STABILITY

 Swing Equation

 Synchronous Machine Models for Stability

Studies

 Steady State Stability – Small Disturbances

 Transient Stability – Equal Area Criteria

 Application to Three - Phase Fault

 Numerical Solution of the Swing Equation

 Multi-machines Transient Stability

Stability

The property of the system which enables the

synchronous machines of the system to respond to a
disturbance from a normal operating condition so as
to return to a condition where their operation is again
normal.

FD FR If the forces tending to

hold the machines in
synchronism with one
another (FR) are sufficient
FD ≡ Disturbing force to overcome the disturbing
FR ≡ Recovering force
forces (FD), the system is
said to remain stable.
3 types of stability studies:
Steady-state
The ability of the power system to regain synchronism
after small and slow disturbances e.g. gradual power
changes.

Dynamic
It concerns with small disturbance lasting for a long
time with the inclusion of automatic control devices.

Transient
It deals with the effects of large, sudden disturbances
e.g. the occurrence of fault, the sudden outage of a
line or the sudden application or removal of loads.
 The stability problem is same in nature.

 They differ only in the degree of detail used to

model the machines.

 In dynamic stability studies, The excitation

system and turbine-governing system are
represented along with synchronous m/c models
which provide for flux-linkage variations in the
m/c air-gap.

 Steady-state stability problems use a very simple

generator model which treats the generator as a
constant voltage source.

To examine the stability of the system under

incremental variations about an equilibrium point.
Review: Chapter 3

Ia

ZS
E
V 0
E
V
Z = R + jX,
for a pure reactance, Z=jX and = 0.
Ia

Where, is the rotor angle

Review: Chapter 3 – the behavior of synchronous machine
Starts =0

Increase driving torque

Machine accelerates
Rotor mmf advances wrt resultant mmf

increases
Machine delivers electrical
At some value of , Pe = Pm
power

Further increase in driving torque…?

Pe? What would be the
will advance further than 90
consequence?
 The operating point occurs where the electrical
power output of the generator Pe is balanced
with the mechanical power Pm.

Pm Pe

 A change in the angle away from the operating

point will result in a power imbalance, which
acts to accelerate or decelerate the rotor.

 Pmax point is the maximum power possible

from the generator.
 0 – 90 is the steady state operating range in a
stable mode.

 90 – 180 is the unstable operating region.

 At maximum power:

 Maximum power occurs at = 90 ; hence,

Pmax is the steady state stability limit.
 The transient stability analysis refers to the
immediate effects of transmission line
disturbances on generator synchronism.

 The three types of transient disturbances of

importance:
o Load changes
o Switching operation
o Faults in subsequent circuit isolation
 During the fault:

◦ The electrical power from the nearby

generators is reduced and the power from
the remote generators remains relatively
unchanged.

◦ The resultant differences in acceleration

produce speed differences over the time
interval of the fault.
◦ The fault clearing removes one or more
transmission elements and weakens the
system.

◦ The change in the transmission system

produces change in the generator rotor angles.

◦ If the changes are such that the accelerated

machines pick up additional load, they slow
down and a new equilibrium position is
reached.

◦ The loss of synchronism will be evident within

one second of the initial disturbance.
Power system phenomena

Frequency Operation,
Power
Changes Planning
Swings

Switching
Surges

10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 10 102 103 104 105 107

1 cycle 1 Min 1 Hour 1 Day 1 Week

 Switching surges
– one cycle duration: studied using the
electromagnetic transient stability program

 Power swing
– a few cycles: transient stability program

 Frequency changes
– a few minutes to one hour

 Operation and planning issues

– several days to years
Objective

 This study is needed to ensure that the system

can withstand the transient condition following
a major disturbance.
Applications

 The desired nature of relaying system

 Critical clearing time of circuit breakers

 Voltage level and transfer capability between

the systems.
 To determine whether or not the rotor of the
machines being perturbed return to constant
speed operation.

– this means that the rotor speeds must

depart at least temporarily from the
synchronous speed when the machine is
subjected to perturbation.
Subdivided into:

First-swing stability
Based on a reasonably simple generator model
without representation of control systems.

Usually the time period under study is the first

second following the system fault. If the machines of
the system are found to remain in synchronism within
the first second, the system is said to be stable.

Multiswing stability
Extend over a longer study period and therefore must
consider the effects of generator control systems
which affect the machine performance during the
extended time period.
 E∠ V∠0º REVIEW:
Zs∠ Synchronous machine connected
to an infinite bus

S3 = 3VI*a

Increases in , causing the m/c

to deliver electric power.

When <<<, then cos =1

The flow of reactive power is

governed by the difference in |E|
If Ra is neglected: and |V|, which is achieved by
generator excitation system.
Under normal operating condition
 The relative position of the rotor axis
and the resultant magnetic field axis is
fixed.

During any disturbance condition

 The rotor will decelerate and accelerate
wrt. the synchronously rotating air gap
mmf, and a relative motion begins.

Swing equation
 The equation that describes the above
relative motion.
Stability
 If after the oscillatory period, the rotor locks
back into synchronous speed, the generator
will maintain its stability---

- if the disturbance does not involve any net

change in power, the rotor will return to its
original position.

- If the disturbance is created by a change

in generation, load, or in network conditions,
the rotor comes to a new operating power
angle relative to the synchronously revolving
field.
 Fr ≡ field mmf
Fr Fsr ≡ resultant air gap mmf
Fs ≡ armature mmf
n
Fsr E ≡ no-load generated emf
Ear ≡ armature rxn voltage
Esr ≡ on-load generated emf
E = V + [Ra + j(Xl+Xar)]Ia
r
E = V + [Ra + jXs]Ia

E
Zs = Ra+jXs
r Ear
jXarIa
m Fs Esr Ia
V
jXlIa E V Load
RaIa
Ia
  At steady state operation, neglecting losses
Tm = Te Te – electromagnetic torque
Tm – driving mech. torque
During disturbance,
Tm > Te or Tm < Te

Hence, the accelerating/decelerating torque on the

rotor, Ta = Tm - Te

where, J ≡ combined moment of inertia of the prime

mover and generator.
m ≡ angular displacement
sm ≡ constant angular velocity or synchronous speed
m ≡ rotor position before disturbance
 Rotor angular velocity,

 Rotor acceleration,

 In terms of power,

 Swing equation in terms of electrical power angle,

 in radians;
power in per unit

where

in degree;
power in per unit
 The m/c is modeled with a
E’ Vg V
ZL constant voltage E’ behind the
direct axis transient reactance –
X’d

The substation bus voltage and

ZS frequency are assumed to
remain constant ≡ infinite bus.

Vg is eliminated by converting
the Y-connected impedances to
E’ V an equivalent :
I yy112 I2
1 2

2
1
yy110 y
y2 20
0 0
The equivalent circuit with internal voltage at node 1
and the infinite bus at node 2
E’ V
I1 yy12
12 I2

2
1
yy10
10 y
y20
20
ZS and ZL are predominantly
E’ Vg V
inductive; hence, if ZL
resistances are neglected,
then

11 = 12 = 90º; ZS

Y12 = B12 = 1/X12

E’ V
Pe = |E’||V|B12|cos( -90 ) yy12
I1 12 I2

2
1
The simplest form of power flow yy10
10 y
y20
20
equation
 Steady-state stability limit, = /2
beyond which, the m/c will
accelerate causing loss of
synchronism with infinite bus bar.

Power angle curve Pe = Pmaxsin

The gradual increase of the generator power output is

possible until maximum electrical power is transferred.

The maximum power is referred to as the steady state

stability limit and occurs at an angular displacement of
90 .
 When the generator is suddenly short
circuited, the current during the transient
period is limited by X’d .
X’d

Ia
Neglecting saliency, voltage E’
E’ Vg behind the reactance X’d:

E’ = Vg + j X’dIa

E’ is assumed to remain constant due to the field

flux linkage will remain constant during the initial
disturbance because of the field winding has a small
resistance.
 P = 3|V|(Iqcos + Idsin )

Recall Chapter 3:
P = 3|V||Ia|cos

|Ia|cos = ab + de
= Iqcos + Idsin

P = 3|V|(Iqcos + Idsin )
|E| = |V|cos + XdId

= |V|cos + Xd|Ia|sin( + )

|V|sin = XqIq
= Xq|Ia|cos( + )
= Xq|Ia|(cos cos - Idsin sin )
 E’q

The approximate behavior of the

synchronous m/c during early part of
the transient period.

Comparing with at steady state condn.

(a) With saliency neglected, the voltage behind
transient reactance is

The transient power-angle is given by:

(b) When the saliency effect is considered, the initial steady state power
angle given by (11.33) is
a) Neglecting the saliency effect b) Including the effect of saliency

4.032

δ(k) = 110.01

When including the effect of saliency, analyze:

0 < δ < 90 and when 90 < δ < 180

During sudden impact, when δ swings from its initial value to

the maximum value for marginal stability, the overall effect of
the sin2δ has the tendency to average out to zero. Hence,
sin2δ term is often ignored in the approximate power-angle
equation.
 The steady-state stability refers to the ability of the power
system to remain in synchronism when subjected to small
disturbances.

 Assumptions:
- the disturbances causing the changes disappear. The
system is free and stability is assured if the system returns
to its original state.

Such a behavior can be determined in a linear system by

examining the characteristic equation of the system.

- The automatic controls e.g. voltage regulator and

governor are not active.

- The actions of governor and excitation system are

considered for dynamic stability.
 The swing equation is a non linear function
E’ Vg V power angle:
ZL

ZS

For a small disturbances, the swing equation may be linearized with

little loss of accuracy.

When: δ = δ0 + δ

is small, cos 1 and sin

Substituting in (11.38):
The solution of the above second order equation depends on the root of
the characteristic equation:

When Ps is negative:
One root will be in the right-half s-plane The response is exponentially
increasing and stability is
lost.
When Ps is positive:
Two roots will be in the j-ω axis The motion will be oscillatory and
undamped. The system is
marginally stable with a natural
frequency of oscillation of:

Power angle curve

Ps = dP/dδ is positive lies

between 0 - 90 with a maximum value
at no-load (δ0 = 0).
Damping Torque
When there is a difference in angular velocity between the rotor and the
resultant rotating air gap field, induction motor action will take place
between them, and a torque will be set up on the rotor tending to minimize
the difference between the two angular velocity – damping torque

The damping power: The damping coefficient D is determined

from design or by test.
Additional damping torques are caused by the speed/torque
characteristic of the prime mover and the load dynamic (not considered
here).

When the synchronizing power coefficient Ps is positive, due to the

damping power, oscillation will damp out eventually, and the operation at
the equilibrium angle will be restored. No loss of synchronism occurs and
the system is stable.

 Taking into consideration damping, the linearized swing equation:

 ;

;
Underdamped:

;
Swing Equations

n - The natural frequency of - The dimensionless

oscillation: damping ratio:

The characteristic equation:

For normal operating conditions: <1

The roots of the characteristic eqn. are complex:

The damped frequency of the oscillation:

For positive damping, roots of the characteristic equation have negative

real part if synchronizing power coefficient Ps is positive. The response is
bounded and the system is stable.
 A60Hz synchronous generator having inertia constant
H=9.94MJ/MVA and a transient reactance X’d=0.3 pu is connected
to an infinite bus through a purely reactive circuit. Reactances are
marked based on a common system base. The generator is
delivering real power of 0.6pu, 0.8 power factor lagging to the
infinite bus at a voltage of V=1.0pu.

Assume the pu damping power coefficient is D=0.138. Consider

a small disturbance of =10 =0.1745radian. For example the
breaker open and then quickly close. Obtain equations describing
the motion of the rotor angle and the generator frequency.
 The transfer reactance between the generator voltage and the infinite bus:

 The pu apparent power:

 The current:

 The excitation voltage:

 The initial operating angle 0 = 16.79 = 0.2931radian. The synchronizing

power coefficient:
 The undamped angular frequency of oscillation and damping
ratio:

 The linearized force-free equation that determine the mode of

oscillation with in radian:

 The damped angular frequency of oscillation:

 The corresponding damped oscillation frequency:

 The motion of rotor relative to the synchronously revolving field
in electrical degrees:

 The frequency excursion in Hz:

Case 1: The CB opens and quickly Case 2: The input power is
closed, = 10 as a results: increased by P = 0.2pu at
E’ = 1.35pu; V = 1.0pu; = 16.79 E’ = 1.35pu; V = 1.0pu 0= 16.79
 The transient stability studies involve the
determination of whether or not the synchronism
is maintained after the machine has been
subjected to severe disturbance.

e.g. sudden application of load, loss of

generation, loss of large load, or a system fault.

 In most disturbances, oscillations are of such

magnitude that linearization is not permissible
and the nonlinear swing equation must be
solved.

 Equal area criterion is used for a quick prediction

of stability.
 Equal-area criterion method is based on the
graphical interpretation of the energy stored in the
rotating mass as an aid to determine if the
machine maintain its stability after a disturbance.

 This method is only applicable to one-machine

system connected to an infinite bus or a two-
machine system.

 Consider a one-machine system connected to an a

infinite bus. A swing equation with damping
neglected, where Pa is the accelerating power.
 Multiply the equation by
2d /dt and integrate
both sides

Relative speed of the machine

wrt the synchronously
revolving field

For stability, this relative speed must become zero at

some time after disturbance. Thus, stability criterion:
Stability criterion:

 When the m/c is operating at the equilibrium point 0

corresponding to:
Pm0 = Pe0

 A sudden step increase of

input power corresponds to
line Pm1 where Pm1>Pe0 leads
to accelerating power on the
rotor to be positive and the
angle increases.

 The excess energy stored in

the rotor during the initial
acceleration:
 Pm<Pe, energy given up
Stability criterion: by the rotor

Pm=Pe

 With increase in , the electrical

power increases, and when = 1,
the electrical power matches the
new input power Pm1.

 Even though the accelerating power

is zero at this point, the rotor is
running above synchronous speed;
hence, and electrical power Pe will  The result is that the rotor swings to
continue to increase. point b and the angle max, at which
point:
 Now Pm < Pe, causing the rotor to |area A1| = |area A2|
decelerate towards synchronous equal-area criterion.
speed until = max.

 The rotor must swing past point b  The rotor angle would oscillate back
until an equal amount of energy is and forth between 0 and max at its
given up by the rotor masses. The natural frequency until new steady
energy given up by the rotor as it state establishes at point ‘b’ due to
decelerates back to synchronous damping.
speed is
 The equal angle criterion is
used to determine the
maximum additional power
Pm, which can be applied to
maintain the stability.

 With sudden change in the

power input, the stability is
maintained only if area A2 at
least equal to A1 can be
located above Pm.
The limit of stability
occurs when max is at the
 If area A2 < area A1, the intersection of line Pm and
accelerating momentum can the power-angle curve for
never be overcome.
90 180 .


But,

max is determined by solving the above

non-linear equation, using the interactive
technique.
Once max is obtained, the maximum
permissible power or the transient stability
limit is found from:
Pm = Pmax sin 1

where, 1 =( - max)
 Example 11.4
The machine delivers a real power of 0.6 pu, at 0.8 power
factor lagging to the infinite busbar. The infinite busbar is
1.0pu. Determine:
a) The maximum power input that can be applied without
loss of synchronism
b) Repeat a) with zero initial power input. Assume the
generator internal voltage remains constant at the value
computed in a)

From eg 11.2:

Transfer rxtance, X = 0.65pu; Gen.

Internal rxtance, E’ = 1.35pu

a) Initial P0 = 0.6 pu; pf = 0.8 lagging; E’ = 1.35pu; V=1.0pu; X = 0.65pu

obtained from
iterative technique

b) Initial P0 = 0 pu; E’ = 1.35pu; V=1.0pu; X = 0.65pu

 Assumption:
- Pm = constant
- M/C is operating steadily F
- Delivering power to the system at 0

When fault is at the sending end of the line, point F,

no power is transmitted to the infinite bus.

 Since the resistance is neglected, Pe is zero,

power-angle curve corresponds to the horizontal axis.

 The m/c accelerates with the total Pin as the

accelerating power:
n increases;

storing added KE;

increases
 Assumption:
- Pm = constant
F

When the fault is cleared at 1, shifting

the operation to the original power-angle
curve at point e:
 The net power is decelerating, KE reduces
to zero at point f.
 Pe > Pm, the rotor continues to decelerate
and the path is retraced along the power-
angle curve passing through point e and
a.
 The rotor oscillates back and forth
around 0 at its natural frequency.
 The inherent damping, oscillation
subsides and the operating point returns
to 0.
Assumption:
- Pm = constant
- M/C is operating steadily F
- Delivering power to the system at 0

The critical clearing angle is A2 decelerating energy

reached when any further A1 accelerating energy
increased in 1 causes:

Area A2 < Area A1

It occurs when max, point f, is

at the intersection of line Pm
and curve Pe.

c = critical clearing angle

Assumption:
- Pm = constant
- M/C is operating steadily
- Delivering power to the system at 0 F

Application of equal-area criterion

To find the critical clearing angle for the
m/c to remain stable.

Critical clearing time is determined by

solving the non-linear swing equation.

For cases where during fault Pe equals

zero, an analytical solution for critical
clearing time can be obtained.

c = critical clearing angle

 Assumption:
- Pm = constant
- M/C is operating steadily
- Delivering power to the system at 0

When fault is at some distance away from the sending

end.
 The equivalent transfer reactance between the busbar is
increased, lowering the transfer capability.

 The operating point shifts to point b of curve B.

Pm > Pe storing added KE; increases

Fault is cleared say at 1, the

operating pt shifts to e of curve C.
Pm < Pe ; previously stored energy
reduces to 0 at pt f.

Pe > Pm ; rotor decelerates

Rotor angle will oscillates around e at its

e at its natural frequency.
 Assumption:
- Pm = constant
- M/C is operating steadily
- Delivering power to the system at 0

The critical clearing angle is A2 decelerating energy

reached when any further A1 accelerating energy
increased in 1 causes:

Area A2 < Area A1

It occurs when max, point f is at

the intersection of line Pm and
curve Pe.
 Find the swing equation when a three-phase
fault occurs on the power system at a point
on one of the transmission lines at a distance
of 20% of the line length away from the
sending end terminal of the line.
Recall: Circuit II Theory/Signal and System – Network stability.

A circuit is stable if its impulse response h(t) is bounded ( i.e h(t) converges to
a finite value) as t ∞

A circuit is unstable if h(t) grows without bound as t ∞

Since the transfer function H(s) is the Laplace transform of the impulse
response of h(t):
j

The roots of N(s) = zero are called the zeros of H(s). o

The roots of D(s) = zero are called the poles of H(s).
x x

H(s) must meet two requirements in order for the above o

equation to hold:
- The degree of N(s) must be less than the degree of D(s).
j
- All the poles of H(s) must have negative real parts, i.e. the
poles must lie in the left hand of the s plane. x

An unstable cct. never reaches steady state because the x

0
transient response does not decay to zero. The steady-state
analysis only applicable to stable circuits.
m