air in the bend has
been exhausted, siphonic action starts and continuous flow is maintained until air enters the
bend. The inlet end of the conduit is placed well below the normal reservoir water level to
prevent ice and drift from entering the conduit. Therefore, once the siphonic action starts, the
spillway continues to discharge even when the reservoir water level has fallen below the normal
level.

3) Emergency spillway
4) Side channel spillway
5) Morning glory spillway

Classification of Hydroelectric Power Plants:

There are three types of hydropower facilities: 
1. Impoundment, 
2. Diversion, and 
3. Pumped storage. 
Some hydropower plants use dams and some do not. The images below show both types of
hydropower plants.
Many dams were built for other purposes and hydropower was added later. In the United
States, there are about 80,000 dams of which only 2,400 produce power. The other dams are for
recreation, stock/farm ponds, flood control, water supply, and irrigation.

Hydropower plants range in size from small systems for a home or village to large
projects producing electricity for utilities. The sizes of hydropower plants are described below.
IMPOUNDMENT
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facility. An
impoundment facility, typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water in a
reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn
activates a generator to produce electricity. The water may be released either to meet changing
electricity needs or to maintain a constant reservoir level.

DIVERSION
A diversion, sometimes called run-of-river, facility channels a portion of a river through a canal
or penstock. It may not require the use of a dam.

PUMPED STORAGE
Another type of hydropower called pumped storage works like a battery, storing the electricity
generated by other power sources like solar, wind, and nuclear for later use. It stores energy by
pumping water uphill to a reservoir at a higher elevation from a second reservoir at a lower
elevation. When the demand for electricity is low, a pumped storage facility stores energy by
pumping water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. During periods of high electrical
demand, the water is released back to the lower reservoir and turns a turbine, generating
electricity.
 SIZES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

Facilities range in size from large power plants that supply many consumers with electricity to
small and micro plants that individuals operate for their own energy needs or to sell power to
utilities.

Large Hydropower
Although definitions vary, large hydropower as facilities that have a capacity of more than 30
megawatts (MW).

Medium Hydropower
Although definitions vary, small hydropower as projects that generates 10 MW or less of power.

Small Hydropower
A micro hydropower plant has a capacity of up to 100 kilowatts (0.1 MW). A small or micro-
hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity for a home, farm, ranch, or village.

Pelton Wheel
This is a commonly used impulse type of turbine. It is named after an American engineer
Lester. A. Pelton (1829-1908), who developed this turbine. The Pelton wheel is suitable for very
high heads and it requires a lesser quantity of water. A pelton wheel is shown in figure. It
consists of a runner, buckets, a nozzle, a guide mechanism, a hydraulic brake and casing.
Runner and Buckets
 The runner is a circular disc. It consists of a number of semi-ellipsoidal buckets evenlyspaced
around its periphery. The buckets are divided into two hemi-spherical cups by a sharp- edged ridge
known as a splitter. This arrangement avoids the axial thrust and end thrust on bearings. (The axial thrusts
being equal and opposite, neutralize each other).Generally, the buckets are bolted to the periphery of the
runner. In some cases, to the periphery of the runner. In some cases, the buckets and the wheel are cast
integral as one piece. In the case of the bolted type, broken or damaged buckets can be replaced
economically. For low heads, the bucket is made of case iron and for high heads; they are made of
bronze or stainless steel to withstand heavy impact.

Nozzle and Guide

Mechanism:
A nozzle is fitted to the end of the penstock near the turbine. The nozzle is provided
with a conical needle or spears to regulate the quantity of water coming out of the nozzle,
thereby control the speed of the runner. The spear may be operated manually by a hand wheel
(for small units) or automatically by a governing mechanism (for larger units).
Hydraulic brake:
When the turbine has to be brought to rest by closing the inlet valve of the turbine, the
runner generally takes a very long time to come to rest due to its inertia. To bring it to rest
quickly, a small brake nozzle is provided. This nozzle is opened and it directs a jet of water at
the back of the buckets. This acts as a brake to bring revolving runner quickly to rest.
Working principle
The water is conveyed to the power house from the head race through penstocks.The
nozzle is fitted to the end of the penstock (power house end) delivers a high velocity water jet
into the bucket. One or more jets of water are arranged to impinge on the buckets tangentially.
The impact of water jet on the bucket causes the wheel to rotate, thus producing mechanical
work. An electric generator is coupled to the runner shaft and mechanical energy is converted
into electrical power.
After leaving the turbine wheel, water falls into the tail race. The Pelton wheel is
located above the tail race so that; the buckets do not splash the tail race water.
Francis turbine
Reaction turbines operate under pressure of water. Only a part of the total head of water
is converted into a kinetic head before it reaches the runner. The water completely fills all
the passages in the runner (turbine runs full). Water enters the wheel due to the head of water
at inlet and flows through the vanes. When flowing through the vanes, both the pressure
and velocity change. The water leaves the turbine to the tail race at a reduced pressure and
velocity.