C.R.

Suribabu
 Differential pressure flowmeters use Bernoulli's equation
to measure the flow of fluid in a pipe.
 Differential pressure flowmeters introduce a constriction in
the pipe that creates a pressure drop across the
flowmeter.
 When the flow increases, more pressure drop is created.
 Impulse piping route the upstream and downstream
pressures of the flowmeter to the transmitter that
measures the differential pressure to determine the fluid
flow.
 Bernoulli’s equation states that the pressure drop across
the constriction is proportional to the square of the flow
rate.
 Using this relationship, 10 percent of full scale flow
produces only 1 percent of the full scale differential
pressure.
 At 10 percent of full scale flow, the differential
pressure flowmeter accuracy is dependent upon the
transmitter being accurate over a 100:1 range of
differential pressure.
 Differential pressure transmitter accuracy is typically
degraded at low differential pressures in its range, so
flow meter accuracy can be similarly degraded.
 Therefore, this non-linear relationship can have a
detrimental effect on the accuracy and turndown of
differential pressure flowmeters.
 Different geometries are used for different
measurements, including the orifice plate, flow
nozzle, laminar flow element, low-loss flow tube,
segmental wedge, V-cone, and Venturi tube.
 It causes low permanent pressure loss
 It is widely used for high flow rates
 It is available in very large pipe sizes
 it has well known characteristics
 It is more accurate over wide flow ranges than
orifice plates or nozzles
 Its cost is high
 It is generally not useful below 76.2 m pipe
size
 It is more difficult to inspect due to its
construction
 It has the limitation of Re of 150,000
 Its cost is low
 They can be used in a wide range of pipe
sizes (5 mm to 18,000mm)
 They are well known and have predictable
characteristics
 They can be used with the differential
pressure devices
 They are available in any material.
 They cause relatively high permanent
pressure loss
 They tend to clog thus reducing use in slurry
 Their accuracy depends upon care during
installation
 They have changing characteristics because
of erosion, corrosion and scaling.
 Permanent pressure loss is lower than orifice
plate
 It is available in numerous materials
 It is useful for fluids containing solids
 It is widely accepted for high temperature and
pressure stream flow
 Its cost is higher than orifice meter
 It is limited to moderate pipe sizes
 It requires more maintenance
The millions (Turbulent)
Wedge flowmeters used in pressurized pipe flows may
provide flow measurements for the following wastewater
flows:
• filtrate;
• sludges
• slurries;
• return activated sludge; and
• waste activated sludge.
 Wedge flow meters are based on Bernouli’s principle of
differential pressure and consist of two basic elements: a flow
tube and a differential pressure sensor.
 The wedge flow tube consists of a straight pipe with a v-notch
wedge-shaped constriction protruding from the top of the tube
into the process pipe flow.
 A high-pressure tap is located upstream of the v-notched wedge
constriction and a low-pressure tap is located downstream of the
constriction.

 As process fluid flows past the v-notch wedge-shaped
constriction, the area is decreased, causing an increase in
velocity and a decrease in pressure.
 The differential pressure sensor measures the difference in
pressure from the upstream and downstream sections of the v-
notch wedge (or across the wedge flowmeter tube).
 This difference in pressure is proportional to the square of the
flow (dp is proportional to Q2, where dp = differential pressure
and Q = flow). The following figure (courtesy of ITA) displays a
typical design of a wedge flowmeter.
 Advantages:
 Some of the advantages of wedge flowmeters
include:
 the contoured design of the v-notch wedge
prevents build-up of debris inside the wedge
flowmeter tube and
 low maintenance.
 Limitations:
 One of the limitations of wedge flowmeters is
the v-notch wedge constriction, which limits
the flow range.
 The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi
meter, with a lower pressure drop than an orifice
plate.
 As with these flow meters the flow rate in a Dall
tube is determined by measuring the pressure
drop caused by restriction in the conduit.
 The pressure differential is typically measured
using diaphragm pressure transducers with
digital readout.
 Since these meters have significantly lower
permanent pressure losses than orifice meters,
Dall tubes are widely used for measuring the flow
rate of large pipeworks.
 Differential pressure produced by a dall tube
higher than venturi tube and nozzle, all of them
having same throat diameters.
 Advantages
 Very low permanent pressure drop – energy saving
 Easy to install short overall lengths
 Accurate flow metering of clean gases, liquid and
steam
 Negligible wear and erosion therefore require less
maintenance
 Disadvantages
 Its pressure difference is sensitive to up stream
disturbance
 It is not considered for the measuring hot feed
water
 Not suited for fluids having suspended solids
Poor Repeatability Means
Poor Accuracy

Good Accuracy Means

Good Repeatability

Good Repeatability Does Not

Necessarily Mean Good Accuracy
 The V-Cone consists of a contoured cone suspended inside a straight
pipe. As the flow passes the cone, short vortices are formed with a low
amplitude and high frequency signal.

 V-Cone’s design provides high accuracy and repeatability, with minimal

need for recalibration.

 The V-Cone is designed to measure flow under harsh operating

conditions.

 Applications include measurement of clean and dirty liquids, wet gases,

slurries, and steam.

 The shape and position of the cone enables the V-Cone to act as its own
flow conditioner, which minimizes the need for upstream or downstream
straight piping run.

 It comes as a spoolpiece or as an insertion weld-on saddle flowmeter.

 A Pitot-static Tube is a flow velocity meter
which is capable of measuring fluid velocities
as a localized point (as opposed to an
averaged velocity across a larger section).

 The Pitot tube yields a pressure measurement

which is typically measured with a differential
manometer. The fluid velocity can obtained
from the pressure value in accordance with
incompressible (or compressble) fluid theory.
 Pros:
 - Simple construction.
 - Relatively inexpensive.
 - Almost no calibration required.
 - Induces minimal pressure drops in the flow.
 - Requires only a few access holes into the flow
conduit;
 no wide open cut needed.
 Cons:
 - Accuracy and spatial resolution may not be high
enough for some applications.
 - Tube must be aligned with the flow velocity to
obtain good results.
 - Any misalignment in yaw should not exceed ±5°.
 The Pitot tube (named after Henri Pitot in 1732)
measures a fluid velocity by converting the
kinetic energy of the flow into potential energy.
 The conversion takes place at the stagnation
point, located at the Pitot tube entrance (see the
schematic below).
 A pressure higher than the free-stream (i.e.
dynamic) pressure results from the kinematic to
potential conversion.
 This "static" pressure is measured by comparing
it to the flow's dynamic pressure with a
differential manometer.
 Converting the resulting differential pressure
measurement into a fluid velocity depends on
the particular fluid flow regime the Pitot tube
is measuring. Specifically, one must
determine whether the fluid regime is
incompressible, subsonic compressible, or
supersonic.
A flow can be considered incompressible if its velocity is less than 30% of its
sonic velocity. For such a fluid, the Bernoulli equation describes the
relationship between the velocity and pressure along a streamline,

Evaluated at two different points along a streamline, the Bernoulli equation

yields,

If z1 = z2 and point 2 is a stagnation point, i.e., v2 = 0, the above equation

reduces to,

The velocity of the flow can hence be obtained,

or more specifically,
 The biggest difference between an annubar and a
pitot tube is that an annubar takes multiple
samples across a section of a pipe or duct.

 In this way, the annubar averages the differential

pressures encountered accounting for variations
in flow across the section.

 A pitot tube will give a similar reading if the tip is

located at a point in the pipe cross section where
the flowing velocity is close to the average
velocity.
 Advantages
◦ No pressure loss
◦ It is relatively simple
◦ It is readily adapted for the flow measurements
made in very large pipes or ducts
◦ High strength, no wear
◦ No influence of leakage
◦ Suitable for any cross section
 Disadvantages
◦ Not suitable for dirty or sticky fluids and fluids
containing solid particles
◦ Sensitive to upstream disturbances
 Elbow meter is categorized under differential pressure based flow meter.
 An elbow in a pipeline can be used to measure the rate of flow.
 Flow at the elbow produces the differential pressure between the inner
curvature and outer curvature due to change in the direction of flow.
 The pressure at the outside curvature will be higher than the inside
curvature.
 This difference in pressure at elbow can be measured using u-tube
manometer or by mechanical pressure gauges.
 The flow rate can be calculated by the following equation.

 Where
 Q – flow rate in m3/s
 Cd – co-efficient of discharge
 d – diameter of the elbow in m
 g- acceleration due to gravity m/s2
 ρ – density of fluid (kg/m3)
 p0 – pressure intensity at the outer curvature (N/m2)
 Pi – Pressure intensity at the inner curvature (N/m2)
 Advantages
◦ Elbow available in the pipe line can easily be
converted into elbow meter.
◦ Its cost comparatively low
◦ It does not create any additional pressure loss
◦ No obstruction in the pipeline
◦ It has good repeatability
 Disadvantages
◦ Its accuracy is poor
◦ Small differential pressure development.

 Rotameter is a simple and economical means of indicating flow rates in fluid
systems.
 It works based on the variable area principle.
 The variable area principle consists of three basic elements: a uniformly
tapered flow tube, a float, and a measurement scale.
 A control valve may be added if flow control is also desired.
 In operation, the rotameter is positioned vertically in the fluid system with the
smallest diameter end of the tapered flow tube at the bottom.
 The float, either cylindrical or spherical, is located inside the flow tube, and is
engineered so that its diameter is nearly identical to the flow tube’s inlet
diameter.
 The float or plummet inside the flow tube is lifted to the position of
equilibrium under the action of downward force due to weight of float and the
upward force due to difference in the pressure between bottom level and at top
level of the float in addition to the buoyancy effect of the flowing fluid flowing
past the float through annular orifice.
 The flow rate can be read directly from the measuring scale by observing the
position of float.
 Measuring scale should be designed after calibration of the rotameter at
different flow rates.
 Rotameters are the most widely used type of
variable-area (VA) flow meter.
 In these devices, the falling and rising action of a
float in a tapered tube provides a measure of flow
rate (see Figure 1).
 Rotameters are known as gravity-type flowmeters
because they are based on the opposition between
the downward force of gravity and the upward force
of the flowing fluid.
 When the flow is constant, the float stays in one
position that can be related to the volumetric flow
rate.
 That position is indicated on a graduated scale. Note
that to keep the full force of gravity in effect, this
dynamic balancing act requires a vertical measuring
tube.
 Other forms of gravity-type VA meters may
incorporate a piston or vane that responds to
flow in a manner similar to the float's behavior.
 All these devices can be used to measure the
flow rates of most liquids, gases, and steam.
 There are also similar types that balance the fluid
flow with a spring rather than gravitational force.
 These do not require vertical mounting, but
corrosive or erosive fluids can damage the spring
and lead to reduced accuracy.
 Low cost
 Low pressure drop
 Rangeability is better
 It is suitable for small flow rates
 It is easily equipped with alarms and swithes
or any transmitting devices
 It also measures the flow rate of corrosive
fluids
 There is an availability of viscosity immune
floats
 it can be used in some light slurry services
 It is difficult to handle the glass tube type
 It must be mounted vertically
 It is not suitable for pulsating services
 Generally it is limited to small pipe services
 It is limited to low temperatures
 Accuracy is ±0.5 to 10%
 It requires in line mounting.
Vortex Meter
Principle of Operation
Q=VxA
Vortex
When a fluid stream encounters a rock or another
obstruction, it separates, moves around the object and
flows downstream.
At the point of contact, eddy currents or vortex swirls are
formed alternately on either side of the object.
This creates a local increase in pressure and a local decrease
in velocity on one side of the obstruction.
Meanwhile, it creates a local decrease in pressure and a local
increase in velocity on the other side of the object.
After shedding a swirl from one side, the process is reversed
and a vortex or a swirl is shed from the other side.
The frequency of this alternating shedding process is
proportional to the velocity of the flowing stream as it
passes the point of contact.
It is also noted that the distance between the shed vorticies
is constant, regardless of flow velocity. This principle is
called Karman’s principle.
 In the vortex shedding flow meter, the flow path is obstructed by a
bluff body (or strut) that creates the vortex swirl.

 In 1912, Theodor von Karman pioneered early bluff body design in
vortex metering development. This led to later awareness that
sharp-edged bluff bodies (struts) improve the strength and
consistency of vortex shedding. Therefore, we now refer to a series
or pattern of vortex swirls as "a von Karman vortex street".

 The rate of vortex shedding is detected by an ultrasonic, electronic,

or fiberoptic sensor that monitors the changes in the vortex pattern,
or von Karman vortex street downstream from the bluff body,
transmitting a pulsating output signal to external readouts or data
acquisition equipment.

 There are no moving parts in a vortex shedding flow meter.

 The average fluid velocity is proportional to the frequency of vortex

shedding and the width of the bluff body (strut). This proportionality
is defined as the Strouhal number, which is dimensionless.
 The average fluid velocity is proportional to the frequency of vortex shedding and the
width of the bluff body (strut). This proportionality is defined as the Strouhal number,
which is dimensionless.

 Therefore: St = fd / v

 Where: St = Strouhal number

f = frequency of vortex shedding
d = width of bluff body
v = average fluid velocity

 The actual width of a bluff body within a specific vortex meter is fixed, therefore, a
constant. The frequency of vortex shedding is linearly proportional to the average flowing
velocity over a wide range of Reynolds numbers.* Today, most vortex shedding flow
meters operate accurately at Reynolds numbers from 10,000 up to 10,000,000.

 The vortex shedding flow meter is a volumetric flow meter. Therefore, to define the
mathematics of vortex metering, we must first define the following relationships of
volumetric flow.
 Q = Av
 Where: Q = volumetric flow rate
v = average fluid velocity
A = cross sectional area of flow path
 If a Strouhal number is substituted for
average fluid velocity (" v "), it becomes;
 Q = fdA / St
 Since the Strouhal number, and bluff body
width, and the cross sectional area of the flow
meter are all constants (which is defined as
"K"), the equation becomes;
 Q = f/K
 The vortex shedding meter provides a linear
digital output signal without the use of separate
transmitters or converters simplifying equipment
installation
 Meter accuracy is good over a potentially wide
flow range, although the range is dependent
upon operating conditions
 The shedding frequency is a function of the
dimensions of the bluff body and it ensures good
long term stability of calibration and repeatability
of better than ±0.15% of rate
 There is no drift because this is a frequency
system
 The meter does not have any moving or
wearing components, providing improved
reliability and reduced maintenance.
 The calibration of the meter is virtually
independent of the operating conditions
(viscosity, density, pressure, temperature and
so on) whether the meter is being used on
gas or liquid.
 The vortex shedding meter also offers low
installed cost, particularly in pipe sizes below
6 inch diameter
 Meters below 12 mm diamter are not
practical
 The rangeability declines proportionally with
increases in viscosity and decreases in
density, or reductions in the maximum flow
velocity of the process.
 Vortex shedding meters are therefore
unsuitable for use of high viscosity liquids.
Magnetic Flowmeters
Theory of Operation
 Working principle
 Electromagnetic flow meters use Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction for making a flow
measurement
 Faraday’s law states that whenever a conductor
of length l moves with a velocity v perpendicular
to a magnetic field B and emf e is induced in a
mutually perpendicular direction which is given
by
 E = Blv
 Where B = magnetic flux density (Wb/m2)
 l = length of conductor (m)
 V = velocity of the conductor (m/s)
 In the electromagnetic meter, the constant
magnetic field is generated around the pipe by
magnet and the flowing liquid can be regarded
as a continuous series of discs passing through
the magnetic field, the bore of the pipe being
directly proportional to length of the conductor.

 Thus the emf generated is directly proportional

to the velocity of the flow.

 The complete compensation for variation in the

field strength due to voltage fluctuation can be
had by using a null balance form of measuring
instrument energised from the same source as
the magnet.
 The flow tube of the electromagnetic type meter
containing the detecting electrodes supplied as a
separate with flanged ends which can be bolted into
the main pipe.

 The flow tube bore is protected by an inssulated

lining of glass or neoprene which also serves to
prevent the short circuiting of emf through the
electrodes.

 The flow tube should have high electrical resistivity

so that the magnetic flux does not by pass the
metered liquid and also to minimize the eddy
currents.
 The electrode potential is detected by two
metal electrodes essentially of the point type
made of stainless steel or platinum where
high resistance to corrosion is necessary.
 These are located diametrically opposite to
each other with their surfaces flush with the
inside surface of the lining, so that they do
not disturb the flow pattern.
 Thus the electromagnet is of the core type
and consists of two saddle shaped copper
coils.
 This tube is rigidly located in the air gap and the
laminated iron core, for focussing the magnetic
field in a direction at right angles the flowing
liquid, being positioned beneath the coils. At
alternating electric supply is used to energize
electromagnet as AC supply avoids polarization
of the electrodes.
 Thus the emf across the electrodes will be
directly proprotional to the velocity of flows of
the metered liquid and it will not be influenced
by variations in the specific resistance of the
liquid if there is not current flow through it.
Magmeter Requirements

 Process must be a liquid

 Minimum conductivity
 Meter must be full
Magnetic Flowmeters
Advantages Over Other Technologies
 No moving parts
 No pressure drop
 Flowrate independent of viscosity, temperature, and density
 Minimum upstream piping requirements
 Electronics interchangeable without regard to size
 Measure dirty liquids with solids
 Measure highly corrosive fluids
 Very large turndown
 Linear output
Limitation of electromagnetic flow meter
1. The substance being measured must be conductive. Therefore, it can
be employed for metering the flow rate of gases and stream,
petroleum products and similar liquids
2. to render the meter sensitive to variations in the resistance of liquid,
the effective resistance of the liquid between the electrodes should
not exceed 1% of the impedance of the external circuit.
3. It is very expensive device
4. As the meter always measures the volume rate, the volume of any
suspended matter in the liquid will be included
5. To avoid any trouble which would be caused by entrained air, when
the flow tube is installed in a horizontal pipe line, the electrodes
should be on the horizontal diameter.
6. As a zero check on the installation can be perfomed only by stopping
the flow, isolating valves are required and a bypass may also be
necessary through which the flow may be directed during a zero
check
7. The pipe must run full, in case regulating valves are installed
upstream of the meter.
 Applications of electromagnetic flow meter
This electromagnetic flow meters being non-intrusive type, can be used in
general for any fluid which is havng a reasonable electrical conductivity
above 10 microsiemens/cm.
Fluids like sand water slurry,
coal power,
slurry,
sewage,
wood pulp,
chemicals,
water other than distilled water in large pipelines,
hot fluids,
viscous fluids specially in food processing industries,
cryogenic fluids can be metered by electromagnetic flow meter.
Ultrasonic Flow Meters
Ultrasonic flow meters will detect and measure flow rates without
invading the flow stream or using moving parts. To do so, they employ
one of two following principles of operation.

Transit-Time Ultrasonic Flow Meters send a sound wave through the

flow, relying on the difference in time between upstream and
downstream times of flight. This difference in time is proportional to
the velocity of the flow. Transit-time flow meters are not suited for
water with heavy aeration or high concentrations of solids or
suspended particles as this can obstruct the sound waves. They are
more appropriately used for clean and ultra-pure flows.

Doppler Ultrasonic Flow Meters also send a sound wave into the flow,
but contrary to transit-time technology, Doppler meters depend on
suspended bubbles and particles in the water to reflect the sound
waves providing a shift in the frequency. Any shift in the frequency of
reflections is proportional to the flow velocity. Therefore, Doppler
ultrasonic flow meters are obviously better suited for aerated or impure
water applications (i.e. waste-water).
Ultrasonic flow meter
 Principle of Operation
 The acoustic method of discharge measurement is based
on the fact that the propagation velocity of an acoustic
wave and the flow velocity are summed vectorially.
 This type of flowmeter measures the difference in transit
times between two ultrasonic pulses transmitted upstream
t21 and downstream t12 across the flow.
 If there are no transverse flow components in the conduit,
these two transmit times of acoustic pulses are given by:
Since the transducers are generally used both as
transmitters and receivers, the difference in travel time
can be determined with the same pair of transducers.
Thus, the mean axial velocity along the path is given by:
 Sensor Block Sensor Block

A B

Liquid
Flow
 Pipe cut through side view

Transducers

Steel

Plastic

Line represents
path of sound wave Water
 Sensor Block Sensor Block Sensor Block

A B A

Pipe wall

Liquid Liquid
Flow Flow
Pipe wall
B
Sensor Block

Reflex mounting Diagonal mounting

• ease of setup • extends the readable
• good results over a pipe diameter for given
broad range of sensors
applications • better for high flows
• better with turbulent
applications
 Sensor Block Sensor Block Sensor Block Sensor Block

A B A B

Liquid Liquid
Flow Flow
Pipe wall Pipe wall

Double reflex mounting Triple reflex mounting

• ease of setup • ease of setup
• useful for smaller pipe • useful for smaller pipe
diameters diameters
• good on low flow rates • good on low flow rates
Pros:
1. By far, the best reason to use an ultrasonic flow meter of any kind is the
lower costs associated with installation.
2. Your system would not need to be shut down and your piping would not
need to be altered.
3. Device will not obstruct flow or contaminate processes
4. Lack of moving parts means less maintenance
5. Flow range typically 100:1
6. Can be used with corrosive fluids
7. Zero pressure drop (Magnetic flow meters also provide no pressure drop
if you are installing a meter the same size as the line size)
8. Operates on pipe diameters from 1/2” to 200” (may require 2 or 3
different sets of transducer depending on pipe size and range
transducers cover)
9. Insensitive to changes in temperature, viscosity, density or pressure
(Temperature will effect the transit time sensor selection requiring high
temp sensors above 250F.)
10.Available in a wide variety of communication protocols (Transit Time)
11.Ability to register locally, remotely or to interface with an energy
management system (Transit Time)
•Cons

1. the accuracy of ultrasonic flow meters becomes

much less dependable when the flow rate drops
below 2 ft/s.
2. Any number of unknown internal piping variables
can shift the flow signal and create inaccuracies
3. The scaling, pitting, and fouling that can occur over
time in older piping systems can be problematic.
4. Accuracy may be affected by air space in the pipe
5. Accuracy may be affected by the size distribution of
particles and any relative velocity between particles
and the water (Doppler)
Hot-wire Anemometry

A hot-wire anemometer measures local instantaneous velocity based on

principles of heat transfer. However, it requires that the fluid itself be at a
uniform temperature.

It can be used to measure three components of velocity and velocity

fluctuations arising in turbulent flow.

This is possible because of the high speed of response of the hot-wire probe
and the associated feedback circuit.

A hot-wire probe is used in gas flows, while a hot-film is used for liquid flow.
The hot-wire has a limitation that it is insensitive to the flow direction.
Further, it has a non-linear input-output relationship which
makes its sensitivity non-uniform over any velocity range. In
particular, the sensitivity decreases with increasing velocity.

The hot-wire probe is a platinum-coated tungsten wire, typically

of 5 micro meter diameter and about 4 mm length, supported
between highly conducting prongs

Tungsten has high temperature coefficient of resistance (i.e.,

resistance increases rapidly with temperature) and the platinum
coating affords strength as well as protection against corrosion
of the thin wire
Hot wire anemometer has been used for many years in the study of laminar,
transitional and turbulent boundary layer flows.

The general hot wire anemometer consists of a sensor, a small electrically

heated wire exposed to the fluid flow (see Figure 1) and electronic equipment to
perform the transformation of the sensor output into electrical signals.

The hot wire anemometer working when the flow velocity passing the thin wire
which is sensor, the convective heat transfer will change, wire temperature will
change and increase the resistance in the wire.

The principle of operation for the hot wire anemometer is shown in Figure 2.

There have two models of operation of hot wire anemometers such as for
constant current and constant temperature.

For constant current, the variations in wire resistance due to the flow are
measured by monitoring the voltage drop.

Meanwhile for the constant temperature, the change in current inside across
filament is measured.
Pros

Excellent spatial resolution

High frequency response, low noise

Cons

Fragile, it can be used only in clean gas flows

Needs to recalibrated frequently due to dust
accumulation
High cost
Risk of probe burnout