INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS.

P.C. Kinyanjui Technical Training Institute, Nairobi

Information communication Technology (ICT) it is the integration of computer and telecommunication facilities
for the purpose of communication.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
Definition of a Computer:
 A Computer is an electronic device that operates (works) under the control of programs stored in its own
memory unit.

 A computer is an electronic machine that processes raw data to give information as output.

 An electronic device that accepts data as input, and transforms it under the influence of a set of special
instructions called Programs, to produce the desired output (referred to as Information).

A computer automatically accepts data & instructions as input from an Input device, stores them temporarily in
its memory, then processes that data according to the instructions given, and finally transfers the processed data
(Information) to an Output device.

Explanations;

 A computer is described as an electronic device because; it is made up of electronic components and uses
electric energy (such as electricity) to operate.

 A computer has an internal memory, which stores data & instructions temporarily awaiting processing, and
even holds the intermediate result (information) before it is communicated to the recipients through the
Output devices.

 It works on the data using the instructions issued, means that, the computer cannot do any useful job on its
own. It can only work as per the set of instructions issued.

A computer will accept data in one form and produce it in another form. The data is normally held within the
computer as it is being processed.

Program:
 A computer Program is a set of related instructions written in the language of the computer & is used to
make the computer perform a specific task (or, to direct the computer on what to do).

 A set of related instructions which specify how the data is to be processed.

 A set of instructions used to guide a computer through a process.

Data:

Data is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions that do not have much meaning to the user.

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 Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be processed to produce information.

TYPES OF DATA.

There are two types/forms of data:

a). Digital (discrete) data:
Digital data is discrete in nature. It must be represented in form of numbers, alphabets or symbols for it to
be processed by a computer.

- Digital data is obtained by counting. E.g. 1, 2, 3 …

b). Analogue (continuous) data:

Analogue data is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in order to be processed
by the computer.

Analogue data is obtained by measurement. E.g. Pressure, Temperature, Humidity, Lengths or currents,
etc
The output is in form of smooth graphs from which the data can be read.
Data Processing:
 It is the process of collecting all items of data together & converting them into information.

 Processing refers to the way the data is manipulated (or handled) to turn it into information.

The processing may involve calculation, comparison or any other logic to produce the required result. The
processing of the data usually results in some meaningful information being produced.

Information:

Information is the data which has been refined, summarized & manipulated in the way you want it, or into a
more meaningful form for decision-making.

The information must be accurate, timely, complete and relevant.

Comparison between Data and Information.

Data Information
1. Unprocessed (raw) facts or figures. 1. It is the end-product of data processing
(processed data)
2. Not arranged. 2. Arranged into a meaningful format.
3. Does not have much meaning to the user. 3. More meaningful to the user.
4. Cannot be used for decision-making. 4. Can be used to make decisions.

Characteristics / Features of a Computer.

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Before 20th century, most information was processed manually or by use of simple machines. Today, millions
of people are using computers in offices and at home to produce and store all types of information

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely accepted & used in the day-to-day
activities in our society:

1. Speed.

Computers operate at very high speeds, and can perform very many functions within a very short time.

They can perform a much complicated task much faster than a human being.

The speed of a computer is measured in Fractions of seconds.

Millisecond - a thousandth of a second (10-3)

Microsecond - a millionth of a second (10-6)
Nanosecond - a thousand millionth of a second (10-9)
Picosecond - a million millionth of a second (10-12)

The speed of a computer is usually linked to the technology used to build it.

a). 1st Generation computers (1940s & early 1950s).

 The computers were built using Vacuum tubes, and the speed was measured in Milliseconds.
E.g., a computer could perform 5,000 additions & 300 multiplications per second.

b). 2nd Generation computers (1950s & early 1960s).

Were built using Transistors. Their operation speeds increased & were measured in Microseconds.
E.g., a computer could perform 1 million additions per second.

c). Mid 1960s.

Integrated Circuit (IC), which combined a no. of transistors & diodes together on a silicon chip, was
developed.
The speed increased to tens of millions of operations per second.

d). In 1971, Intel Corporation produced a very small, single chip called a Microprocessor, which could
perform all the operations on the computer’s processor. The chip contained about 1,600 transistors.

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 e). Today’s microprocessors are very powerful, cheaper & more reliable due to the use of the Large Scale
Integration (LSI) & Very Large scale Integration (VLSI) technologies, which combines hundreds of
thousands of components onto a single chip.
The computer speeds are now measured in Nanoseconds & Picoseconds.

2. Accuracy:

Unlike human beings, computers are very accurate, i.e., they never make mistakes.

A computer can work for very long periods without going wrong. However, when an error occurs the
computer has a number of in-built, self-checking features in their electronic components that can detect &
correct such errors.

Usually errors are committed by the users entering the data to the computer, thus the saying Garbage in
Garbage Out (GIGO).
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it processed, the computer will give
you misleading information.

3. Reliability.

The computer can be relied upon to produce the correct answer if it is given the correct instructions &
supplied with the correct data.

Therefore, if you want to add two numbers, but by mistake, give the computer a “Multiply” instruction, the
computer will not know that you intended to “ADD”; it will multiply the numbers supplied.

Similarly, if you give it the ADD instruction, but make a mistake and enter an incorrect data; let say, 14 &
83 instead of 14 & 38; then the computer will produce the “wrong” answer 97 instead of 52. However, note
that, 97 is ‘correct’ based on the data supplied.

Therefore, the output produced by a computer is only as reliable as the instructions used & the data
supplied.

4. Consistency:

Computers are usually consistent. This means that, given the same data & the same instructions, they will
produce the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.

5. Storage:

A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a very small space.

A computer can store data & instructions for later use, and it can produce/ retrieve this data when required
so that the user can make use of it.

Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals through the use of passwords.

6. Diligence:
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 Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired or bored. Even if it has to do
a million calculations, it will do the last one with the same speed and accuracy as the first one.

7. Automation:

A computer is an automatic device. This is because, once given the instructions, it is guided by these
instructions and can carry on its job automatically until it is complete.

It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.

8. Versatile:

A computer can be used in different places to perform a large number of different jobs depending on the
instructions fed to it.

9. Imposition of a formal approach to working methods:

Because a computer can only work with a strict set of instructions, it identifies and imposes rigid rules for
dealing with the data it is given to process.

PARTS OF A COMPUTER.

A computer is made up of the system unit and other devices connected to it referred to us the peripheral devices
The peripheral devices are connected to the system unit using special cables called interface cables that are
connected through connected called ports

A Computer consists of the following parts/devices: -

1. The System Unit.

2. Input devices.
3. Output devices.
4. Storage devices.

System Unit.

This is the casing (unit) that houses electronic components such as the ‘brain’ of the computer called the Central
processing Unit (CPU) and storage devices.

The components in the System unit include: -

 Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is also referred to as Processor.

 Motherboard.
 Power supply unit.
 Memory storage devices.
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 Disk drives, which are used to store, record and read data.

Types of System units

There are two makes of System units:

a) Tower style system unit

This system unit is made to stand alone. They are designed to be placed on the floor.

Tower style units have more space for expansion than the typical desktop units.

b) Desktop system units

Desktop units lie on the desk with the monitor resting on top of the system unit.

Features of the System unit.

It houses the CPU.
It connects to all peripheral devices using ports.
It has the computer’s Power switch.

The Central processing unit (CPU)

This is the brain of the computer, and carries out all the processing within the computer.
Input devices.

These are the devices used to enter/put data into the computer.

• They accept data for processing & convert it into a suitable form that the computer can understand.

Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Joysticks, Light pen, Scanner, etc.

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The Keyboard

The keyboard looks like a typewriter, and has letters, numbers and other keys through which data is entered into
the computer.

To enter data & instructions into the computer, the user should press the required keys.

The Mouse

It is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by controlling a special mouse
pointer displayed on the screen.

Output devices.

Output devices are used to give the end results of data that was entered into the computer.

They extract/ disseminate processed data (information) from the computer.

They accept data from processing devices & convert it into human sensible form.

Examples: Screens (Monitors), Printers, Graph plotters, Speakers, etc

The Monitor

It is a television like screen used for displaying output. When you type a letter or number on the keyboard, it
shows up on the monitor.

Note. The monitor enables the user to monitor/track or see what is going on in the computer.

Printer

Printers are used to create permanent copies of output on paper.

Memory storage devices.

These are devices used to store programs & data in computers.

• They hold data & programs until they are needed for processing.
• They also hold the results after processing.

Computer storage is divided into 2:

i). Primary (main) storage.

This is the storage found within the computer itself. It is used to hold data, programs & instructions
required immediately (or currently being used) by the Processor.

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 Examples: Random Access Memory (RAM) & Read Only Memory (ROM).

ii). Secondary (Backing) storage.

It is used by the computer to store backup information that is not needed immediately by the Processor. It
is also used by the computer to supplement the computer’s main memory/ internal memory in case of mass
storage purposes.

Secondary storage units provide permanent data storage facilities. They allow large quantities of
information to be stored permanently on some form of magnetic media such Magnetic tapes or disks.

The programs & data are transferred to & from the secondary storage units to the Main memory only when
they are required; hence the information is said to be online to the computer.

Examples of secondary storage devices:

• Hard disk * Floppy disks.

* Magnetic Tapes.
• Cassette tapes. * Punched cards.
* Zip disks.
• Compact disks * Digital Video Disks (DVDs).

Computer peripherals.

A computer is basically made up of a system unit and other devices connected to the system unit called
Peripheral devices.

Peripheral devices are the elements (components) connected to the system unit so as to assist the computer
satisfy its users.

Peripheral devices are connected to the System unit using special cables called data interface cables that carry
data, programs & information to and from the processor. The cables are connected to the system unit using
connectors called Ports.

Examples of peripheral devices include;

Monitor, - Keyboard, - Mouse
Printer. - Modem. -
Speakers.
Plotter.

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DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS.

HISTORY OF COMPUTING.

Before 1900, most data processing was done manually using simple tools like stones & sticks to count and keep
records.
Around 2000 years ago, Asian merchants came up with a special calculating tool called Abacus that could be
used to calculate large figures.

An Abacus is made up of a rectangular frame and a crossbar at the middle. It is fitted with wires or strings
running across from the frame to the crossbar.

How to represent a number using an Abacus.

Each bead in the lower row has a value of 1, while each bead in the upper row has a value of 5. To represent a
number, the bead is moved to the crossbar. Those beads away from the crossbar represent zeros.

The Figure below represents the number 6908 (Six thousand nine hundred and eight).

After Abacus,
The Napiers bones was developed in the 17th Century by John Napier to aid in multiplication and division.
After the Napiers bone
The first machine that is usually regarded as the forerunner of modern computers was named the Analytical
Engine, and was developed by an English mathematician called Charles Babbage.

Other technical advancements made in this era also include: Napier Bones & Logarithm Tables by John Napier;
Odometer (Speedometer); Mechanical Calculator Blaise Pascal (1641); Punch Card Herman Hollerith (1880)
and Electrical Machines e.g. Enigma.

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In 1939, Professor Howard Aken of Horrard University designed the first computer-like machine named Mark
1.
Since then, a series of advancements in electronics has occurred. With each breakthrough, the computers based
on the older form of electronics have been replaced by a new “generation” of computers based on the newer
form of electronics.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS.

A Computer generation is a grouped summary of the gradual developments in the computer technology. The
historical events are not considered in terms of individual years, but are classified in durations (a period of more
than a year).

1ST Generation computers (1946 – 1956).

CHARACTERISTICS
1. MEMORY - The 1st generation of computers used thousands of electronic gadgets called Vacuum tubes
or Thermionic valves to store & process information.

a.
1. Vacuum tube
2. The tubes consumed a lot power,
3. Generated a lot of heat during processing due to overheating.

4. The computers constantly broke down due to the excessive heat generated,
5. Were short-lived, and
6. Were not very reliable.

7. They also used Magnetic drum memories.

8. Cards were used to enter data into the computers.

9. Their internal memory capacity was limited. The maximum memory size was approx. 2 KB (2,000
bytes).

10. The computers used big physical devices in their circuitry; hence they were very large in size, i.e. the
computer could occupy several office blocks. For example, ENIAC occupied an area of about 150m2 -
the size of an average 3-bedroom house.

11. They were very slow - their speed was measured in Milliseconds. E.g., ENIAC (the earliest electronic
computer) could perform 5,000 additions per second & 300 multiplications per second.

12. The computers were very costly - they costed millions of dollars.

Examples of 1ST Generation computers:

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 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) built in 1946 for use in World War II. It contained
18,000 Vacuum tubes.

 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) developed in 1945 by Dr. John Von Neumann.
It was the first computer that used instructions stored in memory.

 UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).

 IBM 650.
 LEO (Lyon’s Electronic Office).

2ND Generation computers (1957 – 1963).

1. MEMORY - Transistors (tiny, solid-state electronic). The transistors were relatively smaller, more
stable & reliable than vacuum tubes.

i.
1. Transistor

2. The computers consumed less power,

3. Emitted less heat,
4. were much faster,
5. More reliable than those made with vacuum tubes.

6. They used Magnetic core memories.

7. RAM Memory size expanded to 32 KB.

8. Their operation speed increased to between 200,000 – 300,000 instructions per second. Their speeds
were measured in Microseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 1 million additions per second, which
was comparatively higher than that of the 1st generation computers.

9. The computers were smaller in size & therefore, occupied less space compared to the 1st G computers.

10. They were less costly than the 1st G computers.

Examples of 2nd Generation computers:

 NCR 501, IBM 300, IBM 1401, IBM 7070, IBM 7094 Series & CDC-6600 Mainframe computers.
 ATLAS LEO Mark III.
 UNIVAC 1107.
 HONEYWELL 200.

3RD Generation computers (1964 – 1979).

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 1. MEMORY - Used electronic devices called Integrated Circuits (ICs), which were made by combining
thousands of transistors & diodes together on a semiconductor called a Silicon chip.

i.
ii. Integrated circuit

2. The processing speed increased to 5 Million instructions per second (5 MIPS).

3. The storage capacity of the computers (i.e., the RAM memory sizes) expanded to 2 MB.

4. They were smaller in size compared to 2nd generation computers.

5. The computers used a wide range of peripheral devices.

6. The computers could support more than one user at the same time.
7. They were also able to support remote communication facilities.

8. Magnetic disks were developed for storage purposes.

The 1st microcomputer was produced during this period (1974).

Examples of 3rd Generation computers:

 IBM 360, 370;

 ICL 1900 Series;
 8-bit Microcomputers & PDP-11 Mainframe computers.

4TH Generation computers (1979 – 1989).

1. MEMORY – Large Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits & Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits.
These circuits were made by compressing more tiny circuits and transistors into even smaller space of
the silicon chip.

a.
i. Very Large integrated circuit

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 2. The computers were small in size than 3RD G
3. Faster than 3rd G.
4. Their processing speeds increased to 50 Million instructions per second.

5. Had large storage capacity than 3rd G, i.e., their memory sizes expanded to several hundred Megabytes.

6. Memories used included Magnetic disks, Bubble memories & Optical disks.

Examples of 4th Generation computers:

 IBM 308 and 4300;

 Amdahl 580
 Honeywell DPS-88
 Burroughs 7700, and the 16-bit & 32-bit microcomputers. The first microcomputer was called Apple II.
5TH Generation computers (1990 – Present).

1. In this generation fall today’s computers.

2. The technologies used are Parallel architectures, 3-Dimensional circuit design & super conducting
materials.

3. These technologies have led to the development of computers referred to as Supercomputers, which are
very powerful, and have very high processing speeds. Their speeds are measured in Nanoseconds &
Picoseconds.

4. They are able to perform parallel (or multi-processing) whereby a single task is split among a number of
processors.

5. The memory sizes range between 1 Gigabyte & 1 Terabyte.

6. The computers are designed using VLSI and the Microchip technology that has given rise to the smaller
computers, known as Microcomputers used today.

7. The computers have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs that mimic
human intelligence often referred to as Artificial Intelligence. Such programs can help managers to
make decisions and also provide critical expert services to users instead of relying on human
professionals.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE TYPE OF COMPUTER.

1) Type of processor (Central processing unit – CPU)

Microcomputers use microprocessors, which are manufactured on a single chip, as their CPU.

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 In larger computers such as supercomputers, mainframe & minicomputers, the processing is carried out by
a number of separate, high-speed components instead of a single processor.

2) Processing speed.

Every computer has a clock that drives its operations.

Larger computers have faster clocks and therefore can process many instructions per second compared to
small computers, which have slower clocks.

3) Amount of Main memory (RAM).

All computers have some amount of RAM (Random Access memory), which is used to hold the
instructions required to perform a task.

Larger computers have more RAM and therefore can handle large volumes of data & also support many
and sophisticated programs which might require large memory sizes.

4) Storage capacity of the Hard disk.

The storage capacity is the amount of space that is available for storing the instructions required to
manipulate data.

Larger computers have higher storage capacities than microcomputers.

5) Cost of the computer.

The cost of computers is directly related to the size. Microcomputers are less costly compared to
minicomputers, mainframes or Supercomputers.

6) Speed of Output devices.

The speed of an output device is determined by the amount of information that can be printed in a
specified amount of time.

The speed of microcomputer output device is less than that of the larger computers in that:

For a microcomputer, the speed of its output device is measured by the number of characters printed per
second (cps). For larger computers, their output devices are faster and their speeds are measured
depending on the number of lines or pages printed per minute (lpm / ppm).

7) Number of users who can access the computer at the same time.

Most microcomputers can support only 1, 2 or 3 users at the same time. However, they can be networked
to share resources.
Larger computers can support hundreds of users at the same time.

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  CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified according to the following factors:

 Physical size & processing power.

 Purpose for which they are designed.
 Functionality (Method/ mode of operation).

A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE.

Computers can be classified into 5 main groups according to their size as:

1. Supercomputers.
2. Mainframe computers.
3. Minicomputers.
4. Microcomputers.
5. Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks & Palmtops).

1. Supercomputers.

 Supercomputers are the fastest, largest, most expensive & also the most powerful computers available.

 They are very fast in processing. They can perform many complex calculations in a fraction of a
second.

 Most Supercomputers use multiple processors. In this case, a single task is split among the processors
for faster execution. However, all the processors are controlled by a single central processor.

 Supercomputers generate a lot of heat, & therefore require special cooling systems. Sometimes, the
whole CPU is deeped in a tank containing liquid Fluorocarbon to provide cooling.

 Supercomputers are very large & heavy, and are usually kept under special environmental conditions
(i.e., in a special room).

 They are operated by computer specialists. A Supercomputer can be operated by over 500 users at the
same time.

Areas where supercomputers are used:

Supercomputers are mainly used for complex scientific applications that involve many calculations &
require a lot of computational power. Some of the applications that use supercomputers include;

 Weather forecasting.
 Petroleum research.
 Defence and weapon analysis.
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 Aerodynamic design and simulation.

Note. These tasks use large amounts of data, which need to be manipulated within a very short time.

Examples of Supercomputers:

 CRAY T3D, NEC-500.

2. Mainframe computers.

 Mainframes are less powerful & less expensive than supercomputers.

 They are big in size but smaller compared to Supercomputers.

 Are powerful computers with very high capacities of Main storage? They also have a large backing
storage capacity.

 Have a very high processing speed, i.e., can process large amounts of data very quickly.

 They can support a large number of peripherals of different types (can support between 5–300
terminals).

 They can handle hundreds of users at the same time, e.g., they can be operated by 200 users at a
time.

 Mainframe computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems whether scientific
or commercial.

Areas where mainframe computers are used:

Mainframe computers are mostly found in government departments, big organizations and companies which
have large information processing needs, e.g., they are used;

 In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.

 In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.

 By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.

Examples of Mainframes:

 IBM 4381.
 ICL 39 Series.
 CDC Cyber series.

3. Minicomputers.

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  A Minicomputer is physically smaller than a mainframe. However, it can support the same
peripheral devices supported by a mainframe.

 A Minicomputer can support several users at a time, e.g., can be operated by 6 users at a time.
Several workstations/ terminals are connected to one central minicomputer so that the users
connected can share its resources (C.P.U time, storage, etc).

 Minicomputers are easier to manufacture & maintain compared to mainframes.

 Minicomputers are cheaper than the mainframes, but more costly than the microcomputers.

 They handle small amounts of data, are less powerful, & have less memory than the mainframes.

 Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.

Areas where minicomputers are used:

Minicomputers are used mainly in:

 Scientific laboratories & research institutions.

 Engineering plants/factories to control of chemical or mechanical processes.
 Space industry.
 Insurance companies & Banks for accounting purposes.
 Smaller organizations as Network Servers.

Example of Minicomputer:

 PDP-8 built in 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation in U.S.

4. Microcomputers.

 Microcomputers are the PCs mostly found today in homes, schools & many small offices. They are
called Personal Computers (PCs) because they are designed to be used by one person at a time.

 They consist of very few connected units, i.e. can support very few peripheral devices (usually 1 or 2).

 The data processing in microcomputers is done by a Microprocessor (a single chip containing the
Arithmetic Logic unit & Control unit).

 Microcomputers are smaller in size & also cheaper than minicomputers. Their design is based on Very
Large Scale Integration (VLSI) that confines several physical components into an IC.

 They are less powerful than minicomputers & their internal memory is smaller than that of
minicomputers.

Areas where microcomputers are used:

Microcomputers are commonly used in:

 Training and learning institutions such as schools.

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 Small business enterprises, and
 Communication centres as terminals.

Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following reasons:

1) Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.

2) Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).
3) Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.
4) Are more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power).
5) Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.

Examples:

 IBM PCs such as Apple Macintosh, Dells, Compaq, etc.

Laptops & Notebooks.

A Laptop is a PC sufficiently small & light such that a user can use it comfortably on his/her lap. It is
designed to be used by placing it on the lap.

- Laptops are very small in size & are portable. They are small enough to fit inside a briefcase; still leaving
room for other items.

- A Laptop computer operates mainly on electricity or by rechargeable batteries.

- Laptops normally have in-built disk drives & Flat screens (Liquid Crystal Displays).

- Can only support a limited number of peripheral devices.

- Have limited storage capacities.

Note. The smaller computers like Laptops tend to be more expensive than Desktop computers because of
the following reasons:

1) The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.

2) They are convenient because they are portable.
3) They have advanced power management capabilities (they consume less power since a laptop can
operate on rechargeable batteries).

Palmtops.

Palmtops are small enough to fit in the pocket, and can be held in the palm when being used.

Have limited storage capacities.

Palmtops are mainly used as Personal Organizers, with some minimal programs for calculations, Word
processing, Spreadsheets, & E-mail.

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Example of a Palmtop; Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

Desktop computer.

This is the name given to any computer designed to be used when placed on a desk in an office
environment.

They are not portable.

Examples of desktop computers:

1) Home computer.

This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed for domestic use. It has programs that
are used typically for computer games or controlling family finances.

2) Personal computer (PC).

This is a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work or in the home mainly
for business purposes.

A PC can support only 1 user at a time.

PCs are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises, and at home for various applications like
computer literacy, Games, Database management, Accounting, Word processing,
Telecommunications, etc.

A PC can be connected to a mini & mainframe computer so as to enable the user access the facilities
offered by the larger machines.
3) Workstation.

A workstation is usually a desktop computer with all the facilities but interlinked to a network.

A typical workstation works in a similar way to a Personal computer. However, it is more advanced
than a typical PC in the following ways:

i). It is larger & more powerful than a PC. E.g., workstations use 32-bit microprocessors, while PCs
use 16-bit microprocessors.
ii). It has in-built capabilities for its interconnection & operation with other computers, i.e., it is fully
connected to a computer network as any other computer on the network in its own right.
iii). It has high resolution graphics.
iv). It has a Multi-tasking operating system, i.e. it is able to run multiple applications at the same time.
An Embedded computer.

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 This is a computer that is within another device or system but is not accessed directly. E.g., there are
embedded computers operating within Petrol pumps, Watches, Cameras & Video recorders.

B. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE.

Digital computers can be classified further according to the tasks they perform either as:

 General-purpose.
 Special purpose
 Dedicated computers.

General-purpose computers.

- General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. They use specifically
written instructions (programs) to carry out the desired processing tasks.

- Example;

- A single computer can be used to process documents, perform calculations, process the Payroll,
simulate the loading on a bridge, process Insurance policies, and play games, among others.

- The programs used in a general-purpose computer are exchangeable. This means that, to perform a
particular task, the appropriate set of instructions required to perform that particular task are loaded
into the computer memory.

- E.g., if you want to play a game, the appropriate program is loaded into the computer’s memory &
the computer is instructed to execute the instructions which make up the game.

Examples of general-purpose computers: Mainframes, Minicomputers, Microcomputers & Laptops used in

most offices & schools.

Special-purpose computer.

- A special-purpose computer is designed to handle/accomplish a particular specific task only.

- Such computers cannot perform any other task except the one they were meant to do. Therefore, the
programs which are used in a special-purpose computer are fixed (hard-wired) at the time of
manufacture.

- For example; In a computer Network, the Front End Processor (FEP) is only used to control the
communication of information between the various workstations and the host computer.

- A Special-purpose computer is dedicated to a single task; hence it can perform it quickly & very
efficiently.

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 Examples of special-purpose computers:

 Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.

 Mobile phones used for communication only.
 Calculators that carry out calculations only.
 Computers used in Digital watches.
 Computers used in Petrol pumps.
 Computers used in Washing machines.
 An Automatic pilot – a computer dedicated to the task of operating an aircraft.
 A Word processor – a special-purpose computer used in the production of office documents, letters, etc.
Reasons why a Mobile phone is regarded to be a computer.
 It is electronic.
 Has a screen.
 It has a Keypad.
 Has a Memory.
 It is programmable.

Dedicated computer.

A Dedicated computer is a general-purpose computer that is committed to some processing task; though
capable of performing a variety of tasks in different application environments.
E.g., the computer can be dedicated to carrying out Word processing tasks only.

C. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONALITY.

Usually, there are two forms of data; Digital data, and Analogue data. Computers can be classified
according to the type of data they can process as either.

1. Digital computers.
2. Analogue computers, or
3. Hybrid computers.

Digital computers.

- This is the most commonly used type of computers.

- A Digital computer is a computer that operates on discrete data only. It can process both numeric &
alphabetic data within the computer, e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3…, A,B,C….

- Their operation is based on 2 states, “ON” & “OFF” or on digits “1” & “0”. Therefore, any data to
be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital form.

- Their output is usually in form of numbers, alphabets, & symbols.

- Digital computers are usually general-purpose computers; hence, they are widely used in different
areas for data processing.

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 - Most of the devices found at homes today are digital in nature.

- Digital computers are less accurate, i.e. may not solve all your problems since the facilities provided
are generalized.

Examples:

 A Television with a button which is pressed to increase or decrease the volume.

 Digital watches.
 Calculators.
 Microcomputers. They are said to be digital because they posses the ALU.

Analogue computers.

- An Analogue computer is a computer that operates on continuous data.

- They carry out their data processing by measuring the amount of change that occurs in physical
attributes/quantities, such as changes in electrical voltage, speed, currents, pressure, length, temperature,
humidity, etc.

- An Analogue computer is usually a special-purpose device that is dedicated to a single task. For
example, they are used in specialized areas such as in:
 Scientific or engineering experiments,
 Military weapons,
 Controlling manufacturing processes like monitoring & regulating furnace temperatures and pressures.
 Weather stations to record & process physical quantities, e.g., wind, cloud speed, temperature, etc.

- The output from analogue computers is in form of smooth graphs produced by a plotting pen or a
trace on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) from which the information can be read.

Note: Analogue computers usually use one characteristic, e.g. a length, to give information about another
physical characteristic, such as weight.

- Analogue computers are very accurate & efficient since they are dedicated to a single task.

- They are very fast since most of them use multiple processors.

Examples of analogue devices:1

 The computer used to control a flight simulator for training pilots.

The computer responds to the Cockpit simulator control movements made by the pilot to physically
change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual aeroplane.

 A Bathroom scale.

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 It uses the weight of a person to move a pointer smoothly/continuously over calibrated scale, which
shows the person’s weight.

 Thermometer.

It uses a volume of Mercury to show temperature. The Thermometer is calibrated to give an exact
temperature reading.

 Speedometer.

In Speedometer, the rotation of the wheel is converted to a voltage, which causes a pointer to rotate over
a dial calibrated in Km/h or Miles/h.

 A Petrol pump measures the rate of flow of Gasoline (petrol) & converts the volume delivered to 2
readings; one showing the volume & the other showing the cost.

 A Post-office scale converts the weight of a parcel delivered into a charge for posting.

 A Monitor with knobs that are rotated to increase brightness.

 A Television with knobs that are rotated to increase or decrease the volume.

 A Radio with a knob that slides in a slot to increase volume.

Hybrid computers.

- Hybrid computers are designed to process both analogue & digital data. They combine both the
functional capabilities of the digital and analogue computers.

- Hybrid computers are designed by interconnecting the elements of a digital computer & analogue
computer directly into one processor, using a suitable interfacing circuitry.

- Hybrid computers are more expensive.

Example;

 In a hospital Intensive Care Unit, an analogue device may be used to measure the functioning of a
patient’s heart, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may then be converted into
numbers and send to a digital device, which may send an immediate signal to the nurses’ station if
any abnormal readings are detected.

Comparison between a Computer and Calculator.

Computer Calculators
1. Costly due to the technology used. 1. Cheaper – they imitate simple computer technology.
2. Comparatively smaller.
2. Bigger in size. 3. Slower than computers.
3. Operate at very high speeds. 4. Less accurate – most calculators give up to 8 dp of
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 4. Are more accurate – they give up to over 10 accuracy.
decimal places of accuracy. 5. Mostly used for numerical calculations involving
5. Flexible – can be used in solving any problem. arithmetic/ mathematical operations
6. Work under the control of programs. 6. Calculators are non-programmable, but if
programmable, the range is limited.
7. Support a variety of peripherals, e.g. keyboard, 7. They only use Display units & Keyboards of limited
mouse, light pen, printer, etc. capabilities.
8. Have large internal memory of several KB’s. 8. their internal memory is very small. Most
calculators only use Registers for temporary storage
9. Support large Backing storage media. during calculations.
9. Some calculators have got some sort of fixed
10. A computer can support several people at the Backing store, though very limited.
same time. 10. A calculator can serve only 1 user at a time.
11. Have got telecommunication capabilities.
12. Require well-monitored environmental 11. Have no telecommunication capabilities.
conditions. 12. Do not require well-monitored environmental
conditions.

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

Computers have many advantages over other types of office and business equipments that are used for data
processing functions. Some of the advantages are:

1) Computers process data faster:

The processing speed of a computer when measured against other devices like typewriters & calculators is
far much higher.

2) Computers are more accurate & reliable:

Computers produce more accurate results as long as the correct instructions & data are entered. They also
have the ability to handle numbers with many decimal places.

3) Computers are more efficient:

A computer requires less effort to process data as compared to human beings or other machines.

4) Computers can quickly and effectively store & retrieve large amounts of data.

5) They are very economical when saving information, for it can conserve a lot of space.

6) Computers occupy very little office space.

7) Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.

8) Computers are flexible:

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 A computer can perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.

9) Computers are cheap:

They can be used to perform a number of organizational functions/ activities, which are meant for
individual persons, hence reducing the number of employees & the costs.

10) Computers enhance security & confidentiality:

Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals.

11) Have made communication easier.

12) Computers produce better information:

Computer output is usually tidy and error-free (accurate).

13) Computers reduce the problems of data or information duplication:

14) Computers can operate in risky environments, e.g. volcanic sites, dangerous chemical plants, where human
life is threatened:

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

1) Computers are very costly in terms of purchase & maintenance.

2) Computers can only be used areas where there is source of power.

3) Requires skilled manpower to operate, i.e., one has to have some knowledge so as to operate a computer.

4) The records are usually kept in a form that is not visible or human-readable. This makes it difficult to
control the contents of the computer’s master file.

5) A computer, like any other machine can break down.

6) Information stored in computers can easily get lost due to power interruptions or machine breakdown.

7) A computer doesn’t have its own intelligence, i.e., it cannot do any useful job on its own, but can only work
as per the set of instructions issued.

8) Installation of computers causes retraining or retrenchment of staff/ employees.

9) The computer technology is changing very fast such that the already bought computers could be made
obsolete/ out dated in the next few years.

In addition, this rapid change in the computer technology makes computers & related facilities to become
outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.

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10) The emergence of computers has increased the rate of unemployment since they are now being used to
perform the jobs, which were done by human beings.

11) Computers have led to increase in computer crimes especially in Banks. The computer criminals steal large
amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring them out of their company accounts
illegally. In addition, they destroy vital data used in running the companies.

AREAS WHERE COMPUTERS ARE USED.

The following are some of the areas where computers are used:

1. Supermarkets.
Supermarkets and other retail stores use computers for stock control, i.e., to help them manage their daily
activities.
The stock control system keeps record of what is in store, what has been sold, and what is out of stock.
The Management is automatically alerted when a particular item or items are running out of stock and
need to be reordered.

For calculating customer’s change.

For production of receipts.

It can be used as a barcode reader.

2. Industries.

The use of computers has made Industries more productive & efficient. They are used:

 To monitor and control industrial processes. The industries use remote controlled devices called Robots.
A Robot is a machine that works like a human being, but performs tasks that are unpleasant, dangerous,
and tedious to be done by human beings.

 For management control, i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions.

 By companies as a competitive tool. E.g., they are used to assist in defining new products & services.
They also help industries form new relationships with suppliers and therefore, enable the producers
maintain a competitive edge against their competitors.

 For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers.

3. Banks/Insurance industries

Computers are used by Banks & Insurance industries:

 To manage financial transactions. They use special cash dispensing machines called Automated Teller
Machines (ATMs) to enable them provide cash deposit & withdrawal services.

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  For processing of Cheques.

 For preparation of Payrolls.

 For better record keeping and processing of documents.

 To provide electronic money transfer facilities.

4. Process control.

Computers are used in production environments such as factories to control chemical & mechanical
processes. The computers are usually loaded with specialized programs & each computer is designed to do
a specific job.

5. Hospitals.

Computers are used in hospitals:

 To keep & retrieve patient’s medical records.

 For automatic diagnosis of diseases like Cancer, electro-cardiogram screening & monitoring.
They are used to get a cross-sectional view of the patient’s body that enables physicians to properly
diagnose the affected part of the body with high levels of accuracy.

 In medical equipments, e.g. blood pressure monitors, blood analyzers, etc.

 To control life-supporting machines in the Intensive Care Units (ICU).

 To enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise or labour, thus reducing the
transportation of patients & professionals.

6. Offices.

 For receiving & sending of messages through e-mails, fax, etc.

 Production of documents.
 Keeping of records.

7. Government Institutions.

Computers are used in government ministries & agencies:

 To store/keep records and improve the efficiency of work within the Civil service.
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 If computers were not used, the large number of files in government registries would make information
recovery extremely difficult.

 To produce bills & statements.

8. Education.

Computers are widely used in the teaching & learning process. Learning and teaching using computers is
referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer Aided Teaching (CAT).

 Computers are used in learning institutions (schools & colleges) as teaching aids, i.e. to help in teaching
various subjects.

E.g., they are used to demonstrate experiments in subjects like Chemistry or Physics using a special
program that can illustrate them on the screen through a process called Simulation.

 To assist the Long distance learning in universities usually referred to as the Open University Concept.

 To analyze academic data.

 Computers are used in Aviation for training of pilots. Flight simulators are used to monitor the control
movements made by the pilot while the computer is used to physically change the environment so that the
pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual aircraft.

9. Research.

Computers can be used for research in various fields. They are used by:

 Scientists to analyse their experimental data, e.g., in weather forecasting.

 Engineers & Architects to design & test their work.

 Computers have greatly assisted in space exploration.

 They are used to study the movement of stars.

 They have made manned & unmanned space exploration possible – they are used to launch space
vehicles and monitor the flights & activities both onboard and around them.

10. Communication industry.

The integration of computers & telecommunication facilities has made the transmission and reception of
messages very fast and efficient.

 They are used in telephone exchanges to switch incoming & outgoing calls.

 For sending & receiving electronic messages, e.g. fax and e-mails, if connected to a computer network.
11. Transport industry.
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 Computers are used in:

 Automobile traffic control, e.g., to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.

 Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.

 Shipping control. The computers are used for efficient management of fleets & communication.

 Airports (Airline industry). The computers are used;

 To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the use of radar equipment.
 Making reservations (booking purposes).
 Storing flight information.

12. Police (Law enforcement agencies).

 Computers are widely used in fighting crime. The Police use computers to keep databases on fingerprints
and also analysed them.

 The Police also use computers for face recognition, scene monitoring & analysis, which help them to arrest
traffic offenders and criminals.

The information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and other identification details helps
law enforcers to carry out criminal investigations speedily.

13. Defence.

 Computers are used in electronic news gathering, efficient communication, detecting and tracking of
targets; in radar systems, warning systems & in guided missile systems.
 Computers are used in military defence equipments, e.g. Fighter jets, Rockets, Bombers, etc.

14. Multimedia applications.

 Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement purposes.

The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers running slide shows & digital
video clips taken using a Camcorder. An overlaid voice is used to describe the product.

 Computers are used in music related equipment such as Synthesizers.

 In entertainment (i.e., games & movies), computers are used to add stereo sound & digital video clips,
which make games more realistic.

 In Education & Training, Multimedia discs are used as teaching aids for all types of subjects.

15. Domestic and Entertainment systems.

Computers are used at homes:

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  For watching movies, playing music and computer games.
 For storing personal information.
 For calculating and keeping home budgets.
 For shopping purposes. They provide people with lists of shopping items as well as their prices. They
also provide electronic money transfer facilities.

 In household items, such as, Microwave ovens, Televisions, etc.

16. Library services.

Computers can be used in a library:

To enable the library personnel to easily access & keep updated records of books and other library
materials.
To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.

17. Employment.

The emergence of computers has provided employment opportunities to very many people.

COMPUTER LABORATORY.

Definition:

A Computer laboratory is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate installation of computers, and
provide a safe conducive environment for teaching & learning of Computer Studies.

SAFE USE & CARE OF COMPUTERS (COMPUTER HYGIENE)

Computer systems are expensive to acquire & maintain, and should therefore be handled with great care. Most
computer breakdowns are caused by failure to follow the correct instructions on use of equipment, carelessness,
and neglect.

Computer hygiene involves keeping the computers in good care & order.

Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory.

The following factors must be considered when preparing a computer laboratory:

1. Security of the computers, programs and other resources.

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2. Reliability of the source of power.
3. Number of computers to be installed, and the amount floor space available.
4. The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.

Requirements of a Computer Laboratory.

i). Standard and Enough furniture.

ii). Good ventilation.
iii). Reliable & Enough source of power supply.
iv). Free from Dust and Moisture.
v). Enough floor space.
vi). Proper cabling of electric wires.
vii). Fire fighting equipment.
viii). Good lighting equipment.
ix). Strong rooms & doors for the security of computers.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS & PRACTICES IN A COMPUTER LABORATORY.

After establishing the computer laboratory, a number of safety precautions, rules, and practices need to be
observed in order to avoid accidental injury to the users, damage of computers or lack of a conducive
environment for teaching and learning.

The safety precautions and practices include;

1. BEHAVIOUR IN THE COMPUTER LABORATORY.

The following rules must be followed in and around a computer laboratory.

a). Entering the computer room.

 Only authorized people should enter the computer room.

 Remove your shoes before entering the computer room to prevent dust.
 Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because; smoke & dust contain small
abrasive particles that can damage computer components and cause wearing of the moving parts.
 Do not carry foods such as Toffees, chocolates, chewing gums, & drinks/beverages to the computer
room.

Food particles may fall into the moving parts of the computer and damage them. Liquids may spill
into the computer parts causing rusting or electrical faults.

 Collect any waste materials (e.g., paper bits) which might be lying in the computer room & put
them into the dustbin.
 Avoid unnecessary movements, because you may accidentally knock down the peripheral devices.
 Computer users should be trained on how to use computers frequently.
 Computer illiterates should not be allowed to operate the computers.
 Shut the door of the computer room properly.

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 b). Starting and shutting down the computer.

 Always follow the proper procedure for starting & shutting down the computer to avoid loss of data
and damage to computer programs.

 Avoid turning the computer on & off frequently as it is harmful. Every time a PC is turned on, the
internal components get heated and again cool down when the computer is turned off. As a result,
the circuit boards expand & contract and this can badly affect the solder-joints of the computer.

 Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripheral devices without permission and
particularly when the computer’s power is still on.

2. PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE AND ACCIDENTS.

Fire outbreaks in the laboratory can be caused by either:

a). Inflammable chemicals, such as those used for cleaning & servicing the computer equipment.
b). Electrical faults, such as open wires or cables.
c). Smoking.

 Keep the chemicals away in a store after using them to avoid any accidents.

 Ensure that all electrical wires are properly insulated. Open wires or cables must be properly covered
with an Insulating tape or replaced with new ones as they can cause fire leading to damage of
equipment.

 The computer room must always have a gaseous fire extinguisher especially those containing Carbon
dioxide in case of any accidents.

Note. Water based or Powder extinguishers should not be used in the computer room because; they can
cause damage to computer components.

Water causes rusting of the metallic parts and short circuits, while Powder particles normally settle on
storage devices and may scratch them during read/write operations.

 Any incidence that may result in damage to equipment should be reported to the person in charge of the
laboratory.
 No student should attempt to repair the equipment as this may lead to complete damage of the
equipment.

3. INSULATION OF CABLES.

 All power cables in the computer room must be properly insulated and laid away from busy pathways in
the room (i.e., preferably along the walls). This prevents the user from stumbling on the cables, which
might cause electric shock or power interruptions.

 System cables should be of the best quality & type, and should also be properly clipped (fixed).
 The cables should be handled carefully especially at the ends to avoid breaking the pins.
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4. STABLE POWER SUPPLY.

Computers are delicate devices that require a stable source of power.

 Ensure that there is a steady flow of input power to the computer in order to prevent loss of data or
information & also prevent damaging the computer’s secondary storage media.

Note. Power from main supply is not always stable and may sometimes experience power surges or under
voltage (also referred to as Brownout). To protect the computer from being damaged due to power
instabilities especially in areas where power fluctuates, avoid connecting it directly to the main supply.
Instead, it is important to connect the computer to a special power correction equipment or device such as a
Stabilizer or Uninterrupted power supply /source (UPS), then connect the UPS to the main supply.

The UPS gets charged when the main power is on. When the main power goes off, the UPS gives some
sound (usually a beep) to alert the user.

Functions of the UPS

1. It regulates power from an unstable power source to the required clean stable voltage.

2. It prevents power surges and brownouts that might destroy the computer.

3. It temporarily provides power to the computer in case of the main power failure. This allows the user to
save his/her work and shutdown the computer using the correct procedure.

4. Alerts the user of any power loss (by beeping).

To ensure that work continues even in the absence of main power, organizations that give important services
such as banks, schools, & hospitals usually install devices that provide alternative sources of power such as
standby generators, solar panels, rechargeable batteries, etc that automatically comes on in case of a power
failure. Such devices are referred to as Power backups.

However, note that, power from a generator must pass through a UPS before being fed to the computer,
because it is also not stable.
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  Ensure that all power or electrical sockets are firmly fixed.
5. BURGLAR PROOFING.

Physical access to the computer room should be restricted to ensure that only authorized persons get access
to the computers.

To prevent unauthorized access to the computer room, the following controls should be implemented:

Fit strong metallic grills and locks on the doors, windows & roofs (in case the roofing is weak).

Lock the doors, (i.e., keep the computers in a strong room, which should remain firmly locked when not
in use).

Avoid welcoming strangers into the computer room.

Use of Personal Identification cards.

Use of fingerprint identification.

Install security alarms at strategic access points so as to alert the security personnel in case of a break in.

Use of special voice recorders that would be able to analyse the voice of a trespasser & check against the
database containing the voice patterns of valid users.

Secure/protect the computers with Passwords to minimize chances of theft.

6. VENTILATION.

Both computers and human beings emit heat energy into the environment. Therefore, the computer room
must have good circulation of air to avoid overheating and suffocation.

Proper ventilation enables the computers to cool, and therefore, avoids damaging the electronic parts.

The following facilities can ensure proper ventilation in a room:

 The room should have large & enough windows & doors.
 Installing an air-conditioning system.
 Installing cooling fans.
 Avoid overcrowding of either machines or people in the room.
7. DUST CONTROL

 Set up the computer laboratory in a location away from excessive dust.

 Remove your shoes before you enter the computer room to prevent dust.
 The computer room should be fitted with special curtains that would reduce entry of dust particles.
 The floor should be covered with Carpets in order to absorb dust, and also absorb the noise made by
chairs.
 Cover the computer devices with Dust covers when not in use or when cleaning the computer room.

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 NB: If the environment is dusty, the computers should be regularly serviced to get rid of harmful dust.
The service should include; blowing dust from the System unit, cleaning the floppy drives, cleaning the
Keyboard, cleaning the Monitor externally, and also cleaning all peripheral devices such as Printers and
Mouse.
8. DUMP CONTROL.

Humidity in the computer laboratory must be regulated to remain at an optimum 50%. If the humidity is
low, it allows static electricity to build up and causes damage to sensitive electronic components. Similarly,
high humidity of over 70% causes rusting of the metallic parts of the computer system.

To eliminate low humidity, place humidifiers in the room, while high humidity can be controlled by
installing dehumidifiers in the room.
9. HANDLING OF MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT.

Computer devices must be handled with a lot of care as they are extremely fragile and can easily get
damaged. Dropping or bumping can cause permanent damage on the device, e.g., to transport the System
unit always handle it on its frame.

 Always use the manufacturer’s shipping carton when transporting the devices.
 Do not place heavy objects on the computers.
 Protect the computer devices especially the Monitor & the disks from any electrostatic discharge.

 The computer devices should not be exposed to direct sunlight or warm objects. This causes the internal
components of the computer to get heated, and as a result, effects the computer’s solder-joints.
 Students should only perform operations on the computer that they are sure of and under supervision. If
in doubt, the student should ask to ensure that no damage is caused due to lack of proper knowledge.
 Computer equipment should be regularly checked and serviced.
Floppy disk management.

Floppy disks are used to store data, and if properly taken care of, they reduce the likelihood of destroyed or
corrupted data.

Note. Data is very difficult & expensive to reconstruct, unlike application software, which can easily be re-
loaded.
Handling precautions for diskettes.
1). Insert the diskette in the drive with the correct side up & in the correct direction.
The diskette should slide in easily (with no force at all) until it locks in the drive. To remove the
diskette out of the drive, press the Eject button.
2). Don’t touch the exposed surface of the diskette when inserting or removing it.

3). Don’t remove the diskette from the drive if the drive light is shining. This indicates that the diskette is
in use, and removing it might damage the files on the diskette.
4). Never leave the diskette in the computer after finishing its job.
5). Ensure that all your diskettes are labelled carefully using meaningful names that indicate the right
contents of the diskette. The labels should be applied at the slightly depressed region at the top surface
of the diskette.
Labelling prevents confusing the data in the different diskettes, and also mixing diskettes that are used
everyday with those used for long-term storage of important data.

35
 6). Use a soft writing material such as a soft felt pen to write on the diskette.
7). Use the shutter at the bottom of the diskette to write-protect it in order to protect the data stored in it.
Note. To write-protect the diskette, the shutter is pushed up until the hole is covered & no data can be
written to the diskette. To write to the diskette, the hole must be left open.
8). Avoid overusing the diskette. If used for long (usually over 6 months), its surface wears out.
9). Never place heavy objects on the diskette to avoid damaging it.

10). Keep your disks safely away from extreme temperatures or direct sunlight, i.e., avoid placing the
diskette near possible heat sources, e.g. on top of monitor displays.

11). Keep floppy disks away from any magnetic media, e.g., near power supplies & magnets. They can
corrupt the data.

12). Never carry disks in loose bags or in pockets to prevent dust from getting in & harming them.
Store your diskettes in disk banks or a proper storage jacket. Use envelopes or enclosed polythene
when carrying them.

13). Always store the disks vertically in the storage box/container.

14). Never use clips or staples to hold the disks to avoid damaging them.

15). Do not bend the diskette, or leave it lying on top of the desk.

16). Protect the diskettes against computer viruses, i.e. you should not use foreign diskettes in your
computer, especially if you suspect that they might have viruses in them.
Use of Printers.

1. Different printers have different sensitivity to printing papers. Using the wrong quality paper in a
particular printer can make the paper get stuck.

2. Printers are very specific to manufacturer’s cartridges & ribbons. Use of clones or imitations (i.e., the
wrong make & model) can damage the printer mechanism.

3. Avoid refilling of cartridges or re-inking of Ribbons. This can spoil the printer due to leakage or use of
poor quality materials.

10. LABORATORY LAYOUT.

 The computer laboratory should have enough floor space to facilitate free movement from one place to
another.

 The laboratory furniture must be well arranged to prevent accidents.

 Your working surface must be large enough to hold the computer equipment & any other additional
items required. This prevents squeezing the devices together & also minimizes breakages.

 The sitting arrangement of users should be proper.

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11. STANDARD FURNITURE & POSTURE.

 The table/bench on which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough to bear the weight and
accommodate all the peripheral devices.

 The seat for the user must be comfortable, and have a straight backrest that allows someone to sit
upright. This prevents muscle pains & backaches caused by poor sitting posture.

 Adjust the furniture to meet your needs for comfort.

For example;

Adjust the height of the chair or working surface so that your forearms are parallel with the floor and
your wrists are straight.

The seat must be high enough relative to the table to enable the user use the hands on the keyboard
comfortably.

The eyes must be at the same level with the top of the screen when the user is seated upright.

 You should be able to maintain your proper arm position and place your feet firmly flat on the floor.

 Adopt a relaxed, upright working posture. Avoid slouching (bending) forward or leaning far backwards.

 The Chairs should have low back support & footrest and should also be adjustable.

Keyboard, Mouse and Input devices.

Place frequently used work materials within easy reach.

For example;

 The Keyboard, Mouse & other input devices should be positioned such that your hands are in a relaxed,
comfortable position.

 Position the Keyboard directly in front of you. This makes it possible to type with your shoulders relaxed
and your upper arms hanging freely at your sides.

 Position the Mouse at the same level as the keyboard.

12. LIGHTING & VISION CARE.

A computer room must be well lit to avoid eyestrain that eventually leads to headaches, stress, and fatigue.
Similarly, when you work at your computer for long periods of time, your eyes may become irritated.
Therefore, special care should be given to your vision.

 Tilt the computer so that the display faces away from the windows. This will minimize glare (or bright
reflections) on the screen.
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  Position the lighting equipment or sources of light such that glare (or bright reflections) on the display
are minimized. Where necessary, use indirect lighting to avoid bright spots on the display.

 Use/fit radiation filter screens that are specially tinted to reduce the light that reaches the eye.

 Avoid using a flickering monitor. This causes extreme eyestrain that can damage your eyesight.

 The wall paints used should not be very bright as they reflect too much light causing eyestrain.

 Use the brightness & contrast controls on the Monitor to adjust the brightness of the computer monitor
until the eyes feel comfortable, and also to improve image quality of your display.

 Turn off the screen when not in use or reduce its brightness in order to prevent screen burnout.

 If the room has windows, use blinds or shades to control the amount of daylight in the room.

 Take frequent breaks and rest your eyes.

 You should have glasses that are specifically suited for working with the computer display.

 Keep your glasses and the display clean.

 Have your eyes examined regularly by a vision care specialist.

 The distant between the user & screen should be between 450 – 500 mm.

STARTING-UP (BOOTING) A COMPUTER.

1. Before switching on a computer, make sure that all the components are properly connected, and that the
computer is connected to an active power source.

2. Turn on the switch at the source of the power supply. If your computer is connected to a constant voltage
Stabilizer or an Uninterrupted power supply (UPS), turn it on after switching the main supply.

3. Turn on the switches on the System unit and the Monitor. Switch on the power button on the Monitor first,
then followed by that of the System unit.

After the power is on, the computer automatically goes through a process called Booting. Booting is a term
used to describe the starting up of a computer. It is the entire process that makes the computer ready for use.

Types of Booting.

There are 2 types of booting, namely;

a). Cold booting.

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b). Warm booting.

Cold booting.

This happens when a computer that was originally off is switched on by pressing the power button on the
system unit.

Warm booting.

This happens when a computer that was originally on is forced to restart by pressing the Restart button on the
System unit or by pressing a combination of keys on the keyboard (Ctrl+Alt+Del).

In Windows operating systems, one can use the Restart option on the Shutdown dialog box to perform a warm
boot.

When Power is switched on, the computer starts by checking all its components to determine whether they are
available for use and whether they are functioning correctly. It does this by executing a small program called
the Power-On-Self-Test (POST) that is permanently stored in ROM.

POST prepares the computer for use by instructing it to perform a number of diagnostic tests when booting up.
It instructs the computer to check the memory (RAM) to make sure it is operating correctly; check the CMOS
(BIOS), Hard disk controller, Floppy disk drive controller & the Keyboard.

During this process, some monitors display information showing the status of each device being tested. If a
problem is found, e.g., in case one of the devices is faulty or missing, the process will halt and display an
appropriate error message on the screen indicating to the user where the problem is located. Sometimes, an
error code is displayed with the message, or an abnormal number of beeps are sounded.

The special program that directs the POST process is called the Basic Input Output System (BIOS).

Shutting down a computer.

After finishing working with the computer, the user must follow the correct procedure of shutting down the
computer in order to ensure that loss of data, damage of programs and computer components does not occur.

1. Save all the work done on the computer, and close all programs that may be currently running.
2. Remove any floppy disk you might have inserted in the computer.
3. Follow the proper shut-down procedure required before switching off the computer.
For example;
To turn off any computer running Windows operating systems:

a). Click the Start button on the screen, then select Shut Down from the list.
b). In the prompt that appears, select Shut down, then press the Enter key on the keyboard.
c). After a few seconds, the message “It is now safe to turn off the computer” appears on the screen.
Switch off the System unit, then the Monitor.

Note. Some system units switch themselves off automatically. In such a case, press the button on the
Monitor to turn off the screen.
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4. Press the button on the monitor to turn off the screen.
5. Switch off your Printer and any other output devices.

KEYBOARD.

The Keyboard is a computer input device by which data & instructions is typed into the computer memory.

It enables the user to enter data & instructions into the computer by pressing its keys.

Types of Keyboard.

1. Standard Keyboard – has 99 keys.

2. Enhanced Keyboard – has between 102 & 105 keys.

KEYBOARD LAYOUT.

The Keyboard of a computer consists of keys similar to those of a typewriter. It contains the usual range of
alphabetic characters (A – Z), digits 0 – 9, and other symbols frequently used to represent data items. However,
it has some command keys for giving special instructions to the computer.

Data & programs are input into the computer by pressing the appropriate keys. When you type data into the
Keyboard devices, it converts it into machine-sensible forms.

SECTIONS OF THE KEYBOARD.

Most Keyboards have a total of 101 keys, which are divided into 5 different groups: -

(a). Function/ Command keys.

These are the keys located along the top of the Keyboard marked F1 up to F12. They are used to issue
commands into the computer.

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 Each of these keys is used to perform a special function in various application packages, e.g., F1 is used in
most applications for help.

Function keys are used differently by different applications, i.e. their functions vary with different
programs, and are therefore sometimes called Programmable Keys.

(b). Alphanumeric keys.

This section consists of alphabetic & numeric keys. Alphanumeric keys are mostly used for typing of text.

It has the 26 letters of the English alphabet marked on them in capital letters, and Number keys arranged in
their natural order from 0 – 9. Along with these keys are Punctuation marks (comma, full-stop, etc) and
some Symbols.

At the bottom of the alphanumeric keys, is the Space bar, which is used to separate words or sentences
from each other (or to create a blank space after typing each word).
They also include the Caps Lock, Enter, Tab, Space bar and the backspace key
 Caps Lock – lets user type in uppercase and lower case on pressing
 Enter – Move the cursor to the beginning of next line. It also executes a selected command.
 Tab – moves the text cursor at set intervals of 10mm
 Space bar – creates space between words during typing
 Backspace – deletes characters from right to left

(c). Numeric Keypad keys.

It is on the rightmost part of the Keyboard. It has keys with digits (numbers) 0 - 9 marked on them in rows
from the bottom upwards.

The keypad also has some mathematical symbols marked on its keys. They include: the multiplication
sign (*), subtraction sign (-), addition sign (+), division sign (/) & the decimal point (.).

The Keypad is used for fast entry of numeric data into the computer.

Note. The numbers on the Numeric keypad can only be used when the Num Lock key is turned on.

(d). Directional (or Cursor positioning) keys.

They are used to move the Cursor (insertion point) within the window of an application.

They include; Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, & the four Arrow Keys.

 Arrow keys:

To move the cursor one character to the right in a Word processing document, press the Right arrow
key; to move the cursor one character to the left, press the Left arrow key.

To move the cursor one line up, press the Up arrow key; to move the cursor one line down, press the
Down arrow key.
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  Page Up & Page Down:

To move the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages, press the Page Up key; to move
the cursor down one page, press the Page Down key.

 Home & End keys:

To move the cursor to the beginning of the current line, press the Home key; to move the cursor to the
end of the current line, press the End key.

Editing keys.

They are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These are:

i). Backspace key.

It has a backward arrow () marked on it.

√ Used to erase characters to the left of the cursor (i.e., from right to left on the same line).

When pressed, it makes the cursor move one space backwards and the immediate letter or number
to the left is erased.

ii). Delete (Del) key.

It is used to erase characters to the right of the cursor, (i.e., from left to right).

iii). Insert (Ins) key.

√ Used in a word processor to switch between the Insert mode & Overtype mode. When pressed, it
helps the user to insert text in the middle of a sentence or replace a character at the cursor position
(i.e., overwrite the text).

(e). Special PC operation keys.

They are used in combination with the other keys or on their own to perform special functions/tasks, or to
give special instructions to the computer.

Examples; Esc, Tab, Caps Lock, Shift, Ctrl, Alt, Enter, Num Lock, Scroll Lock.

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TAB key ( ).

It is used in certain programs such as Word processors to move the text cursor or a certain text at set
intervals on the same line to the required position on the screen, e.g., 10mm, 20mm, etc.

A Cursor is a blinking underscore ( __ ) or a vertical beam (I ) that shows where the next character to be
typed will appear.

CAPS Lock.

Used to switch between capital (uppercase) letters & small (lowercase) letters.

When pressed on, an indicator with a Green light appears on the top-right hand corner of the Keyboard,
and all the text typed will appear in capital letters. When pressed off, all the text typed will appear in small
letters.

SHIFT key ( ).

This special key works in combination with other keys.

√ It can be used to get single capital letters. Hold down the SHIFT key & press an alphabet key to get the
letter in its capital form.

√ It is used to get the punctuation marks on top of the Number keys or the symbols on top of certain keys
especially on the alphanumeric section.

To get the punctuation mark on top of a number key or the symbol on top of a certain key; press & hold
down the SHIFT key before pressing the required key.
ENTER key (↵).

√ It is used as a RETURN key. When pressed at the end of a text line or paragraph in a word processor, it
forces the text cursor to move to the start/ beginning of the next line or paragraph.

√ It is used to issue completion commands to the computer. It is used to instruct the computer to carry
out (execute) a command that has been typed or selected on the screen.

ESCAPE (ESC) key.

It generates special code for the computer. In some programs, it is used when you want to quit doing some
task, i.e. escape from or to cancel a task.

CONTROL (CTRL) key.

It controls various functions in combination with other keys, e.g. CTRL+”S” is used to give the command
for saving the text/object.

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Commonly confusing keys.

Some key shapes cause much confusion. If you use the wrong key, the process you are working on may not
work as expected, but it may be very difficult to determine what is wrong.

The I, 1, l and o, O, 0 keys.

Look closely to spot the difference between capital “I”, one (1) and “l” (lowercase “L”), and between small
“o”, capital “O” and zero “0”.

The Slash (/) and Backslash (\) keys.

The slash (“/”) is used as:

A division symbol when writing a formula.

A command key to get into the menus in Lotus 1-2-3.
To separate parts of a path in a UNIX file name.

The backslash (“\”) is used:

In Lotus 1-2-3 to fill a cell with a character.

In MS-DOS to separate parts of a path in a file name.

The Space, Hyphen ( -) and Underscore ( _ ) Keys.

The Space is entered using the Spacebar on the keyboard.

Note. A blank space is a printing character; it takes up memory, has an ASCII code, and is printed on the
screen in the same manner as any other character.

The Hyphen key (dash or minus) & the Underscore (underline) are on the same physical key top. To get the
underscore, use the SHIFT.

The Underscore is often used in places where a space is needed to separate individual words, but is not legal
in the context. E.g., the filename TAX 1990 is illegal in MS-DOS because of the blank space between TAX
and 1990, but TAX_1990 is legal. The Underscore takes the places of the blank space.

Single & Double quote, Accent grave, and Tilde.

Single quote (‘) & Double quote (“).

Both symbols are on the same physical key top. To get the double quote, use the SHIFT.

Accent grave (`) & Tilde (~) are found on the same key top. The Tilde is used in Mathematics, foreign
languages, or in UNIX operating system to indicate the home subdirectory.

The Parenthesis ( ), Square brackets [ ], & Curly braces { }

Each of these symbols is used differently depending on what program you are running.
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 Mathematical symbols (+, -, *, /, ^).

Slash (/) - used for division,

Asterisk (*) - for multiplication,
Plus (+) symbol - for addition,
Minus (-) symbol - is used for subtraction,
Up carat (^) - indicates exponential (raising to a power).
Practical Keyboard skills.

When using the keyboard, observe the following typing rules:

1). Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground, maintaining an alert posture.
2). Place the material to be typed on your left in a position you can read without strain.
3). Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the Home keys.

Home keys are the keys on which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press other keys. The home
keys for the left hand starting with the small finger are A, S, D, F with the thumb on the Spacebar, while
those of the right hand are the apostrophe (‘), semicolon (;), L, K with the thumb on the Spacebar.

4). Start typing the text slowly at first, making sure you are using all the ten fingers, and that you press the key
nearest to the home keys with the closest finger, e.g., to press Q, use the small finger on the left hand,
while to press J, use the index finger on the right hand.

MOUSE.

A Mouse is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by controlling a special
mouse pointer displayed on the screen.

A Mouse consists of 4 parts: -

1). A Casing - to assist in holding the mouse in the hand.

2). A Roller ball – used to slide/move the mouse on a flat surface. It also enables the cursor to move on the
screen as required.

3). The Sensor Buttons (Right & Left) – used for making selections.

4). A Cable - connects the mouse to the System unit.

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Using the Mouse.

To use a mouse, hold it in your hand and move it across a flat surface or on top of a table. When you move the
mouse, an arrow-shaped pointer called the Mouse pointer moves across the computer screen in the same
direction. The pointer is usually controlled by moving the mouse.

To select an option/ item on the screen;

 Position the tip of the pointer (cursor) over the item to be selected;
 Press a button on the mouse to make your selection.

When using the mouse, observe the following rules:

a). Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface.

b). Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two rightmost fingers.
c). The index finger should rest on the left button, while the middle finger rests on the right button.

Terminologies associated with the use of a Mouse.

Point: - this means moving the mouse until the tip of the pointer on the screen is over the item you want to
select.

To select an item on the screen, point the item, then press a mouse button. Use the Left button (Primary button)
for most tasks or the Right button (Secondary button) to quickly accomplish common tasks.

Clicking: - pressing & releasing the left mouse button once. A click usually selects an object/item on the
screen.

Double-clicking: - pressing the left button twice in a row (in a quick succession) without moving the mouse.
Double-clicking usually opens a file or starts a program.

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Right-clicking: - pressing the right mouse button once (or, selecting an item by use of the right mouse button).

A right click usually displays a list of commands from which the user can make a selection. This list of
commands is called a Shortcut menu or Context-sensitive menu. This is because; the commands on this menu
apply to the specific item that has been right-clicked.

Shortcut menu:

 A list of commands that appears when you right-click an object.

 A menu that shows a list of commands specific to a particular right-clicked item.

Drag and drop: This is whereby the user moves an item from one location on the screen to another.

To move an item on the screen by dragging;

1. Point to the item you want to drag.

2. Press & hold down the left mouse button.
3. Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen while still holding down the
mouse button.
4. Release the mouse button to ‘drop’ the item in its new location.

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COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER/COMPUTER SYSTEM

Computer System is a collection of three entities namely

 Hardware
 Software
 Liveware

1. HARDWARE
These are the tangible parts of a computer system. Hardware consist of:
a. Central Processing Unit (System Unit)
b. Input Devices
c. Output Devices
d. Storage Devices

a) Input Devices
These are the devices used to enter/put data into the computer. They accept data for processing & convert it into
a suitable form that the computer can understand.
1. Keying devices
2. Pointing devices
3. Scanning devices
4. Voice input

1. Keying Devices

a) Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the computer. The
layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also
available for Windows and Internet.

Converts typed numbers, letters and special characters into machine readable form. They include: -

Keyboards
 Traditional Keyboard – Fully sized rigid keyboard, and also the most Common keyboard.
 Flexible Keyboard – Can be folded.
 Ergonomic Keyboard – Specially designed to provide comfort and alleviate wrist strain.
 Keypad – Miniature keyboard used on portable devices
 Braille – Designed for the blind

The keyboard keys can be grouped into: -

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  Alphanumeric Keys: -Typing Keys. Contain letters A-Z, Numbers 1, 2…0, and special symbols such
as ?, &, ! and @. Also include the Caps and Num lock keys, the enter/return key, tab key, spacebar and
backspace keys.

 Function Keys: - Used for frequently occurring task e.g. saving. Labelled F1, F2 … F12.

 Navigation/Cursor Movement Keys: - Move the cursor on the screen. Include the arrow keys, page up
and page down keys, home and end keys and the insert and delete keys.

 Special Purpose Keys: - Used in combination with other keys to give certain pre-set commands
(shortcuts). Include the Shift, Ctrl, Alt, delete, insert and Esc keys.

 Numeric Keys: - Used to input numbers. Has numbers 0 to 9 and arithmetic keys (+, -. / and *).

 Toggle Keys: - Used to toggle/turn on/off specific operations. Include the CapsLock, NumLock and
ScrollLock keys.

 Keypad: – Miniature keyboard used on portable devices e.g. PDAs and mobile phones.
 Braille Keyboard: – Designed for use by the blind.

2. Pointing Devices
Used to control a pointer/cursor on the screen.
They include
 Mouse
 Trackball
 Joystick
 Light pen

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 i. Mouse
o Standard Mouse – has a ball underneath, two buttons and a scroll button
o Optical Mouse– Doesn’t have moving parts. Works using tiny digital camera to take 15000
pictures every second of the surface on which it’s resting. Interpreting the pictures indicates the
direction of the mouse movement hence the pointer position on the screen
o Cordless/Wireless Mouse – battery charged mouse that uses infrared waves instead of being
connected to the System unit
A mouse usually consists of three parts:-
Left Mouse Button: - Used to select (click) options, open (double click) files/foldersand drag and
drop items from one location to another.
Right mouse button: - Displays a list of options/commands (Right clicking).
Scroll Wheel: -Used to navigate up/down within documents.

Advantages

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

ii. Trackball:
 Looks and works like a mouse but its ball is located at the top of the device. The user rotates the ballot
move the cursor on the screen. Some computers come with an integrated trackball

 A pointing device found on most laptops. Used instead of a mouse since it takes up less space. The user
moves a finger across the touch pad and this movement data is sent to the computer.

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iii. Joystick: -
 Has a lever that controls a pointer on the screen. Used to play computer games. Also has several
command button
 Used mainly for playing games. The user moves the joystick left/right, forward/back and data about
these movements are sent to the computer.
 Small joysticks can also be found on some mobile phones.

iv. Light pen and Stylus:

 A light pen passes commands by illuminating items on a screen. A stylus work by pressure and common
on PDAs.
 Light pens are rarely used today since graphics tablets and high-quality touch screens provide similar
functionality.

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3. Scanning Devices
 Scanning means capturing data from an object and converting it to digital formats.
 Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for further
manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital form
that can be stored on the disc.
 They are classified basing on the technology used to capture data
 They can be optical or magnetic scanners

a) Optical scanners
 They capture data using optical technology. A light beam passes over an object and the image is
analyzed by a software.
 Examples include

1. Optical Mark Recognition Scanners

 OMR detects marks made on a piece of paperusing ink or soft pencil by passing an infrared beam over
them
 They are used to mark multiples choices questions, analysing responces to structured questionnaires and
selecting correct number combinations from lottery tickets

2. Optical Bar Recognition Scanners

 Used to capture data coded as lines, of varying thickness known as barcodes or Universal Product Code
UPC

 Bar Codes hold manufacture details and product code, but note price because it may vary from one place
to another

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 3. Optical Character Recognition Scanners

 Is used to read type written, computer printed or hand written characters and transform the images into
soft copy that can be manipulated by the word processor

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  The Flat Bed scanner captures pictures and real objects

Optical Character Recognition Flat-bed scanner (Advanced)

b) Magnetic Scanners

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be processed every day.
The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains
particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

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Voice input
Voice Input: - A microphone is used to convert speech/sound into an electronic format.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone is used for
various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Others input device

Digitizers:
 Or graphic tablet allows user to draw Images using a stylus. The images drawn on the tablet are
displayed on a screen. Used for architectural and engineering drawing.
 Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a
signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They
can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is
also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary
inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of drawing and image manipulation
applications.

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Digital Cameras: - Captures images that are store in digital form.

Touch Screens: - Make use of capacitive, inductive, or haptic technology. Used in PDAs, smartphones and
some modern monitors.

Interactive Whiteboard: - AKA smart-board. A computer display is projected onto the board’s surface and users
interact with it using a stylus or finger.

Graphics Tablet

A pointing device often used by designers and artists to allow natural hand movements to be input to graphics
applications.
A stylus is held like a pen and moved over the surface of the tablet. Data about the stylus movements are sent to
the computer.

Since it is so like using a pen, it is very easy to create ‘hand-drawn’ sketches.

b) OUTPUT DEVICES
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Peripheral devices used by the computer to give out information produced after processing operations. Are of
two main types: -
 Softcopy Output Devices
 Hardcopy Output Devices

1. Softcopy Output Devices

Produce intangible output (can only be seen or heard). Produced by display and sound devices. Such as screen
display and sound. Examples include monitors, LCD projectors and speakers.

i. Monitors (Visual Display Units)

Display information on a flat or convex-shaped screen. Their sizes is measured diagonally in inches. Users can
monitor operations carried out by the computer.

Types of Monitors

CRTs (Cathode Ray Tubes)

 Make use of a cathode ray tube (Long glass tube with electronic gun on one end and screen on the other.
 Electronic gun illuminates the screen by shooting electrons on the screen
 Convex shaped screens.
 Relatively affordable.
 Remarkable color.
 Good resolution.
 Excellent viewing angles.
 Fast response time.
 Bulky.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

 Don’t depend on backlight technology.
 Use special liquid crystals
 Less bulky
 Consume less power compared to CTR
 Limited eye strain compared to CRT
 Block pictures.
 Limited viewing angles.
 Less vibrant colors.
 Relatively low contrast.
 Use two technologies namely, Passive and Active matrix
 Passive use little power, with poor clarity
 Active, made using thin film transistors (TFT). They consume more power, and offer better
clarity

Glass Plasma Display

 Uses noble gases unlike LCD which uses liquid crystals.
 High contract and bright vibrant colors.
57
  Less-blocky pictures.
 Available in large sizes only.
 Unlike LCD, they don’t suffer from angle distortion.
 Don’t allow use of optical objects.
 Heavy as compared to LCDs.
 Suffer from image burn-in
 This technology produces High Definition TVs (HDTVs).

LED (Light Emitting Diode) and OLED (Organic LED.

 Display light when current is passed through them.
 Used mostly to display warnings or state of computer and other processes e.g on/off.

SED (Surface-conducted Emitting Diode)

 Made of electron emitting array and layers of phosphorous.
 High resolution.

Projectors-Digital Light processing monitors.

Touch Screen Monitors.
FED e.g. Thin Film Transistor (TFT)

Monitor Terminologies
 Pixel – Stands for picture elements. They are tiny dots used to display images on the screen
 Color Depth – Number of colors which can be displayed by a pixel, measured in bits
 Resolution – Number of pixels per inch on the screen, given in bits. The higher the resolution, the high
the pixels, hence the clarity.
 Refresh rate – Refer to the number of time the CRT monitor has to be refreshed, since they can’t hold an
image for a long time
 Display Size – Is measured in inches as the diagonal length of the screen measured from top right to
bottom left.

Video Graphic Adapters

 For a monitor to display information, it must be connected through a video port to a video adapter
plugged on the motherboard.
 A Video adapter determines the resolution and clarity of a monitor. Examples include.
a) Color Graphic Adapter – Is the oldest type of adapter that displays texts and images in 16 colors
b) Enhanced Graphic Adapters – improvement of CGA, displayed 16 colors
c) Video Graphic Array (VGA) – Display text, Videos, using 256 colors
d) Super Video Graphic Array (SVGA) – Display text and graphic using more than 16M, minimum
resolution of 800 x 600 pixels
e) Extended Graphic Array (XGA) – Has a resolution up to 1024 x 768 pixels, common on 17 and 19 inch
monitors
f) Super Extended Graphic Array (SXGA) – Resolution of 1280 x 1024 pixels. Common on 19-21 inch
monitors
g) Ultra Extended Graphic Array – Latest and highest standard
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 ii. Sound Output
Produce via a speaker. Produced when playing music, watching videos/movies, charts etc.

2. Hardcopy Output Devices

Produce output in a form that can be felt/touched or tangible output. Examples include printers, plotters and
facsimile (fax)

i. Printers
Produce a hardcopy of information on paper. The quality of hardcopy depend on printing mechanism which can
either be Impact or non-impact printers

Types of Printers

1. Impact Printers
 They print by striking mechanism
 They strike a paper to form an imprint
 Use special light hammers that hit a ribbon to produce characters on paper.
 Noisy.
 Mostly produce rough copies.
 Cheaper to run
 Print for long periods without breaking
 Produce low quality printouts

a) Dot Matrix Printers

 Info is produced in a pattern of dots using pins held in the printing head.

b) Daisy Wheel Printers

 Like a typewriter.
 Has a rotating wheel from which characters are held on pedals.
 When printing the wheel is rotated to align the required characters, then the character are hit using a
hammer.

2. Non-Impact Printers
 Quiet printers.
 Faster compared to impact printers
 Print using ink, thermal or laser mechanism
 High quality printouts
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  Expensive to run and maintain

They include-
a) Inkjet Printers.
 Print by spraying ink through electrically-charged nozzles.
 Charged particles are arrange into characters.
 Cheap to buy but expensive to run (cartridges).
 Produce better quality printers

b) Thermal Printers
 Use thermal technology to heat ink in wax form to melting point before fusing it on a piece
of paper.
 Common at point of sale terminals to print receipts and bar codes
 Produce high quality printouts
 Expensive to purchase and maintain.

c) Laser Printers
 Operate by shining a laser beam to create to create an image on a rotating drum
 It ionizes some regions which attract ink toner to particles.
 The toner is then fused on the piece of paper
 N/B - Make use of electrostatics. A laser beam draws an image/character on a drum using static
electricity. The charged area then attracts ink form the toner and presses it onto the paper.
 They print very fast compared to thermal and inkjet
 They are cheaper to maintain
 Produce high quality printouts
 They are expensive to buy

d) Photo printers
 Special purpose printers for printing photos

ii. Plotter
 Resembles a printer but are big.
 Used to produce big charts, maps, drawings and pictures e.g. advertisement posters to be placed on
billboards.

Storage Devices
Storage devices consist of two main groups:
 Primary Storage
 Secondary/Auxiliary Storage

c) System Unit.
This is the casing (unit) that houses the internal electronic components. The components in the System unit
include: -
i. Central Processing Unit (CPU) or Processor
ii. Motherboard

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 iii. Power supply unit
iv. Memory storage devices
v. Disk drives
vi. Ports

Types of System units

There are two makes of System units:
 Tower style system unit: - This system unit is made to stand alone. They are designed to be placed on
the floor. Have more space for expansion than the typical desktop units.
 Desktop system units:-Desktop units lie on the desk with the monitor resting on top of the system unit.

i. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 Also known as the processor. It’s the brain of the computer. It carries out all data processing and co-
ordinates all control operations. The CPU is mounted on the motherboard below the heat sinks.

Components of the CPU

a) Control Unit:
 Controls and coordinates the microprocessor’s operations during program execution using the system
clock. It fetches, decodes, executes and writes-back instructions. Organizes data from main memory for
the processor.
 Determines the instruction to be executed next
 The number of pulses per second determines the speed of the microprocessor
 The faster the clock pulses, the faster the computer can processor data.

b) Arithmetic Logic Unit:

 Performs Arithmetic (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division) and logical (Comparisons)
calculations/evaluations. It decodes instructions and processes data.
 It has special temporally storage locations called registers which hold data just before processing.
 It holds the results after processing

c) Main Memory (Primary Memory):

 Storage location that is directly accessed by the processor
 It’s a temporary storage for data to be processed by the CPU.
 It’s classified into RAM and ROM. Located within the CPU.
 It is expensive, of low capacity (MBs), but very fast.
 Mostly stores instructions.
 Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner.
 Main memory is connected to the central processing unit via the memory bus.

a) RAM (Random Access Memory)

-Also known as the working storage
-It holds data and instructions needed by the current running programs
-Information is continuously read, removed and changed
-Its Random access because it’s content can be directly accessed regardless of the sequence they are stored in

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-The content is held temporary hence the content disappears when computer is switched off therefore need for
saving before switching off the computer
-The types of RAM include
i) SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
-Data is stored in flip-flops.
-Contents remain stable as long as power is on.
-It’s a fast type of RAM located in the microprocessor
-It’s used on a special purpose memory such as Cache which enhances the processing speed of the processor.

ii) DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)

-It’s slower compared to the SRAM
-Data is stored as charge – in capacitors.
-There is need for constant refreshing to maintain data storage since data leaks away
-High packing density.
-Needs to be refreshed (1-2 milliseconds).
-Less expensive.

a) ROM (Read Only Memory)

-Its contents can be read but not written during normal computer operation. Provides semi-permanent to
permanent storage of programs and instructions.
-Data and instruction remain unchanged for a long period of time (POST). They include:-

i) MROM (Mask Read Only Memory)

-Produce by a manufacturer.
-Cannot be re-programmed or changed.
ii) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
-Programmed by the user.
-Cannot be re-programmed once created.
iii) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
-Can be re-programmed more than once.
-Expensive.
-Mostly not compatible with other systems.
-Can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet rays the reprogramming
iv) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable ROM) –
-Can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity
-Example of EEPROM is the BIOS (basic input and output system)
v) EAROM (Electrically Alternate ROM)
-Most read memory.
-Written in a millisecond (10-3) but read in a microsecond (10-6).

Special Purpose Memories

(i). Registers: - Hold one piece of data at a time. Located in the CPU. Stores frequently used data. They
include:-
-Accumulators - Temporary hold results of last processing step of ALU
-Instruction Register – Temporary hold an instruction before its interpreted in a form that the CPU can
understand

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-Address Register - Temporary hold the next piece of data awaiting processing
-Storage register – Holds piece of data on its way to and from the CPU and main memory
(ii). Buffers: - Holds instructions sent between CPU and I/O devices. Can store more than one piece of
data at a time. Example, computer printers have buffers that store massive documents sent by the CPU
for printing hence freeing the CPU to perform agent tasks
(iii). Cache: - Uses high speed SRAM. Stores copies of frequently accessed data. It’s a type of RAM. They
include Level 1(Primary cache), Level 2(External cache) and level 3 cache.
(iv). Flash: - A variant of EEPROM. Reprogrammable in blocks in a single action.
(v). Virtual Memory: - Part of a hard disk used by the OS to hold areas in RAM that have not been used
recently.

Differences between ROM & RAM

ROM RAM
1. One can only read its contents but cannot Data can be read and written on it
write on it unless it’s a special type of ROM
2. Its non-volatile (content is lost when the RAM is volatile (Its content disappears when the
computer is switched off.) computer is switched off)
3. Content is manufacture defined called Content is user defined
firmware

Auxiliary Processors: -
Assist the microprocessor(s).
The CPU contains electrical pathways known as Bus that transfer data between the various components. Bus are
of five main types: -
a) Control Bus: -Pathway for timing and control functions. Originates from the CU. Decides if data is to be
read/written to the data bus.
b) Address Bus: -Locates storage positions (selects route to be followed by data) by linking to memory.
c) Data Bus: -Where actual data transfer takes place. Ferries data between components.
d) System Bus that connects the CPU to main memory
e) I/O Bus that connects the CPU and peripheral devices. AKA Expansion, External or Host Bus.
Examples:
o PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect).
o 4AGP (Accelerated Graphic Port).
o ISA (Industry Standard Architecture).
o USB (Universal Serial Bus).

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 ii. Motherboard
Is the main Printed Circuit Board. Holds most of the electronic components of the computer system such as the
CPU and memory. It also provides connectors (ports) for peripheral devices e.g. VDU, Mouse and Keyboard.

iii. Power Supply

Supplies power to the entire computer system. Converts AC to DC current. It’s mounted on the system unit.
Connects to the mains by a power cable/cord.

iv. Memory Storage

Consists of the primary storage and auxiliary storage in the form of Hard Disks Drive/Solid State Drive.

v. Disk Drives
Read/write information from/to secondary storage devices e.g. CDs and Diskettes

Secondary Storage/Auxiliary storage

-AKA external memory or auxiliary storage. Differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by
the CPU. Data from secondary storage is copied to an intermediate areain main memory before it is processed.
Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down—it is non-volatile. It is less
expensive than primary storage.

-The secondary storage is often formatted according to a file system format, which provides the abstraction
necessary to organize data into files and directories, providing also additional information (called metadata)
describing the owner of a certain file, the access time, the access permissions, and other information.
-Secondary storage devices are classified depending on the technology used to read/write data. ---Thus thee
storage devices can either be classified as:
 Fixed or Removable
 Optical, magnetic or solid state
 Transistor/Semiconductor.

REMOVABLE STORAGE
 Are not housed inside the computer.
 They include magnetic tapes, floppy disks, Optical disks and solid state

Examples
a) Floppy Disk/Diskette
 Made of small flexible round disk coated with magnetisable iron oxide
 They have been faced out due to entry of mass storage flash disks and memory sticks

b) Magnetic Tape

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  Resembles music cassettes, Data is read from or written using a tape drive
 They include Reel to reel tapes, cassette tapes and cartridge tapes
 They are slow because of linear storage of data i.e. you have to access the proceeding record before you
get to the required
 There is space between successful records

c) Zip Disks
 High capacity magnetic diskette that resembles a floppy disk
 It has a high storage capacity up to 250MBs

d) Jaz Disks

 Resembles Zip disks but hold up to 2GB

e) High Capacity Floppy

 Store up to 200MB of data

f) Laser Servo 120 SuperDisks

 Resembles the diskette but uses optical technology

 Has greater storage capacity high speed of data retreval

Disadvantages of magnetic tapes

 Slow due to linear access of data.
 Contains spaces between records that leads to wastage.
 Bulky.

Care of magnetic tapes

 Do not expose them to strong magnetic fields and excessive heat because this may dis-orient magnetic
dipoles.
 Don’t expose them to heat because it causes loss of magnetic strength
 Do not drop them on the floor, impact weakens magnetic field.
 Don’t touch the magnetic surfaces.
 Do not fold/bend magnetic media.
 Do not remove the media from the computer while it’s being read/written to because this may cause data
loss.

g) Optical Storage Devices

Use laser beams to read/write data. Information is stored in the form of pits and lands. An optical disk consists
of four layers:
 Polycarbonate layer: -Recording Data.
 Metallic/Shiny layer: -Reflects the laser.
 Acrylic Layer: - Protects the reflective layer.
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  Artwork/Label: - Printing the CD details.

-During the writing process, a laser creates spiral tracks having indentations (pits).
-Areas between the pits are known as lands.
- A CD is read by focusing a laser having a wavelength of 780nm (infrared) through the polycarbonate layer.
-The difference in height between the pits and lands determine how light is reflected.
-The intensity of reflected light is measured by a photodiodeand is encoded using a given encoding standard e.g.
NRZ (Non Return to Zero).

Formats
 Read Only:- CD-ROM and DVD-ROM. Data only read but not written
 Write-Once (Writable): - CD-R and DVD-R. Once data is burnt on it, it becomes read only
 Read and Write (Rewritable): - CD-RW and DVD-RW. User can record, erase and rewrite

Examples
 CDs (Compact Disks)
 DVDs (Digital Versatile Disks)
 Blue Ray Disks.

Advantages
 Store large volumes of data.
 Data is stored for longer periods (Durable).

N/B
 DVDs Have a high storage capacity up to 17GB, They have better picture and sound quality

Solid State Storage

 Is a non-volatile storage that employs integrated circuits
 They are called solid state because they don’t not contain moving parts
 Examples
 Flash Disks
 Memory Cards
 Memory Sticks
 Secured Disks e.g. MiniSD, MicroSD

FIXED STORAGE MEDIA

 They are mounted inside the computer
 Examples are Hard disks mounted inside the computer
 They are connected to the motherboard using channels called controller.

POWER SUPPLY & PERIPHERAL DEVICE INTERFACING

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Power Supply Unit
A device mounted inside the system unit that converts Alternating Current to Direct Current since Desktop
computers require DC. It’s connected to the mains using a power cable.
Used to connect peripheral devices to the computer. Are found at the back and front of the system unit. This
ports connect to interface cards attached to the motherboard.

Peripheral Device Interfacing

Refers to connecting peripheral devices to the computer through ports using cables/wireless connectivity
a) Parallel Interface
 Transfer data simultaneously using a set of many wires.
 They transmit that faster over a short distance
 A parallel connects to parallel interface port called Line printer (LPT)
 Connect printers, scanners, tapes, D-Drives etc.
 The parallel port is also known as the printer port.
 They are shaped like a D and have 25pins and thus referred as the D-25 port.

b) Serial Interface
 Also known as the COM interface/RS-232.
 Transmit data one bit at a time.
 They are slow and more reliable than parallel over longer distance of 15M
 Are of two types: 25-pin and 9-pin.
 As opposed to parallel ports, serial ports allow for two-way communication.

Examples

PS/2 Interface
 6-pin mini-DIN connector.
 Used to connect keyboard (blue) and mouse (green).

VGA (Video Graphics Array) Interface

 Connects a monitor or projector.
 Usually blue in color.
 It’s a 15-pin D-Sub (min sub).
 AKA RGB connector.

USB (Universal Serial Bus) Interface

 Allows for connection of various peripheral devices.
 Can connect 127 devices in a daisy chain.
 Faster and transmit one bit of data at a time
 Has high speed and better data quality of transmission over distances of 5M.
 Allows for Plug and Play (PnP).
 Can be used for communication and supply power to connected devices.
USB 1.1 – 1.5 to 12 mbps.
USB 2.0 – 480 mbps.
USB 3.0 – 5 gbps.

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DVI (Digital Visual Interface)
 Designed to transmit uncompressed digital video.
 Can be configured to support multiple modes such as:
DVI-D (digital only),
DVI-A (analog only), or
DVI-I (digital and analog).

Audio Interface
 Connects speakers and microphones.

Firewire Interface
 Like USB but faster.
 High-speed connectivity for digital audio and video equipment e.g. digital video cameras.

Infrared and Bluetooth Interface

Infrared - Uses light waves. Requires a line of sight.
Bluetooth – Uses short-range radio signals. Transmits in all directions.

S-Video Interface
 Commonly termed Separate Video, Super-Video and Y/C.
 Transmits standard for standard definition video.
 Y is the luma signal, which carries the luminance - or black-and-white.
 C is the chroma signal, which carries the chrominance - or coloring-in - of the picture.
 Uses a four-pin mini-DIN connector. Usually black or yellow in color.

HDMI
 Audio/video interface for transferring uncompressed video data and compressed or uncompressed digital
audio data.
 Offers Bi-directional control signal transfer.
 5 Gbps bandwidth.
 Has a simple, user-friendly connector.

Memory Capacity
 Computer memory is measured using special units called bytes
 A byte is equivalent to one character
 Characters can be numbers 0-9, space between words, letters A-Z, or even special symbols
 Memory quantities can be expressed as:-
a) Kilobytes – equal to 1000 bytes exact number is (1024)
b) Megabytes – equal to 1,000,000 bytes (1048576)
c) Gigabytes – equal to 1,000,000,000 (1073741824)
d) Terabytes – 1,000,000,000,000 bytes(1099511627776)

TYPES OF PROCESSORS
Processor- Consists of an inbuilt set of instruction set known as instruction set
They are classified into two categories basing on instruction set.
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 a) Complex Instruction set computer
 Made of a large number of complex instruction
 Produced by Intel corporation
 Its common on Pentium processor
 Examples include Intel Pentium and PDP-II processor

b) Reduced Instruction Set Computers

 Uses fewer instruction compared to CISC
 Motorola and Sun Microsystems manufacture RISC
N/B a parameter used to measure the processor performance is clock speed that is measured in the Hertz (Hz) A
Hertz measures the number of cycles per second in a signal. Processor clock speed can be in Kilohertz (kHz),
Megahertz (MHz) and gigahertz (GHz). The first processors were Intel’s in 1980s then Pentiums in 1990s, Dual
cores in 2000s and I-Core in 2009s

Selection of Computer Hardware

i. Processor Type and Speed: - Determines cost of the overall system. Consider the number of cores e.g. Dual
Core, Core 2-Due, Core i3, i5 and i7 etc.

ii. Memory Capacity: - Will determine the OS and applications to run. Consider: memory package (DDR,
DDR-II), memory slots, and capacity of modules.

iii. Warranty: - Agreement between buyer and seller. Spells out the terms and conditions that should apply if a
s product fails/malfunctions.

iv. Compatibility/Upgradability: - Ability to accept an improved version of a given device or work with
systems from other platforms/manufactures. The reason people upgrade include:
 Improve processing speeds
 Increase RAM
 Increase storage.
 Fit more hardware e.g USB ports, SD-Card slots etc.

v. User Needs: - Application of the computer system. Special needs e.g. the physically challenged. Consider
braille keyboards, special glasses/screens, speech/voice recognition etc.

vi. Cost: - Should be within one’s budget. Don’t compromise on quality. Cost if affected by:
 Processing speed
 Memory and HDD capacity
 Type of processor e.g. intel, Cyrix or Celeron
 Branded or cloned computer.

vii. Portability: - Ability to move components from place to place. Consider laptops/notebooks, small printers,
LCD projectors etc.
viii. Durability: - Self-life of the hardware. Cheap devices are less durable.
ix. Training: - Get a device you know how to use or be ready to learn. Some manufactures provide training.
x. Multimedia Support: - Ability to process and output text, sound, video and pictures. Consider CD/DVD
devices, Sound Cards, Monitor etc.
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 xi. Documentation:- Manuals/user guides

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Definition of Software
Software is the set of computer programs plus the associated documentation. Programs are set of computer
instruction that tell the computer what to do. The process of writing (or coding) programs is called
programming, and individuals who perform this task are called programmers. Software not only directs the
computer to manage its internal resources, but also enables the user to tailor a computer system to provide
specific business value.

Some software come pre-installed with your computer. Other software may be given to you, or you may buy it.
Software usually comes on CD-ROMs but sometimes you can download software from the Internet. Once you
have the software, you install it on your machine. The software is then ready to use.

Classification of Software
Computer software can be classified into three main groups. These are:
1. Purpose
2. Acquisition
3. End User License

1. Classification According to Purpose

All software can be divided into two main categories:
 System software
 Application software

A. System Software
They are a set of instructions that serve primarily as an intermediary between computer hardware and
application programs. Systems software control and support the computer system and its information-
processing activities. Systems software also facilitates the programming, testing, and debugging of computer
programs.4
Functions of System software’s include
 Booting the computer
 Making sure all the Hardware components are working properly
 Retrieving, Loading, Executing, and storing application programs
 Performing system utility function

Classification of System Software

 Operating Systems  Security Monitors  Programming languages
 Utility Programs  Firmware  Networking software

a) Operating Systems
Systems software are the set of complex programs that work together to control execution of user programs or
application programs. They manage input, output, and storage operations in the computer. Control the use of the
hardware, software, and data resources of a computer system. There are four main jobs an operating system is
responsible for:

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  It provides a user interface. The user interface lets you give commands to the OS.
 It gives instructions to the computer hardware, such as the printer and monitor.
 It manages the way in which the computer stores data and applications.
 It keeps track of different jobs/tasks.

Types of OS.
 Windows e.g. 95, 98, XP, Vista, 7 and 8.
 Macintosh e.g. Mac OS X  JavaOS
 Linux e.g. Ubuntu, SuSE, Fedora, Debian  Mobile OSs
 Unix o Android
 OS/2 (IBM) o Windows Phone
o Symbian

b) Utility programs
Special programs that perform commonly used services that make certain aspects of computing run smoothly.
Supports the operations, management, and users of a computer system. They help analyze, configure, optimize
and maintain a computer. They perform tasks such as copying, sorting records, checking the integrity of disks
and creating directories and subdirectories. They also restore accidentally erased files, manage memory usage,
and redirect output.
They are divided into two us:-
i. System level Utility – Help the user work with the Operating System and its functions, Example the
Utility Program tells the user when he enters a wrong command and makes suggestions on correction.
ii. Application level Utility – They make application programs run more smoothly and efficiently. They are
commonly purchased separately or may be part of the Operating system.

Examples
 Antivirus: - Scan and delete computer viruses.
 Backup: - Copies information from disks to another location that can be restored later.
 Data compression: - Minimizes the size of files.
 Disk Checkers: - Scans and analyses storage.
 Disk Cleaners: - Locates unnecessary files and deletes them to free space.
 Disk defragmenters: - Detect, locate and assemble broken files.
 File Managers: - Delete, rename, catalogues, moves and merges files.
 Cryptographic: - Encrypts data/information.
 Screen Savers: - Prevent burn-in on screens.
 Firewalls: - Prevent outsiders from accessing user’s computer over a network such as the Internet.

c) Performance monitors
Monitor the processing of jobs on a computer system. They monitor computer system performance and produce
reports containing detailed statistics relating to the use of system resources, such as processor, memory space,
input/output devices, and system and application programs.

d) Security monitors

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Monitor the use of a computer system to protect it and its resources from unauthorized use, fraud, or
destruction. Such programs provide the computer security needed to allow only authorized users access to the
system.

e) Networking Software
Help establish communication between two or more computers. Enable data exchange and security.

Examples
 CISCO LANSpy Network Scanner LANDesk

f) Programming Languages
Communicates instructions for a computer to execute. Programming languages are grouped into:
Machine Language: - Code is in Binary Digits
Low level (Assembly) Languages: - Code is in mnemonics. Symbolic representation of machine code.
High-level languages: - Use normal human language. Problem oriented manner. e.g.
4th Generation Languages: - Used in real time processing. Use menus and prompts. e.g. C
5th Generation Languages: - Used to write Artificial Intelligence program e.g. PROLOG

Language Translators
Compilers: - Reads a program in one language and translates it into another language (high level languages into
low level languages e.g. assembly language).
Assemblers: - Translate assembly language into machine/object code.
Interpreters: - Read, translate and execute programs line by line.
Loaders: - Load programs into memory. Prepares programs for execution.
Linkers: - Links objects from compilers into a single executable program.

Use of Programming Languages

Programming languages are used to develop:
 Application/Programs  Computer drivers and other hardware
 Artificial Intelligence interfaces
 Databases  Web pages
 Games  Scripts

Examples
 Ada  Jscript  Prolog
 BASIC  LaTeX  Python
 C  Lisp  R
 C++  Lynx  Ruby
 C#  MATLAB  SAS
 COBOL  MySQL  SQL
 dBase  Objective-C  Unix Shell
 Fortran  Pascal  VBScript
 Java  Perl  Visual Basic
 JavaScript  PHP  XML

B. Application Software

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Application software is a set of computer instructions that provide more specific functionality to a user. That
functionality may be broad, such as general word processing, or narrow, such as an organization’s payroll
program. An application program applies a computer to a certain need.

a. Word Processors
Word processing software allows the user to manipulate text. A typical word processing software package
consists of an integrated set of programs including an editor program, a formatting program, a print program, a
dictionary, a thesaurus, a grammar checker, a mailing list program, and integrated graphics, charting, and
drawing programs. Being WYSIWYG editors, word processors display the text material on the screen exactly
as it will look on the final printed page

Examples
 Ms Word  Open office writer
 Libre Office  Word Pad
 Lotus Wordpro  Note Pad

b. Spreadsheets
Computer spreadsheet software transforms a computer screen into a ledger sheet, or grid of coded rows and
columns. Users can enter numeric or textual data into each grid location, called a cell. In addition, a formula can
be entered into a cell to obtain a calculated answer displayed in that cell’s location.

With spreadsheets, users can also develop and use macros, which are sequences of commands that can be
executed with just one simple instruction.
Examples
 Microsoft’s Excel  Quatro Pro  Apple Numbers
 Lotus 1–2-3  Ms Works  Open Office
 Quick Books  Apple Works

c. Data management.
Data management software supports the storage, retrieval, and manipulation of related data. There are two basic
types of data management software: simple filing programs patterned after traditional, manual data-filing
techniques, and database management programs that take advantage of a computer’s extremely fast and
accurate ability to store and retrieve data in primary and secondary storage.

Examples
 Ms Access  Oracle  Apple Works
 MySQL  Filemake Pro  Ms Works

d. Desktop Publishing.
Allow Photographs, diagrams, and other images to be combined with text, including several different fonts, to
produce a finished, camera-ready document. Creates newsletters, banners, brochures and business cards among
others.

Examples
 Adobe PageMaker  Ms Publisher  Apple Works
 Ms Word  Ms Works  Quick Express

e. Graphics
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Graphics software allows the user to create, store, and display or print charts, graphs, maps, and drawings.
Graphics software enables users to absorb more information more quickly and to spot relationships and trends
in data more easily.There are three basic categories of graphics software packages:
Presentation Graphics: - Create graphically rich presentations e.g. PowerPoint,
Analysis Graphics: - Convert previously analyzed data into graphic formats like bar charts, line graphs, pie
charts, and scatter diagrams. e.g. Excel.

Computer-Aided Design Software: - Designing items for manufacturing, allows designers to design and
“build” production prototypes in software, test them as a computer object under given parameters. e.g.
AutoCAD, ArchiCAD etc.

f. Multimedia
Multimedia software combines at least two media for input or output of data. These media include audio
(sound), voice, animation, video, text, graphics, and images.

Examples
 RealPlayer  Jet Audio
 VLC  Ashampoo
 Windows Media Player  Nero

g. Communications
Allow for interconnection of computers in order to share or relate information through use of communications
software. Technologies such as dedicated or public cables, telephone lines, satellite relay systems, or microwave
circuits are employed.

Communication software establish and relinquish electronic links, code and decode data transmissions, verify
transmission errors (and correct them automatically), and check for and handle transmission interruptions.

Examples
 AOL Instant Messenger
 Skype
 Viber
 Ms Net Meeting
 CU-See-Me

h. Speech-recognition software.
Two categories of speech-recognition software are available today: discrete speech and continuous speech.
Discrete speech recognition: - Interpret only one word at a time, so users must place distinct pauses between
words.
Continuous speech recognition: - Interpret a continuing stream of words. The software must understand the
context of a word to determine its correct spelling, and be able to overcome accents and interpret words very
quickly.

i. Internet Browsers
Enable user to surf the internet/web.

Examples
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 Netscape
 AOL
 Internet Explorer
 Mozilla Firefox
 Opera Mini
 Safari
 Google Chrome
 Torch

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 j. Activity Management Programs
Scheduling tasks and tracking the progress/performance of workers (employees and employers).

Examples
 Calendars
 Address Books
 Project Management Software

2. Classification According to Acquisition

Application software includes proprietary application software and off-the-shelf application software.

a. In-House (Proprietary) Software

Addresses a specific or unique business need for a company. For example a bank deciding to manage its
operations using a unique program developed by a hired programmer. This type of software may be developed
in-house by the organization’s information systems personnel or it may be commissioned from a software
vendor. Such specific software programs developed for a particular company by a vendor are called contract
software.

b. Vendor (Off-the-shelf) Software

Are developed by Software engineers and made available for purchase. They can be purchased, leased, or
rented from a vendor that develops programs and sells them to many organizations. Off-the-shelf software may
be a standard package or it may be customizable. Can be bundled (suites) or stand-alone/single purpose. The
suites include Lotus Suite, Microsoft Office, and Corel Wordperfect while single purpose include Quickbooks
and Sagel pastel.

Advantages of Vendor off the shelf over In-house developed

 Can easily be installed and run
 Are cheaper than in-house developed
 They are readily available
 Minor or no errors since they are thoroughly checked and tested
 They can easily be modified to meet user needs

Disadvantages of vendor off the shelf

 They may have features not needed by the user
 Features not needed may take extra space
 They may require the user to change processor and Hardware for compatibility
 They may lack features needed by user

3. Classification According to End User License

An End User License Agreement (EULA) is a contract between the licensor (seller) and the purchaser
(buyer), establishing the purchaser’s right to use the software. The license defines ways the copy may be
used and any automatic rights of the buyer such as distribution of copyrighted material, library lending,
giving, rentals and resale of legally purchased software to others. They are classified as

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 i. Open Source or non-proprietary- Are software whose source code (Program set of instruction) is
freely made available to the user. The users can use, modify and redistribute the software. For
example the Linux Operating System.

ii. Proprietary Software – Software’s whose source code is hidden from user. They are lisenced to users
at a fee or applied freely. They include Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Office
iii. Freeware – Are software that are freely made available to users. The Grisoft Antivirus known as
AVG Free edition is an example

Class Examples
LIcensed OS e.g. Windows, Mac OS
Antivirus e.g. Kaspersky
Factors to copyleft Most GNU software e.g. GNU C++ Consider
When sold Selecting
Computer Freeware Media Players e.g. VLC Software
Browsers e.g. Mozilla, Chrome
1. Antiviruses e.g. Avira, AVG
SHAREWARE Download managers: e.g. IDM
open source Programming languages: PHP, Python, Perl.
OS e.g. Linux

Authenticity: - Genuineness/originality of the software. Licensed software are superior to pirated ones.

2. User Needs: - Services the software is to perform. Consider application suites versus in-house software.

3. User Friendliness: - Software should be easy to learn and use. The best software have a help facility to
assist users.

4. System Requirements: - Most software are dependent on hardware capabilities. Some may require high
storage space, processor speed or memory sizes.

5. Cost: - Varies depending on quality. Special purpose programs are more expensive than general purpose
ones. The same holds true for pirated software versus licensed ones.

6. Compatibility: - This is the ability of the software to work in harmony with existing software and
hardware. This can also encompass the ability to read/process files created by previous versions of the
software.

7. Portability: - Ability to transfer software across computers. This may also include computers running
other forms of operating systems. Conversion to/from one file format to another is also important.

8. Documentation: - All software should come with an operating manual. The manual should contain: the
installation guide, user manual, system requirements and the input/output formats it supports.

9. Skills Needed: - Inexperienced users should acquire training before use the software. Training can be
obtained from: user manuals, online forums, resource persons or a computer school.

10. Reliability/Security: - It is fundamental for software to provide data security. The software should
contain/provide security measures to protect data and information from illegal access.
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OPERATING SYSTEMS
Definition
 The main program that controls execution of user application programs and enables the user to access
the hardware and software resources of the computer
 User application programs only communicate with the hardware by sending messages through the
operating system which has the capability to give instructions to the hardware
 The operating system is made up of the Shell and the kernel.
 The Shell is the outer part of the operating system used to interact with the operating system
 Kernel is the core of the operating system responsible for managing and controlling computer resources
such as the main memory, processor, storage devices, Input and output devices and the communication
devices

Functions of the operating system

Processor Scheduling
 Refers to allocation each job waiting for execution processor time at each given interval.
 The operating system determines which task to execute next because the processor may have concurrent
tasks.
 The operating systems schedules jobs according to priorities
Resource allocation
 The operating system is responsible for allocating computer resources to the running jobs in the
computer
 Each available resource in the computer is identified using a unique number called Interrupt Request
(IRQ). The operating System uses the IRQ to identify the resource being requested
 Poor resources allocation leads to deadlock, a situation where a particular job holds a requested resource
and fails to release it yet it is requesting for a resource held by other job
Memory Management
 The operating system determines which task remain in the memory awaiting for execution and which
one is kicked out back to the secondary storage, this is because, the RAM is a scarce memory.
 The OS organises the main memory into blocks called page frames, and the processes are equally
divided into pieces that can fit into the page frames.
Input/output Management
 The OS coordinates between the various I/O and other peripheral devices such as auxiliary storage
devices making sure that data is transmitted securely
Communication Control and Management
 The OS manages various communication devices, providing an environment within which
communication protocols operate
Error Handling
 The OS alerts users of errors that arise due to illegal operation. H/W and S/W failure. They express what
the error is and make suggestions for recovering from the error.
Interrupt Handling
 An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instruction in a program
 The OS handles such interrupt. A critical request causes the processor to stop executing the current
process to attend to it. Before returning the control back to the process that was initially interrupted

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TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
Operating systems can be classified according to
a) Number of Tasks
b) Number of Users
c) User Interface

Classification According to Number of Tasks

i. Single program operating system
 Allows processing of one application program in the main memory at a time
 The user can only run one interactive program at a time, and so the user exits the current program before
loading a new one
 Examples including, MS DOS from the MS corporation.
ii. Multitasking Operating System
 Allow single CPU to execute what appears to be more than one application program at the same time.
The processor switches between the processes as directed by the OS. The switching mechanism is very
fast that it appears as if it is the programs are being executed simultaneously. This is achieved through
processor scheduling
Classification According to number of Users
i. Single-user Operating System
 OS designed for use by one person, and runs one user application program at time.
ii. Multi User Operating System
 Allow more than one user to interact with the computer at a time.
 Server OS such as Windows 2003 server can be installed in computers that are accessed by more than
one user in an organisation
 Others include, UNIX, Novell and Windows NT/2000, Linux
Classification According to interface
User Interface refers to the interaction between the user and the computer. The more the user friendly the
Interface is the better the OS is. They include
i. Command-line based Operating System.
 This OS Lets the user type commands at the command prompt which are then executed
 Such commands include, DEL, COPY, PRINT
 Examples of such OS include, MS DOS, PC DOS, OS/2 and UNIX
ii. Menu driven Interface
 They provide user with a list of options, to choose from. They provide the user with a list of menus to
choose from. Example is the DOS SHELL or DOS EDITOR
iii. Graphical User Interface
 Latest user interface that make the interface more user friendly.
 It’s made up of the WIMP, that’s the Windows which is the rectangular working area, the Icons which
are graphical objects, the menus that allows the user to choose from and the pointing devices that
execute most commands.
 Examples include, Ms windows from 2000 and Vista, Apple Mac OS, Linux

Factors to consider when selecting an Operating System

1. Hardware configurations e.g. memory, processor speed, and hard disk capacity
2. Application software intended
3. User friendliness of the OS
4. Documentation
5. Cost of OS
6. Reliability and security of the OS
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 7. The number of users it can support
8. Type of computer in terms of size and make

Working of the Operating System

Operating system software is a set of instructions (program) that is used to manage computer resources.
Resources e.g. hardware, software, documents.

Windows Operating Systems

 Windows 98
 Windows 2000
 Windows NT
 Windows ME
 Windows XP
 Windows Vista
 Windows 7
 Windows 8

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 SECURITY THREATS AND CONTOL
DATA SECURITY CORE PRINCIPALS
1. Confidentiality
2. Integrity
3. Availability
Confidentiality
Ability of the organisation not to disclose sensitive data to unauthorised people e.g. employee
data, military information, business financial records
Integrity
Means that data should not be modified without the owner’s authority
Availability
Information must be available on demand

SECURITY THREATS AND CONTROL MEASURES

Security threats are majorly to computer based information systems, private or confidential
data,
These include:
 Unauthorised access to data
 Data alteration
 Malicious destruction of hardware and Software
 Malicious destruction of network resources, and sabotage

Data security provide security, integrity and safety of information systems

The following are the major security threats and the control measures for each case
1. Information system failure
Which include
 Hardware failure’
 Unstable power supply due to brownout and black out
 Network break down
 Natural disaster
 Program failure
Control measures include:
 Protecting computer against blackout and brownout using the UPS
 Disaster recovery systems involves establishing offsite storage of an organisations
databases
2. Threats from malicious program
They affect the smooth running of a system, carry out illegal activities such as secretly
collecting information from the user
Some of the common malicious programs include
 Boot sector virus – Destroy booting information of storage media
 File viruses – Attach them to files
 Hoax viruses – Come as email with attractive messages and launch themselves when
email is opened
 Trojan horse – They appear to perform useful functions but again undesirable
activities in the background
 Worms – Malicious program that self-replicates hence clogs the system memory and
storage media.
 Backdoors – Maybe Trojan or a worm that allows hidden access to the computer
system
Control measures against viruses
  Install the latest anti-viruses, and make sure they are continuously updated
 Scan removable storage Medias before using them
 Scan mail attachments for viruses before opening them
3. Physical theft
Refers to physical theft of computer hardware and software
This can be controlled by employing security guard, Reinforce access points to building,
motivate workers, insure the hardware resources
4. Privacy
Is a form of intellectual property theft which means illegal copying of software, information
or data. Illegal copying of information and data are protected by copyright and patent laws.
Control measures against privacy
 Enforce laws that protect the owners of data and information against privacy
 Make software cheap enough to increase affordability
 Use licence and certificates to identify original number
 Set installation password that deter illegal installation of software
5. Fraud
Refers to stealing by false pretence. Fraudsters can be company employees, and Non-
existence Company that purports to offer internet services.
6. Sabotage
Illegal destruction of data and information with the aim of crippling service delivery. It’s
carried out by disgruntled employees and competitors with the aim of causing harm to an
organisation.

The following are some of the computer related crimes that compromise data privacy or
confidentiality
a) Eavesdropping
Refers to tapping into communication channel to get communication which is common with
hawkers
b) Surveillance
Refers to monitoring use of computer system and using background programs such as
spyware and cookies, of which information is then gathered for sabotage
c) Industrial espionage
Refers to spying on a competitor to get information that can be used to cripple the
organization
d) Accidental access
Threats to data and information may come to people unknowingly
e) Hacking and cracking
A hacker gets unauthorised access to data and information for fan
A cracker gains unauthorised access to data and information for malicious reasons.
They both violate the security and confidentiality of data.
f) Alteration
Refers to the illegal modification of private or confidential data with the aim of misusing
users.

CONTROL MEASURES AGAINST UNAUTHORISED ACCESS

Firewall
A device or software system that filters the data and information exchanged between different
networks by enforcing the host networks access control policy. Firewall monitor and control
access to or from protected networks. People who don’t have permission (remote access)
cannot access the network and those within cannot access firewall restricted sites outside
their network.
Data encryption
Refers to reconstruction of original message into a form that only the sender and receiver can
understand. The data is then send in a particular order called algorithm or key and sent as
ciphertext
Data decryption
Refers to using a reverse algorithm to the one used during encryption called decryption key to
get the original plain text document
Security monitors
Are programs that monitor and keep a log file record of computer system and protect them
from unauthorised access.

Biometric security
Involves taking the user’s attributes such as voice, fingerprints, and facial recognition for
example swapping a finger to log on.

POLICES AND LAWS THAT GOVERN INFORMATION SECURITY

ICT related acts in Kenya
For example the science and technology act, Cap. 250 of 1997. This is an act of parliament
incapable of dealing with information security
Kenya ICT policy
For example the National information & Communication Technology ICT policy. Which is a
national ICT policy that seeks to address information security.
United Kingdom Data protection Act 1998
This protects an individual privacy in the UK
United Kingdom computer misuse act 1990
This makes computer crimes such as hawking a criminal offence.
Family Education rights and privacy Act (USA)
Is a USA federal law that protects the privacy of student education records.
Copyright and software protection laws
Hardware and software are protected by either national or international copyright, designs
and patents laws or acts