Computer Science 37 Lecture 30
Uploaded by
Alexander TaylorComputer Science 37 Lecture 30
Uploaded by
Alexander TaylorLecture 30
Wireless Networks
Reasons to Go Wireless
1) 2) 3)
Challenges in Going Wireless
1) 2) 3)
Medium: The Radio Spectrum
Wireless communications use the electromagnetic spectrum, which is regulated by government institutions such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Regulations specify what bands of frequency can be used for different applications. For instance: FM radio has 88-108MHz (200KHz) and AM radio has 540-1600KHz (10KHz bandwidth). Regulations also specify the transmission power that can be used in each band. There are portions of the spectrum that are UNLICENSED, however. The most popular wireless networks of today operate in unlicensed bands.
Omnidirectional Antenna
Radiates in all azimuth directions.
Directional Antenna
Radiates in a cone.
Design Alternatives
Point-to-point channels: Information flows in beams that connect communicating parties.
signal received
signal not received
The antennas on the transmitter and receiver need to be properly aligned for signals to go through. On the flip-side, directional antennas have great power efficiency and range.
Directional antennas are a good choice for systems with fixed infrastructure. They introduce additional difficulties in infrastructure-less systems or when transmitters and receivers can move around, but offer reduced power consumption.
Design Alternatives
Broadcast channels: Information radiates in all possible directions from the transmitter.
signal received
Theres no need to align antennas on the transmitter and receiver. If signals radiate in all directions, a receiver will the transmitters independently of their relative positions. Because power radiates all around, omnidirectional antennas cant reach as far as directional antennas. Note also that quite a bit of power can be wasted.
signal received
This is a good choice for mobile systems. At the expense of increased power consumption, coverage reaches 360o.
Concepts in Radio Communications
Coverage = f(PowerTX)
D A E B
Multipath Noise Interference
Multiple Access to the Radio Spectrum
Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA): each pair of nodes communicates through a tight beam that takes a portion of space.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): each pair of nodes uses a distinct subrange of the total frequency band for the application. T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
frequency spectrum
Multiple Access to the Radio Spectrum
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): each pair of nodes uses a different time slot to communicate. During its time, the pair can use the entire frequency band allocated for the application. T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T0 T1
time
one time unit
one time unit
one time unit
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): can be seen as a combination of FDMA and TDMA. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): transmitters use each frequency band for a random time then move to another randomly chosen TX and RX must agree to a hopping sequence. T0 time T1 T2
time time
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Remember Ethernet? When Problems Get Worse:
Assume that all wireless devices use the same channel. Arbitration of access to the medium (Medium Access Control, or MAC, a protocol in the Data Link layer) is similar to Ethernets CSMA/CD. Most radios in wireless networking cant transmit and receive at the same time, so we cant detect collisions. Instead, well do CSMA/CA (collision avoidance). Collisions are bad because they reduce the effective bandwidth and also because they cause waste of power. Even when two transmissions do not collide, they may still interfere with each other causing bit error rates to rise.
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IEEE 802.11 DCF (CSMA/CA)
start
NAV=0
NO
NAV starts with the Duration field value of the last transmission sensed on the medium and counts down to zero.
YES
Sense Medium
Medium Idle
NO
Random Backoff Time
YES
Transmit Frame
Collision?
YES
NO
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The Hidden Node Problem
Station C can sense stations A and B. Stations A and C cant sense each other. Problem: coordinate transmissions from A and C so as to avoid collisions.
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The Hidden Node Problem
Station C can sense stations A and B. Stations A and C cant sense each other. Problem: coordinate transmissions from A and C so as to avoid collisions.
Solution: RTS/CTS/DATA/ACK handshake A sends RTS to B, B sends CTS to A, C hears CTS and stays quiet, A sends DATA to B, B replies to A with an ACK.
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The Exposed Node Problem
An exposed node is one that is in range of the transmitter, but outside range of the receiver.
Problem: exposed nodes reduce bandwidth.
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Types of Wireless Networks
Fixed Infrastructure
wired backbone
BS
BS
BS
Ad Hoc
Easy to deploy. Good in changing environments. Allows for node mobility. Can be designed for self-configurability. Can be designed for scalability.
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Data Link Layer: Medium Access Control
(Coordinated access to a shared resource)
Power is a scarce resource (so is the RF spectrum). Collisions lead to wasted power (AND wasted spectrum). Need to impose some kind of access discipline so as to avoid collisions.
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The MAC Layer Challenge
Maximize throughput:
Minimize collisions. Avoid exposed nodes.
An interesting option: schedule medium access. Related challenges:
Clock synchronization. Distributed coordination for determining schedule.
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The Network Layer Challenge
How do we build routes dynamically?
Pro-active algorithms. Reactive algorithms.
Will the routing protocol scale up to LARGE networks? Can routing adapt to changes in network traffic, propagation conditions, etc.? Packet forwarding costs power. Can we do routing in a way that balances power consumption?
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Security Issues
Desirable properties:
Confidentiality Authenticity Integrity Freshness Scalability
Availability Accessibility Self-organization Non-repudiation Flexibility
As of today, the network can be vulnerable at multiple levels: PHY: radio jamming. MAC: DoS via fake requests or schedules. NET: fake route advertisements (black hole attack). A funny but scary notion: caveman attacks.
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