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Chapter 2: Life Course Transitions
Solution Manual for Aging and the Life Course An Introduction to
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Chapter 2: Life Course Transitions
Brief IM Outline
Chapter Outline
Class Discussion Topics
Student Project and Research Suggestions
Answer Guidelines for “Thinking about Aging” Questions
Lecture/Class Activity Ideas
Community, State, and National Resources
Internet Resources and Activities
Suggested Reading
Films and Videos
Chapter Outline
I. Life Course Framework
The life course framework is an approach to the study of aging that emphasizes the interaction
of historical events, individual decisions and opportunities, and effect of early life experiences in
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Chapter 2: Life Course Transitions
determining later life outcomes (G. H. Elder, 2006). As people age, they move through different
social roles that provide them with different identities—student, husband or wife, worker, parent.
Sociologists call these role changes transitions. The concept of transitions refers to the role
changes individuals make as they leave school, take a job, get married, have children, or retire.
People also experience countertransitions, which are produced by others’ role changes. Finally,
a series of transitions is called a trajectory.
The intellectual origins of the sociological approach to the life course lie in several traditions that
cross disciplinary boundaries. Three aspects of age stratification theory are relevant to the study
of the life course. First, age is one of the bases for regulating social interaction and for ascribing
status; second, the timing of the entry into and exit from social positions has age-related
consequences; and third, the pattern of biological aging and the sequence of age-related roles are
altered by historical events (e.g., improvements in health care, new technologies) (Riley and
Riley, 2000). Another influence on the life course approach is the anthropological study of age
grading. Age grades are ways of using age as a social category to group people by status.
II. Methodological Issues in Research On the Life Course
A. Age, Period, and Cohort Effects
A central methodological issue in life course research is how to distinguish between age
effects, period effects, and cohort effects. An age effect is a change that occurs as a result of
advancing age. A period effect is the impact of a historical event on the entire society. A
cohort effect is the social change that occurs as one cohort replaces another. Although the
concepts of age, period, and cohort effects sound simple, they can be quite difficult to
measure. Social gerontologists frequently use cross-sectional research to distinguish age,
period, and cohort effects, but longitudinal research is a better approach.
B. Cross-Sectional Research
Research comparing people of different age cohorts at a single point in time is called cross-
sectional research. Researchers conducting a cross-sectional study ask the same information
of people in several age groups. Differences between age groups that appear to be age effects
also may result from period effects. History creates a period effect when change is relatively
uniform across successive birth cohorts (G. Elder, 1994).
C. Longitudinal Research
Some of the complex methodological issues involved in distinguishing between age effects,
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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
3
Chapter 2: Life Course Transitions
cohort effects, and period effects can be sorted out through longitudinal research. In contrast
to cross-sectional studies that compare subjects from different cohorts, longitudinal studies
follow the same group of people over time.
D. Qualitative Research
Many interesting studies of aging are based on qualitative research. One type of qualitative
research is participant observation. In these studies researchers observe people in a natural
setting, keep copious notes on what they observe, and then organize their observations to help
understand patterns of behavior, decision-making processes, and the social character of
communities. Another type of qualitative research consists of open-ended interviews.
III. Identifying Life Course Events
A. The Timing of Life Course Events
Timing refers to the idea that there are appropriate ages for making various life course
transitions. Age norms define everything people mean when they say, “Act your age.” They
act as prods or brakes on behavior, sometimes hastening an event, at other times delaying it.
In combination, age norms form a prescriptive timetable, called a social clock, that orders
major life events. The social clock not only influences when people marry, have children, and
retire, it also may affect how they feel about entering a new life phase.
Because the expected timing of important life events is looser and more flexible than it may
have been in the past, Settersten and Hagestad preferred the term age timetables rather than
age norms. Perceived timetables of the life course shape people’s experiences of growing
older by providing reference points and sets of expectations about what they should be doing
with their lives.
B. The Duration of Life Course Events
Duration refers to the number of years spent in each phase of the life course (Silverstein and
Giarusso, 2011). One distinctive change in the duration of a life course phase is the extension
of adolescence. Historically, adolescence ended when young people left the family home. In
the past two decades, young people have remained longer in the parental home or left and
then returned, creating a crowded nest. Instead of children setting out to make their way in
the world, the parental home now serves as a base of operations during the phase that
precedes marriage and even after marriage for some couples.
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Chapter 2: Life Course Transitions
C. The Sequencing of Life Course Events
The idea of sequencing presumes that transitions should be made in a particular order
(Rindfuss et al., 1987). The implication is of orderliness and irreversibility. Disorder in the
sequencing of life events may have negative consequences for later life transitions. The
overlapping of life events may also create role conflicts.
D. The Effect of Early Experiences on Adult Outcomes
Inherent in the life course approach is the notion that early experiences reverberate across the
whole life course (Ferraro et al., 2009). The quality of family relationships in childhood also
has an effect on mental health in adulthood. Adults with divorced parents compared with
adults of parents who remained married report greater unhappiness, less satisfaction with life,
and more symptoms of anxiety and depression. Early life patterns have an effect on health in
later life as well. Finally, some research suggests that childhood traumas influence subsequent
life course patterns.
E. Demographic Change and Middle Age
The life course “begins and ends with demographic events—birth and death,” and
demographic change creates variations in the experiences of different cohorts (Uhlenberg,
1996c:226). One effect of demographic change has been the creation of a new phase of the
life course—middle age. By the 1970s, the average couple had their first child by their mid-
20s and had a total of two children spaced two years apart. By the time husband and wife
reached their mid-40s, their children had left home. This left a period of 20 years or more with
a couple alone together, not yet old, in an empty nest. Thus, changing patterns of
childbearing, along with increasing life expectancy, created middle age as a separate phase of
the life course. Increasingly, however, the empty nest years are becoming crowded with adult
children returning home. Later age of marriage, student debt, and the higher cost of living are
all responsible for this trend.
IV. The Theory of Cumulative Disadvantage
Over the life course, there is increasing diversity between members of a cohort, which creates
greater inequality (Ferraro et al., 2009). In other words, the advantage of one individual or group
over another grows over time, so that small differences between them are magnified (DiPrete and
Eirich, 2006). People who start life at an advantage are likely to experience increasing benefits as
they age. As a result of this process, inequality among people 65 or older is the highest of all age
groups (O’Rand, 2006). A central concern of life course research is to explain why inequality
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Chapter 2: Life Course Transitions
increases with age. The theory of cumulative disadvantage highlights the influences of earlier
life experiences on the quality of life in old age. Those who are advantaged early in life have
more opportunity to obtain an education, get a good job, earn a high salary, and save for
retirement.
V. How Government Influences the Life Course
The government has had the greatest impact on two phases of the life course: adolescence and
old age (Kohli, 2009). One question now being raised concerns whether the division of the life
course into three stages is still functional. Not only are people living longer, they are also
healthier than in the past. Most older people have no serious disabilities, and many remain active
well into their 80s (Manton and Land, 2000). Today, there are serious proposals to reduce age
differentiation and spread education, work, and leisure over the entire life course. Given the
recognition that stages are constantly being transformed, a more useful approach may be to
emphasize the transitions that link life phases to diverse trajectories.
Class Discussion Topics
1. Age Norms and Life Course Sequencing
How are age norms changing? Do they have negative or positive effects on life course
transitions?
2. Distinguishing between Effects
What are examples of age, period, and cohort effects?
3. Cumulative Disadvantage
What are some examples of cumulative disadvantage, and how can individuals overcome
them?
Student Project and Research Suggestions
1. In-Depth Interview
Find an older family member or friend, and get their life story. In the analysis, try to find
themes of cumulative advantages and disadvantages.
2. Surveying Age Norms
Have students select five old people and five young people, and ask them to survey these
people on their attitudes about life course transitions and sequencing. Ask them to observe
if all people are loosening their age norms or if this is an age effect.
Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e
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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
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Chapter 2: Life Course Transitions
Answer Guidelines for “Thinking about Aging” Questions
1. What are the practical implications of the life course approach to social gerontology?
Answer: Have students emphasize the ability to do cross-sectional research and
longitudinal research. Have them emphasize the detailed results it will gather about people
of different generations and cohorts from different groups in the society.
2. Analyze the timing, duration, and sequencing of your parents’ life course. Was it typical
for their generation?
Answer: This answer will be based on students’ personal experiences; however, this
question might be good to discuss age norms and sequencing in the society.
3. What was the major historical event of your life course? How did it affect your life?
Answer: Bring up the times during wars and recent economic crisis to give students
examples of major historical events that may affect their lives.
4. If government officials want to promote social equality, at what stage of the life course
should they intervene? Explain.
Answer: Discuss how government officials can have strong positive effects on altering the
adolescence stage in the life course.
5. If you were a government policymaker, would you use your authority to alter the course of
adolescence? If so, how?
Answer: Discuss examples such as the No Child Left Behind Act to stimulate discussion
on how government policymakers can alter the course of adolescence among students.
Lecture/Class Activity Ideas
1. Compare the research studies discussed in the chapter, and break them down by their type
of research (i.e., cross-sectional and longitudinal) and what they are researching (i.e., age,
period, or cohort effects).
2. Provide examples of different age, period, and cohort effects to help students better
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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
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Chapter 2: Life Course Transitions
understand the differences between the three effects.
3. Talk about the government programs that are used to promote social equality in a system
where cumulative disadvantage affects so many people. Use this as a lead for future class
discussions on the role of government in aging policy.
Community, State, and National Resources
Community Resources
1. American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)–Local Chapter
This organization has a diverse membership group. Invite members to class to discuss the
policy issues that the group is currently examining.
2. Area Agency on Aging
Each county government has one of these agencies. Students may be introduced to it and
the services offered by it.
3. Office on Aging
Most communities have an office or a major center that addresses issues on aging for older
adults. A member of this office can be invited to class to discuss issues/concerns of older
adults in the community.
4. Volunteer Clearinghouses
Focus on this resource as an opportunity to find volunteer activities for students in the
community.
State Resources
1. State Network of Area Agencies on Aging
This network is a compilation of all the area agencies on aging in the state.
2. State Long-Term Care Ombudsman Office
This office can be contacted early in the semester for subsequent discussions related to
elderly abuse or long-term care.
3. State Gerontological Society or Association
Inform students of the state gerontological society or agency in the state. Encourage
students to join and participate in its annual meeting.
Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e
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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
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Chapter 2: Life Course Transitions
4. Gerontological Programs or Institutes at Other Public and Private Universities in the State
Inform students of other colleges and universities in the state with gerontological programs
or institutes.
National Resources
1. The Gerontological Society of America
This is the national professional organization for students who are interested in the aging
process. Students should be encouraged to join if they plan to continue with their graduate
school or pursue a career in gerontology. The website address is as follows:
http://www.geron.org/. Some special units of this society include the National Academy on
an Aging Society and the Association for Gerontology in Higher Education.
2. American Society on Aging
This organization’s goal is to promote the knowledge and skills of those working with
older adults and their families. They also provide training programs and workshops. The
Web address of the organization is as follows: http://www.asaging.org.
Internet Resources and Activities
1. Administration on Aging: Profile of Older Americans
This resource shows the latest key statistics on older Americans in key subject areas
including, poverty, housing, health and health care, race, and marital status. This resource
is available online at https://aoa.acl.gov/Aging_Statistics/Profile/index.aspx.
2. Age-Friendly Philadelphia (2012, (PDF) Philadelphia Corporation for Aging by Kate Clark
and Allen Glicksman)
This resource is available online at https://fedweb-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/fed-
2/2/Clark%2520and%2520Glicksman%2520-%2520%2520Age-friendly%2520Phila-
%2520JHE.pdf.
3. “Hispanics Living Longer than Whites, Blacks. But Why?” (October 14, 2010, article from
the National Public Radio)
This resource is available online at
http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2010/10/14/130567637/hispanics-living-longer-than-
whites-blacks.
Suggested Reading
Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e
© 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any
manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
9
Chapter 2: Life Course Transitions
Bengston, Vern, Glen Elder, and Noella Putney. 2012. “The Life Course Perspective on Aging:
Linked Lives, Timing and History.” pp. 9–17 in Adult Lives: A Life Course Perspective,
edited by Jeanne Katz, Sheila Peace, and Sue Spurr. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Kohli, Martin. 2009. “The World We Forgot: A Historical Review of the Life Course.” pp. 64–
90 In The life Course Reader: Individuals and Societies Across Time, edited by Walter R.
Heinz, Johannes Huinink, and Ansgar Weymann, Frankfurt: Campus-Verlag.
Silverstein, Merril and Roseann Giarusso. 2011. Aging Individuals, Families, and Societies:
Micro-Meso-Macro Linkages in the Life Course. Pp. 35–49 In Handbook of Sociology of
Aging. edited by R.A. Settersten and J.L. Angel. New York, NY: Springer.
Toothman, Erica L. and Anne E. Barrett. 2011. “Mapping Midlife: An Examination of Social
Factors Shaping Conceptions of the Timing of Middle Age.” Advances in Life Course
Research, 16(3), 99–111.
Wakabayashi, Chizuko and Katharine M. Donato. 2006. “Does Caregiving Increase Poverty
among Women in Later Life? Evidence from the Health and Retirement Survey.” Journal of
Health and Social Behavior, 47(3):258–274.
Films and Videos
Sara Lerner: Growing Up during the Great Depression (2010, 8 minutes)
This video shows pictures of different families at a relocation camp in California during the
Great Depression. The video is available at www.youtube.com/watch?v=xX7JlTpMf1E.
Unnatural Causes: Is Inequality Making Us Sick? (2008, California Newsreel, 240 minutes)
This is a seven-part video series bundled into four television hours. Many of the episodes discuss
the cumulative disadvantange because of race and wealth. The video clips are available online at
www.unnaturalcauses.org.
Up (2009, Pixar Animation Studios, 96 minutes)
This movie shows the sequencing of life course events for a couple. Several parts of the movie
are available on YouTube.
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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
