UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY PESHAWAR

ELE-410 INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

LECTURE # 11

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Chapter 4: Electric Motors

2
Electric Motors
• Electric motors are used to convert electric energy into mechanical
energy.
• The motor represents one of the most useful and labor- saving
inventions in the electrical industry.
• Over 50 percent of the electricity produced in the United States is
used to power motors.
• An electric motor uses magnetism and electric currents to operate.
• There are two basic categories of motors, AC and DC.

3
PART 1 Motor Principle
• Magnetism
• Magnetism is the force that creates rotation for a motor to operate.
Therefore, before we discuss basic motor operation, a short review of
magnetism is in order.
• Recall that a permanent magnet will attract and hold magnetic
materials such as iron and steel when such objects are near or in
contact with the magnet.
• The permanent magnet is able to do this because of its inherent
magnetic force, which is referred to as a magnetic field.

4
Magnetism
• In Figure 5-1, the magnetic field of a permanent
bar magnet is represented by lines of flux.
• Lines of flux help us into visualize the magnetic
field of any magnet even though they actually
represent an invisible phenomenon.
• The number of flux lines varies from one
magnetic field to another, and the stronger the
magnetic field, the greater the number of lines
of flux.
• Lines of flux are assumed to travel from the
north pole to the south pole outside the magnet
and from the south pole to the north pole inside
the magnet.
5
Electromagnetism
• The strength of the magnetic field
is directly proportional to the
amount of current flowing through
the conductor and takes the form
of concentric circles around the
wire.
• Figure 5-2 illustrates the magnetic
field around a straight current-
carrying conductor.

6
Electromagnetism
• A relationship exists between the direction of
current flow through a conductor and the
direction of the magnetic field created.
• Known as the left-hand conductor rule, it
uses electron flow from negative to positive as
the basis for the current direction.
• When you place your left hand so that your
thumb points in the direction of the electron
flow, your curled fingers point in the direction
of the lines of flux that circle the conductor.

7
Electromagnetism
• When a current-carrying conductor is
shaped into a coil, the individual flux
lines produced by each of the turns
form one stronger magnetic field.
• The magnetic field produced by a
current-carrying coil resembles that of
a permanent magnet (Figure 5-3).
• As with the permanent magnet, these
flux lines leave the north of the coil and
reenter the coil at its south pole.

8
Electromagnetism
• The magnetic field of a wire coil is much greater than the magnetic
field around the wire before it is formed into a coil and can be further
strengthened by placing a core of iron in the center of the coil.
• The iron core presents less resistance to the lines of flux than the air,
thereby causing the field strength to increase.
• The polarity of the poles of a coil reverses whenever the current flow
through the coil reverses.
• Without this phenomenon, the operation of electric motors would
not be possible.

9
AC Generators
• An electric generator is a machine that uses
magnetism to convert mechanical energy
into electric energy.
• Generators operate on the principle that a
voltage is induced in a conductor whenever
the conductor is moved through a magnetic
field so as to cut lines of force.
• An AC generator (alternator) generates a
voltage by rotation of a loop of wire
(armature) within a magnetic field, as
illustrated in Figure 5-4.
10
AC Generators
• A device called a prime mover provides the mechanical energy input, which
physically turns the armature coil.
• Relative motion between the wire and the magnetic field causes a voltage to be
induced between the ends of the wire.
• The generated voltage changes in magnitude as the loop cuts the magnetic lines
of force at different angles.
• The generated voltage changes in polarity as the loop cuts the magnetic lines of
force in two different directions.
• Two slip rings are attached to the armature wire and rotate with it.
• Carbon brushes ride against the slip rings to conduct AC current from the
armature to the resistor load.
• A complete rotation of 360 degrees results in the generation of one cycle of
alternating current.

11
DC Generators
• Generating DC is basically the same
as generating AC.
• The only difference is the manner
in which the generated voltage is
supplied to the output terminals.
• Figure 5-5 shows a simplified DC
generator.

12
DC Generators
• Voltage is induced into the coil when it cuts magnetic flux lines.
• The shape of the voltage generated in the loop is still that of an AC
sine wave.
• The two slip rings of the AC generator are replaced by a single split
ring called a commutator.
• The commutator acts like a mechanical switch, which converts the
generated AC voltage into DC voltage.

13
DC Generators
• As the armature starts to develop a negative alternation, the
commutator switches the polarity of the output terminals via the
brushes. This keeps all positive alternations on one terminal and all
negative alternations on the other.
• The only essential difference between an AC and a DC generator is
the use of slip rings on the one and a commutator on the other.
• Brushes move from one segment of the commutator to the next
during the period of zero induced voltage when the coil is moving
parallel to the magnetic flux, or in what is called the neutral plane.
• Any DC machine can act either as a generator or as a motor.
14
Motor Rotation
• An electric motor rotates as the
result of the interaction of two
magnetic fields.
• One of the well-known laws of
magnetism is that “like” poles (N-N
or S-S) repel while “unlike” poles (N-
S) attract.
• Figure 5-6 illustrates how this
attraction and repulsion of magnetic
poles can be used to produce a
rotating force.

15
Motor Rotation
• The electromagnet is the moving armature part and the permanent magnet the
fixed stator part.
• Like magnetic poles repel each other, causing the armature to begin to turn.
• After it turns part way around, the force of attraction between the unlike poles
becomes strong enough to keep the electromagnet magnet not rotating.
• The rotating electromagnet continues to turn until the unlike poles are lined up.
At this point the rotor would normally stop because of the attraction between the
unlike poles.
• Commutation is the process of reversing armature current at the moment when
unlike poles of the armature and field are facing each other, thereby reversing the
polarity of the armature field.
• Like poles of the armature and field then repel each other, causing armature
rotation to continue.

16
Motor Rotation
• When a current-carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, there is an
interaction between the magnetic field
produced by the current and the
permanent field, which leads to a force
being experienced by the conductor.
• The magnitude of the force on the
conductor will be directly proportional
to the current which it carries. A
current-carrying conductor, placed in a
magnetic field and at right angles to it,
tends to move at right angles to the
field, as illustrated in Figure 5-7.
17
Motor Rotation
• A simple method used to determine
the direction of movement of a
conductor carrying current in a
magnetic field is the right-hand
motor rule.
• The thumb and first two fingers of the
right hand are arranged to be at right
angles to each other.
• The forefinger is pointed in the
direction of the magnetic lines of
force of the field from N pole to S
pole.

18
Right-hand motor rule.
• The middle finger is pointed in the direction of electron current flow (− to
+) in the conductor.
• The thumb will then be pointing in the direction of movement of the
conductor.
• Applying the right-hand motor rule to Figure 5-8, the conductor will move
upward through the magnetic field.
• If the current through the conductor were to be reversed, the conductor
would move downward.
• Note that the conductor current is at a right angle to the magnetic field.
This is required to bring about motion because no force is felt by a
conductor if the current and the field direction are parallel.

19
Motor Torque
• Figure 5-9a illustrates how motor
torque (rotational force) is produced by
a current-carrying coil or loop of wire
placed in a magnetic field.
• Rotation is the result of the interaction
of the magnetic fields generated by the
permanent magnets and current flow
through the armature coil.

20
Motor Torque
• This interaction of the two magnetic fields causes a bending of the
lines of force.
• When the lines tend to straighten out, they cause the loop to undergo
a rotating motion.
• The left conductor is forced downward, and the right conductor is
forced upward, causing a counterclockwise rotation of the armature.
• A practical motor armature is made up of many coils of conductors as
illustrated in Figure 5-9b.

21
Family Tree of common motors

22
PART 2 Direct Current Motors
• Direct current motors are not used as much as alternating current
types because all electric utility systems deliver alternating current.
• For special applications, however, it is advantageous to transform the
alternating current into direct current in order to use DC motors.
• Direct current motors are ideally suited to a multitude of industrial
and marine applications in which high torque and variable speed are
required.
• These applications include mine hoists, steel rolling mills, ship
propulsion, cranes, conveyors, and elevators

23
Construction of a DC motor
• The construction of a DC motor
(Figure 5-12) is considerably more
complicated and expensive than
that of an AC motor, primarily
because of the commutator,
brushes, and armature windings.
• Maintenance of the rush/
commutator assembly found on DC
motors is significant compared to
that of AC motor designs.

24
DC Motor
• There are several types of DC motors, classified according to field type.
• These are permanent magnet, series, shunt, and compound.
• Motor speed, torque, and horsepower (hp) are important parameters used
to predict DC motor performance:
• Speed: Refers to the rotational speed of the motor’s shaft and is measured
in revolutions per minute (rpm).
• Torque: Refers to the turning force supplied by the motor’s shaft. Torque
consists of force acting on a radius. The standard units of torque as used in
the motor control industry are pound-inches (lb-in), or pound-feet (lb-ft).

25
DC Motor
• Horsepower: Refers to the rate at which work is done.
• As an example, 1 horsepower is equivalent to lifting 33,000 pounds to
a height of 1 foot in 1 minute.
• One horsepower is also equivalent to 746 watts of electrical power.
Therefore, you can use watts to calculate horsepower and vice versa.

26
Permanent-Magnet DC Motor
• Permanent-magnet DC motors use permanent magnets to supply the main
field flux and electromagnets to provide the armature flux.
• Movement of the magnetic field of the armature is achieved by switching
current between coils within the motor. This action is called commutation.
• Figure 5-13 illustrates the operation of a simple permanent-magnet motor.

27
Permanent-Magnet DC Motor
• Current flow through the armature coil from the DC voltage supply
causes the armature to act as an electromagnet.
• The armature poles are attracted to field poles of opposite polarity
causing the armature to rotate in a clockwise direction (Figure 5-13a).
• When the armature poles are in line with the field poles, the brushes
are at the gap in the commutator and no current flows in the
armature (Figure 5-13b).
• At this point the forces of magnetic attraction and repulsion stop and
inertia carries the armature past this neutral point.

28
Permanent-Magnet DC Motor
• Once past the neutral point, current flows through the armature coil
in the reverse direction because of the commutator’s reversing action
(Figure 5-13c).
• This in turn reverses the polarity of the armature poles, resulting in
repulsion of the like poles and further rotation in a clockwise
direction.
• The cycle is repeated with the current flow through the armature
reversed by the commutator once each cycle to produce a continuous
rotation of the armature in a clockwise direction.

29
Permanent-Magnet DC Motor
• The force that rotates the motor armature is the result of the
interaction between two magnetic fields (the stator field and the
armature field).
• To produce a constant torque from the motor, these two fields must
remain constant in magnitude and in relative orientation.
• This is achieved by constructing the armature as a series of small
sections connected to the segments of a commutator, as illustrated in
Figure 5-15.

30
Armature Commutation
• Electrical connection is made to the
commutator by means of two brushes.
• It can be seen that if the armature rotates
through one-sixth of a revolution clockwise,
the current in coils 3 and 6 will have
changed direction.
• As successive commutator segments pass
the brushes, the current in the coils
connected to those segments changes
direction.
• The commutator can be regarded as a
switch that maintains the proper direction
of current in the armature coils to produce
constant unidirectional torque.

31
 Direction of rotation
• The direction of rotation of a
permanent-magnet DC motor is
determined by the direction of the
current flow through the armature.
• Reversing the polarity of the voltage
applied to the armature will reverse the
direction of rotation, as illustrated in
Figure 5-16.
• Variable-speed control of a PM motor is
accomplished by varying the value of the
voltage applied to the armature.

32
Series DC Motor
• Wound-field DC motors are usually
classified as series wound, shunt-wound,
or compound-wound.
• The connection for a series-type DC motor
is illustrated in Figure 5-17.
• A series-wound DC motor consists of a
series field winding (identified by the
symbols S1 and S2) connected in series
with the armature (identified by the
symbols A1 and A2).

33
Series DC Motor
• Since the series field winding is connected in series with the
armature, it will carry the same amount of current that passes
through the armature.
• For this reason the windings of the series field are made from heavy-
gauge wire that is large enough to carry the full motor load current.
• Because of the large diameter of the series winding, the winding will
have only a few turns of wire and a very low resistance value.

34
Advantage of Series DC Motor
• A series-wound DC motor has a low resistance field and low
resistance armature circuit.
• Because of this, when voltage is first applied to it, the current is high
(I = E/R).
• The advantage of high current is that the magnetic fields inside the
motor are strong, producing high torque (turning force), so it is ideal
for starting very heavy mechanical loads.

35
Speed–Torque Characteristic
• Note that the speed varies widely
between no load and rated load.
• Therefore, these motors cannot be
used where a constant speed is
required with variable loads.
• Also the motor runs fast with a
light load (low current) and runs
substantially slower as the motor
load increases.

36
Uses of Series DC Motor
• Because of their ability to start very heavy loads, series motors are
often used in cranes, hoists, and elevators, which can draw thousands
of amperes on starting.
• Caution: The no-load speed of a series motor can increase to the
point of damaging the motor. For this reason, it should never be
operated without a load of some type coupled to it.

37
Shunt DC Motor
• The connection for a shunt-type DC motor
is illustrated in Figure 5-19.
• A shunt-wound DC motor consists of a
shunt field (identified by the symbols F1
and F2) connected in parallel with the
armature.
• This motor is called a shunt motor because
the field is in parallel to, or “shunts,” the
armature.
• The shunt field winding is made up of many
turns of small-gauge wire and has a much
higher resistance and lower current flow
compared to a series field winding.
38
Speed–Torque Characteristic
• Since the field winding is connected
directly across the power supply, the
current through the field is
constant.
• The field current does not vary with
motor speed, as in the series motor
and, therefore, the torque of the
shunt motor will vary only with the
current through the armature.

39
Speed–Torque Characteristic
• When the motor is starting and speed is very low, the motor has very
little torque.
• After the motor reaches full rpm, its torque is at its fullest potential.
• One of the main advantages of a shunt motor is its constant speed. It
runs almost as fast fully loaded as it does with no load.
• Unlike series motor, the shunt motor will not accelerate to a high
speed when no load is coupled to it.
• Shunt motors are particularly suitable for applications such as
conveyors, where constant speed is desired and high starting torque
is not needed.

40
Separately excited DC motor
• A separately excited DC motor has the
armature and field coils fed from
separate supply sources.
• This type of motor has a field coil similar
to that of a self-excited shunt motor.
• In the most common configuration,
armature voltage control is used in
conjunction with a constant or variable
voltage field excitation.

41
Compound DC Motor
• A compound-wound DC motor is a
combination of the shunt-wound and
series-wound types.
• This type of DC motor has two field
windings, as shown in Figure 5-22.
• One is a shunt field connected in parallel
with the armature; the other is a series
field that is connected in series with the
armature.

42
Compound DC Motor
• The shunt field gives this type of motor the constant-speed
advantage of a regular shunt motor.
• The series field gives it the advantage of being able to develop a large
torque when the motor is started under a heavy load.
• This motor is normally connected cumulative-compound so that
under load the series field flux and shunt field act in the same
direction to strengthen the total field flux.

43
Speed–Torque Characteristic
• The speed of the compound
motor varies a little more than
that of shunt motors, but not
as much as that of series
motors.
• Compound-type DC motors
have a fairly large starting
torque—much more than
shunt motors, but less than
series motors.

44
Speed–Torque Characteristic
• The shunt winding can be wired as a cumulative long-shunt or as a
short-shunt compound motor.
• For short-shunt, the shunt field is connected in parallel with only the
armature, whereas with long shunt, the shunt field is connected in
parallel with both the series field and the armature.
• There is very little difference in the operating characteristics of long-
shunt and short-shunt compound motors.
• These motors are generally used where severe starting conditions are
met and constant speed is required at the same time.

45
Direction of Rotation
• The direction of rotation of a wound DC motor depends on the
direction of the field and the direction of the current flow through the
armature.
• If either the direction of the field current or the direction of the
current flow through the armature of a wound DC motor is reversed,
the rotation of the motor will reverse.
• If both of these two factors are reversed at the same time, however,
the motor will continue rotating in the same direction.

46
Direction of Rotation for Series wound rotor
• For a series-wound DC motor, changing the polarity of either the
armature or series field winding changes the direction of rotation.
• If you simply changed the polarity of the applied voltage, you would
be changing the polarity of both series field and armature windings
and the motor’s rotation would remain the same.
• Figure 5-24 shows the power and control circuit schematics for a
typical DC reversing motor starter used to operate a series motor in
the forward and reverse directions.

47
Direction of Rotation for Series wound rotor

48
Direction of Rotation for Shunt wound rotor
• As in a DC series motor, the direction of rotation of a DC shunt and compound
motor can be reversed by changing the polarity of either the armature winding or
the field winding.
• Figure shows the power circuit schematics for typical DC shunt and compound
motor reversing starters.

49
Motor Counter Electromotive Force (CEMF)
• As the armature rotates in a DC motor, the armature coils cut the
magnetic field of the stator and induce a voltage, or electromotive
force (EMF), in these coils.
• This occurs in a motor as a by-product of motor rotation and is
sometimes that the armature motor winding will see a smaller
voltage potential.
• Counter EMF is equal to the applied voltage minus the armature
circuit IARA drop.
• The armature current, according to Ohm’s law, is equal to:

50
Motor Counter Electromotive Force (CEMF)
• Counter EMF is directly proportional to the speed of the armature and the field
strength. That is, the counter EMF increases or decreases if the speed is increased
or decreased, respectively.
• The same is true if the field strength is increased or decreased. At the moment a
motor starts, the armature is not rotating, so there is no CEMF generated in the
armature.
• Full line voltage is applied across the armature, and it draws a relatively large
amount of current.
• At this point, the only factor limiting current through the armature is the
relatively low resistance of the windings.
• As the motor picks up speed, a counter electromotive force is generated in the
armature, which opposes the applied terminal voltage and quickly reduces the
amount of armature current.

51
Motor Counter Electromotive Force (CEMF)
• When a motor reaches its full no-load speed, it is designed to be
generating a CEMF nearly equal to the applied line voltage.
• Only enough current can flow to maintain this speed.
• When a load is applied to the motor, its speed will be decreased,
which will reduce the CEMF, and more current will be drawn by the
armature to drive the load.
• Thus, the load of a motor regulates the speed by affecting the CEMF
and current flow.

52
Armature Reaction
• The magnetic field produced by current flow through the armature
conductors distorts and weakens the flux coming from the main field
poles.
• This distortion and field weakening of the stator field of the motor are
known as armature reaction.

53
Armature Reaction
• As segment after segment of the rotating commutator pass under a
brush, the brush short-circuits coil after coil in the armature.
• Note that armature coils A and B are positioned relative to the
brushes so that at the instant each is short-circuited, it is moving
parallel to the main field so that there is no voltage induced in them
at this point.
• When operating under loaded conditions, due to armature reaction,
the neutral plane is shifted backward, opposing the direction of
rotation.

54
Armature Reaction
• As a result armature reaction affects the motor operation by:
• Shifting the neutral plane in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation
of the armature.
• Reducing motor torque as a result of the weakening of the magnetic field.
• Arcing at the brushes due to short-circuiting of the voltage being induced in
the coils undergoing commutation,
• When the load on the motor fluctuates, the neutral plane shifts back
and forth between no-load and full-load positions.
• For small DC motors, the brushes are set in an intermediate position to
produce acceptable commutation at all loads.

55
Armature Reaction
• In larger DC motors, interpoles
(also called commutating poles)
are placed between the main field
poles, as illustrated in Figure 5-28,
to minimize the effects of armature
reaction.
• These narrow poles have a few
turns of larger-gauge wire
connected in series with the
armature.
• The strength of the interpole field The magnetic field generated by the interpoles is designed
varies with the armature current. to be equal to and opposite that produced by the armature
reaction for all values of load current and improves
commutation.
56
Speed Regulation
• Motor speed regulation is a measure of a motor’s ability to maintain
its speed from no load to full load without a change in the applied
voltage to the armature or fields.
• A motor has good speed regulation if the change between the no-
load speed and full-load speed is small, with other conditions being
constant.
• As an example,
• if the speed regulation is 3 percent for a motor rated 1500 rpm with
no load applied, then this means that the speed will drop by as much
as 45 rpm (1500 × 3%) with the motor fully loaded.
57
Speed Regulation
• The speed regulation of a direct current motor is proportional to the
armature resistance and is generally expressed as a percentage of the
motor base speed.
• DC motors that have a very low armature resistance will have a better
speed regulation.
• Speed regulation is the ratio of the loss in speed, between no load
and full load, to the full-load speed and is calculated as follows (the
lower the percentage, the better the speed regulation):

58
Varying DC Motor Speed
• The base speed listed on a DC motor’s
nameplate is an indication of how fast the
motor will run with rated armature
voltage and rated load amperes at rated
field current ( Figure 5-29).
• DC motors can be operated below base
speed by reducing the amount of voltage
applied to the armature and above base
speed by reducing the field current.
• In addition, the maximum motor speed
may also be listed on the nameplate.
59
Armature-controlled DC Motor
• In armature-controlled adjustable-
speed applications, the field is
connected across a constant-
voltage supply and the armature is
connected across an independent
adjustable-voltage source (Figure 5-
30).
• By raising or lowering the armature
voltage, the motor speed will rise or
fall proportionally.

60
Armature-controlled DC Motor
• For example, an unloaded motor might run at 1200 rpm with 250 V
applied to the armature and 600 rpm with 125 V applied.
• Armature-controlled DC motors are capable of providing rated torque
at any speed between zero and the base (rated) speed of the motor.
• Horsepower varies in direct proportion to speed, and 100 percent
rated horsepower is developed only at 100 percent rated motor
speed with rated torque.

61
Armature-controlled DC Motor
• Shunt motors can be made to operate above base speed by field
weakening.
• The motor is normally started with maximum field current to provide
maximum flux for maximum starting torque.
• Decreasing the field current weakens the flux and causes the speed to rise.
• The reduction in field current results in less generated counter EMF and a
greater armature current flow for a given motor load.
• One method for controlling field current is to insert a resistor in series with
the field voltage source.
• This may be useful for trimming to an ideal motor speed for the application.
• Others methods use a variable-voltage field source.

62
• Coordinated armature and field
voltage control for extended
speed range is illustrated in
Figure 5-31.
• First the motor is armature
voltage–controlled for constant-
torque, variable-horsepower
operation up to base speed.
• Once base speed is reached, field-
weakening control is applied for
constant-horsepower, variable-
torque operation to the motor’s
maximum rated speed.

63