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Overview on Additive
Manufacturing Technologies
B y F l av i a na C a l igna no , D i eg o M a n f r e di , E l is a Paol a A mbrosio , S a r a B i a m i no ,
M a r i a nge l a L omba r di , E l eonor a A t z e n i , A l e s s a n dro S a l m i , Paol o M i n e t ol a ,
L uc a I u l i a no , a n d Paol o F i no

ABSTRACT  | This paper provides an overview on the main Table I  Astm classifications (2012) [2]
additive manufacturing/3D printing technologies suitable for
many satellite applications and, in particular, radio-frequency
components. In fact, nowadays they have become capable of
producing complex net-shaped or nearly net-shaped parts in
materials that can be directly used as functional parts, including
polymers, metals, ceramics, and composites. These technologies
represent the solution for low-volume, high-value, and highly
complex parts and products.

KEYWORDS  | 3D printing; additive manufacturing (AM);

electron beam melting (EBM); fused deposition modeling (FDM);
material jetting; power-bed fusion; selective laser melting (SLM);
stereolitography (SL); vat photo-polymerization

I.  I N T RODUC T ION

Developed in the 1980s, additive manufacturing (AM),
known as Rapid Prototyping [1], is defined by the American
Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) as “ The process of
joining materials to make objects from 3D model data, usu-
ally layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufactur-
ing methodologies; Synonyms: 3D printing, additive fabri-
cation, additive process, additive techniques, additive layer
manufacturing, layer manufacturing, and freeform fabrica-
tion.” [2] According to the ASTM, the range of AM tech- produced by AM technologies have some anisotropy in a
nologies is classified into several categories (Table I): binder particular direction due to stacking layers. Anisotropy can
jetting, material jetting, direct energy deposition, sheet be reduced by selecting the appropriate orientation during
laminations, material extrusion, powder bed fusion, and the manufacturing of the part.
vat photo-polymerization [2], [3]. Each category includes In terms of materials, a diversity of polymers, ceram-
several distinct processes, but all of them share the princi- ics, metals, and composites can be used for AM. The use of
ple used for the selective modelling of the layers. The parts these materials is conditioned on the type of AM process
used [4].
The first applications of AM were in the area of rapid pro-
Manuscript received June 17, 2016; revised September 12, 2016;
accepted October 31, 2016.
totyping and then tooling. These application areas continue
F. Calignano, D. Manfredi and E. P. Ambrosio are with the Istituto Italiano di to be exploited, but the growing performances of AM tech-
Tecnologia, Center for Sustainable Futures - CSF@PoliTo, Turin 10129, Italy
(e-mail: [email protected]).
nologies have expanded the fields and are thus increasingly
S. Biamino, M. Lombardi and P. Fino are with the Dipartimento di Scienza used for the direct production. Industries such as aerospace,
Applicata e Tecnologia, Politecnico di Torino, Turin 10129, Italy.
E. Atzeni, A. Salmi, P. Minetola and L. Iuliano are with the Dipartimento di
in which the need to produce highly complex aircraft com-
Ingegneria Gestionale e della Produzione, Politecnico di Torino, Turin 10129, Italy. ponents makes the application of AM technologies ideal, are
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/JPROC.2016.2625098

0018-9219 © 2016 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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Calignano et al . : Over view on Additive Manufac turing Technologies

already fully aware of their potential and are investing in Recently, the ASTM International Technical Commit-
research to improve their reliability and applicability [4], [5]. tee F42 on Additive Manufacturing (AM) Technologies has
In the medical sector, applications highly personalized in released the F2792 document about Standard Terminology
orthodontics, prosthetics, orthotics, implants, and replace- for AM Technologies to distinguish between the diverse
ment organs produced by AM process are already at a certain processes and classify them according to standard terms.
level of maturity and use [6]. In recent years, there have been In the ASTM F2792, FDM is classified under the category
applications of AM technologies also in the radio-frequency of Material Extrusion processes, distinctly from 3DP that
(RF) field to develop a next-generation of microwave and mil- belongs to the Binder Jetting type.
limeter-wave devices aimed at several applications operating In its physical principle, the FDM process is very sim-
from few to hundreds of gigahertz, among which are millim- ilar to the one of the hot glue gun and relatively simple.
eter-wave wireless communications systems for gigabit wire- A filament of polymeric material is softened and melted
less local area networks, wearable sensors, automotive colli- with the aid of heat and is extruded, i.e., pushed and
sion avoidance, high-resolution imaging systems, and satellite forced through a nozzle of reduced diameter and then
communication, and RF MEMS devices [7–12]. deposited layer by layer on the building platform or bed
AM and traditional manufacturing face off the trade-offs [14]. The filament has a standard diameter of 1.75 mm
in the deployment of productive capabilities. AM has the or 3 mm and is supplied by spools. The most common
potential to reduce waste, reduce lead time and cost, and FDM machine has a standard Cartesian structure and an
to design products with complex parts. In addition, the AM extrusion head. The filament is unrolled from the spool
allows building objects that are assembled by reducing the by means of a stepper motor and a set of gears, knurled
overheads associated with documentation and production pulleys, or screws that pinch and press the filament to
planning [13]. Furthermore, by eliminating tools, the design push it through a guiding PTFE tube into the extrusion
of parts can be realized with the same specifications of the head. In some configurations, the filament feeding mech-
parts made with traditional technologies but with less mate- anism is not fixed on the machine case but is positioned
rial. Additive techniques enable rapid response to markets just above the extrusion head and moved with it. In the
as the possibility to produce on demand the spare parts, latter case, the filament is pulled along the PTFE guiding
reducing or eliminating the need for stockpiles. tube by the feeding mechanism and then pushed into the
This paper reviews the AM techniques suitable for many extrusion head (Fig. 1).
satellite applications and, in particular, RF components. The extrusion head has up to three extruders. Each
extruder has a chamber that is heated by means of electrical
II.  A DDI T I V E M A N U FAC T U R I NG resistances, so the filament softens inside it and with a cer-
T EC H NOL O GI E S tain viscosity passes through the nozzle next to the chamber.
The nozzle is interchangeable and has an orifice of standard
Currently, the techniques mostly investigated for satellite
size, which ranges from 0.3 mm to 0.6 mm according to the
applications are material extrusion, material jetting, vat
machine or manufacturer. The nozzle presses the extruded
photopolymerization, and powder-bed fusion.
material on the building platform, so the gap between the
nozzle and the bed corresponds to the thickness of the build-
A. Material Extrusion ing layer. For this reason, setting the correct nozzle height
The process of fused deposition modelling (FDM​​​​​ TM​​) and levelling the bed is very important.
consists in the extrusion and subsequent deposition of a
molten filament of polymeric material. It was invented by
Scott Crump and patented in 1989. Crump together with his
wife Lisa founded the company Stratasys Inc., which is the
worldwide leader for the FDM technology and top manufac-
turer of industrial FDM systems.
After the expiration of Crump’s patent, the diffusion
of FDM technology was boosted by the development of a
wide variety of low-cost FDM machines. Nowadays these
machines are popularly called 3D printers. Actually the
term 3D printing is erroneously adopted for the FDM pro-
cess, because the Three-Dimensional Printing technology
(3DP​​​​​ TM​​), originally developed at the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology (MIT) in 1993, was marketed by Z Corp.
3DP is different from FDM, since it deposits a liquid binder
onto thin layers of powder to create parts layer by layer
(inkjet printing technology). Fig. 1. Scheme of the FDM process.

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The FDM machine is a computer numerical control (CNC) • 

ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) is the most
system governed by a main electronic board. The CNC unit common thermoplastic used for making anything
controls the three Cartesian axes in speed and position through from musical instruments to automotive compo-
rotating speed and steps of stepper motors. With the control of nents. It can be recycled and prints on PET film with
the stepper motor of the feeding mechanism, the filament feed a light acetone/ABS top coat. ABS adheres well, so
and extrusion conditions can be set, together with a closed- high printing speeds are possible. ABS is difficult
loop control of the temperature in the extruder chamber. Open because it tends to warp off the build platform when
source machines allow the user to edit the NC code that is writ- printing large parts. This can be remedied by using
ten in ISO standard and contains the coordinates of the points a heated bed. ABS filament is available in different
for the trajectories of the extrusion head. The G1 code is used to colors.
define the point-to-point motion along straight lines, whereas • 
PLA(PolyActic Acid) is thermoplastic aliphatic poly-
M codes deal with other functions, such as the filament feed- ester derived from renewable resources, like corn
ing, extruder heating, or the nozzle wiping. starches, so it is biodegradable and compostable.
Low-cost FDM machines are generally equipped with It is affordable and easy to use. PLA adheres to
a single extruder, and the bed and working chamber are at itself well, so high printing speeds are possible. It
room temperature. The machine setup is often manual in is dimensionally stable, and it can be used with-
case of calibration operations or material change. Industrial out the need for a heated bed. It is harder than
FDM systems are equipped with a hot bed and hot working ABS, but it exhibits higher friction, thus it is more
volume together with advanced mechatronics systems for prone to extruder jams. However, this is more than
improved positioning accuracy and higher speed of motion compensated for its lower viscosity when molten.
of the extrusion head. The system setup is automatic, and PLA is susceptible to heat and moisture and is not
the material change is fast because the filament is supplied ideal as long-term outdoor use or high temperature
in chipped cartridges. For most of the industrial FDM sys- environments. When it is heated, the moisture
tem, the NC code is not open and the job preparation is absorbed from the air can turn to steam bubbles,
made by means of proprietary software. Industrial systems which can interfere with correct processing with
come with at least two extruders. One extruder is used to certain extruder designs. Just as ABS, it comes in a
deposit the building material for the part; the other deploys good range of colors.
a soluble material for supporting hollows shapes and over- • 
HIPS (High Impact PolyStyrene) is a low-warp ther-
hanging surfaces. After fabrication, the support material is moplastic filament. It is easy to paint and glue and
removed by drowning the build for some hours in a chemi- one of the lightest FDM materials. It is available in a
cal bath that dissolves the supports. wide range of colors, and it is often used for prepro-
The price of FDM machines starts from less than 1,000 € duction prototypes because of its great dimensional
for self-assembly kits up to more than 200,000 € for an indus- stability. From the point of view of processing prop-
trial system with a working volume of half of a cubic meter. erties, it is very similar to ABS. However, the two
As concerns the materials (Fig. 2) available for the FDM materials work with different solvents: limonene for
process, the most commonly used ones are listed in the HIPS and acetone for ABS. So HIPS can be used as a
following. support material due to limonene not affecting ABS.
HIPS supports can be easily torn from the ABS, leav-
ing an even finish behind.
• 
P C (PolyCarbonate) is a strong engineering polymer
with high impact resistance for parts submitted to
loads. It also has good temperature resistance. PC
tends to warps significantly more than ABS or PLA,
so the use of a heated bed is imperative. A heated
bed of above 60 °C can overcome any problem of
delamination. Moreover, PC is very hygroscopic and
absorbs moisture from the air, and this can cause
problems during processing. PC comes in black,
white, and clear colors.
• 
PA (PolyAmmide) is commercially and popularly
renown as Nylon. Blends of different kind of poly-
amide with undisclosed contents and a wide variety
of properties are available on the market. Prints are
Fig. 2. FDM materials. Source: Stratasys [20]. flexible and wear-resistant. Unlike ABS and PLA,

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PA is less brittle and therefore stronger. PA has self- Table II  Common processing temperature for different FDM materials
lubricating properties, which are useful for fabricat-
ing gears or nuts for screws. Being a semicrystal-
line thermoplastic, PA shrinks more than the other
materials when it cools down after the deposition of
each single layer. For this reason, it tends to warp
more than ABS and PLA, and bed adhesion is more
problematic. The use of a heated bed and heated
building volume is advised.
Recently, some new technical polymers with improved
performances were developed, such as:
•  PVDF (PolyVinyliDene Fluoride) is characterized by
an excellent resistance to creep and fatigue, radia-
tion, and UV, an excellent thermal stability (being
able to work between ​− ​20​​ °​  C​ and ​+​130​​  °​  C​) and a
high dielectric constant. In addition, thanks to its
chemical stability, it is often employed as insulation
and protection cover in chemical applications.
•  PEEK (PolyEtherEtherKetone) is a high-performance Stratasys, which is the marked leader for industrial FDM
semicrystalline thermoplastic able to show high systems, proposes a range of materials (Fig. 2) to cover dif-
strength and stiffness as well as high ductility. For ferent applications (Table III). For some of these materials,
these reasons, it can replace aluminium and steel in anisotropy is indicated with respect to the building orienta-
structural applications, offering reduced total weight tion. Apart from commodity polymers, some engineering
and processing cycles. In addition, PEEK, being polymers are available, such as PPSU (polyphenylsulfone) or
chemically resistant to aggressive environments, ULTEM, a polyetherimide that in the grade 9085 is certified
offers increased durability and possibility of steriliza- for aerospace (Table III). Other engineering polymers are also
tion for medical and food contact applications. available. For example, the Arevo [15] company sells three
•  PEI (PolyEtherImide) is an amorphous, high-per- different filaments: a PAEK (Polyaryletherketone), a PEEK
formance polymer with excellent thermal proper- (Polyetheretherketone), and a PARA (Polyarylamide), even
ties, exceptional dimensional stability (low-creep with ESD properties for electronic or aerospace applications.
sensitivity and low, uniform coefficient of thermal Finally, the IGUS Company [16] developed a tribo-
expansion), inherent flame retardancy, and good filament commercially named Iglidur​​​​​ TM​​, with a declared
chemical resistance. In addition, PEI has consist- resistance to abrasion that is 50 times higher than that of
ent surface resistivity, long-term hydrolytic stabil- common 3D printing materials.
ity, high strength and modulus, even at elevated The surface roughness of FDM parts is deeply affected
temperatures, good resistance to a broad range by the layer height of the prototypes, depending also on the
of chemicals, such as automotive fluids, fully shape of the part and surface curvature with respect to the
halogenated hydrocarbons, alcohols, and aqueous building orientation [17], [18]. This parameter could be main-
solutions, stable dielectric constant, and dissipa- tained at its lower value so that better roughness values are
tion factor over a wide range of temperatures and obtained, but this would take a great deal of time. Your ideal
frequencies. Generally, it presents characteristics layer thickness will depend on your part and application. For
similar to PEEK but with lower impact strength, example, thick layers are ideal for building large manufactur-
usable temperature (it performs in continuous use ing and parts quickly when surface finish is not a priority.
up to 170 °C), and cost. The FDM process is one of the few additive manufac-
Process temperature for the above-listed materials is turing technologies that enables the fabrication of multi-
indicated in Table II. Those temperatures may vary depend- material parts in a unique build by using more than one
ing upon the specific material composition. The rule of extruder. The use of a soluble material for supports allows
thumb is that the higher the extrusion temperature, the the manufacturing of integrated assemblies with parts hav-
lower the viscosity, i.e., the material flows more easily, and ing relative motion or live hinges, provided that the proper
a higher deposition speed can be used. allowance and clearance are assigned to the mating parts in
The commercial price of FDM filaments is approxi- the computer-aided design (CAD) model [19].
mately forty times that of the raw material. The ratio can be As it concerns the process accuracy, the quality of the
even higher for materials with specific composition (fiber parts depends on the building orientation, on the layer
reinforcement or fillers) or particular aesthetics properties thickness, and on the feature size [21-24]. In terms of ISO
(glossy, glowing, translucent). IT grades, smaller features and dimensions have generally

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Table III  List of the Commercial Materials by Stratasys

a worst dimensional accuracy (above IT13), whereas large Station with a sealed 3D printer to prevent outgassing in the
features are dimensionally more accurate (below IT12) environment of the space station [44]. Nonetheless, there
[25]. These results can vary according to the material and are no studies about the lifetime and deterioration of poly-
machine used and are affected by the adopted layer thick- meric materials over time when exposed to orbital radiation.
ness and nozzle size.
FDM parts can be polished to improve the smoothness B. Material Jetting
of the part surface, whether it is painted or metal plated. In the material jetting process, developed in 1984, the
Unconventional finishing processes might also be employed 3D models are created through the use of movable inkjet
to improve the superficial finishing [26-28]. A wide range of print heads that jet photopolymer onto a build platform
applications in different sectors are reported for the FDM (Fig. 3). The droplets are ejected selectively as one or more
technology in the literature [29-37], and the use of ceramics print heads move across the build area [13].
materials for FDM has also been investigated [38-40]. The drop-on-demand technique is usually used to eject
FDM has been recently addressed as the most promis- the drop, which obtains a high accuracy in the positioning,
ing and sustainable additive technology for in-space manu- low waste, small droplet size and wider availability of mate-
facturing applications [41-43]. The use of a solid filament rial. The material deposited is cured by using UV (ultravio-
is an advantage in a vacuum or microgravity environment, let) light. The model is produced layer by layer. Substances
where powder beds or liquids cannot be used as raw materi- used in material jetting are typically materials having a vis-
als. A first experiment was made on the International Space cous nature capable of forming the drops as photopolymers

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Fig. 3. Scheme of the material jetting process.

or wax-like materials. To facilitate jetting, materials must

be heated to pass from the solid state to the liquid, trying
to reduce the viscosity that otherwise would not allow the Fig. 4. Multimaterials in one print. Source: Stratasys [20].
outflow of the jet. For this reason, it is common practices to
use solvents or other low viscosity components in the fluid.
It is possible to deposit materials of different colors and tinted lenses and rubber overmolding. Material jetting tech-
hardness in the same part, thus creating components with nology can produce prototypes with multiple materials and
different properties and characteristics. The process requires colors in a single, automated build, so it is ideal for sporting
support structures for overhangs. The supports are usually goods designers.
built in a different material. Along with the selected model
materials, a gel-like support material facilitates successful
printing of complicated geometries. Support material can be C. Vat Photopolymerization
removed using a sodium hydroxide solution or water jet. Vat photopolymerization is defined as “an additive
The material-jetting printers can produce parts with res- manufacturing process in which liquid photopolymer in a
olution on the order of 10-​30 μm​, making the layers barely vat is selectively cured by light-activated polymerization”
noticeable. The scientific literature shows that process vari- (F42.91, ASTM Subcommittee, 2012). The most common
ables, such as print head speed, droplet velocity, and droplet vat photopolymerization process is the Stereolithography
frequency, may influence the quality of the deposition [45- (SL). SL was the first commercial AM system, developed in
52]. However, the photoactive compounds tend to exhibit 1884 by Charles Hull who then founded 3D System Corpo-
high absorption loss for electromagnetic waves, making it ration in 1986 [54].
less desirable for electromagnetic applications [53]. The input data in the SL process is the 3D CAD model
The postprocessing required is limited due to the high of the part to be fabricated, converted into the STL file for-
accuracy of the process, and the aesthetic and functional mat. Since SL is a liquid-based process, there is no structural
qualities of a part are determined during the printing stage. support during the building phase. Thus, SL usually requires
The main commercial applications for inkjet printing additional support structures. These structures are specified
remain in graphics, product marking, coding, and dating. In by the operator in the part preparation phase along with
recent years, there has been considerable interest in techno- the positioning and orientation of the part in the building
logical areas, such as aerospace and defense, architecture, volume and other machine parameters settings. Then, the
commercial products, consumer products (Fig. 4), automo- model is sliced to generate 2D sections from 0.025 mm to
tive, medical, entertainment, and sport. 0.5 mm thick, and this information is transferred to the SL
Over the last decade, aerospace innovators have pushed machine to fabricate the part. It is important to note that
3D printing beyond the realm of prototyping into advanced basically SL can process a single material, and also support
tooling and production applications. Polymers were devel- structures are made from the same material of the part. The
oped to print parts commonplace on aircraft and spacecraft. basic principle of the SL process is the polymerization of a
By combining oral scanning, reverse engineering (RE), and photosensitive resin. The SL process starts when the build-
3D printing, it is possible to produce crowns, bridges, stone ing platform is lowered from the top of the polymer vat by a
models, and a range of orthodontic appliances quickly and layer thickness (Fig. 5). Then, an ultraviolet laser is used to
accurately. Sporting goods prototypes often require a com- selectively cure the resin, converting it into a layer of solid
bination of rigid and flexible materials, such as a helmet material. Thereafter, the platform is lowered again and a
hard shell and padded interior, or a pair of ski goggles with new layer is built on the top of the previous one.

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Fig. 5. Vat photopolymerization process.

Commonly, a blade is used to provide a smooth resin

layer. The process is repeated until completion of the
part [46]. When the process is completed, the platform is Fig. 6. (a) Star Weave pattern, the red line identifies the contour,
raised and removed from the machine. During post pro- c is the distance of each scan line from the contour, hs is the hatch
distance, and g is the gap between scan lines. (b) Scan lines overlap,
cessing, the part is cleaned in a chemical bath to remove
d is the scan lines shift between layers.
wet resin, supports are detached, and the part is placed
into a UV oven to complete the curing. In general, in the
SL process the layer boundaries are first created and then Developed in the late 1960s, photopolymers were
the internal areas are irradiated by hatching patterns. applied in several areas, such as coatings, dentistry, or
When the photopolymer is exposed to the UV light and microelectronics. In the 1980s, they were applied to the
solidifies, it shrinks. The volumetric shrinking of the irra- “rapid prototyping” sector. In 1989 and 1990, the first U.S.
diated area induces compression stresses on previous lay- patents on SL resins were published.
ers. As a consequence, part edges curl upwards and other At the beginning of the development of SL technology,
distortions of the part can occur. Moreover, stresses also low molecular weight resins, such as polyacrylate or epoxy
remain in the part as residual stresses. To avoid curl macromers, were used. Parts produced using these mate-
distortion and reduce internal stresses, 3D Systems has rials were primarily glassy, rigid, and brittle. To improve
developed different scan patterns, such as Weave (1990), the mechanical behavior of SL parts, new epoxy-based and
Star Weave (staggered hatch, alternating sequence, hybrid polymers (epoxides with some acrylate content) were
retracted hatch, 1991) and, as further improvement after introduced on the market. In this way, the quality of the built
the development of epoxy photopolymers, ACES (Accu- part was increased, because such materials are more insensi-
rate, Clear, Epoxy, solid parts, 1996). In the Star Weave tive to humidity and shrinkage [56]. Besides, there is also the
pattern (Fig. 6), after the exposure of the contour, each possibility to fabricate pseudo-elastomeric objects by using
scan line is retracted so that it is attached to only one bor- a combination of specific resins with nonreactive diluents,
der; orthogonal scans are carried out along x​ ​ and ​y​ axes, such as N-methylpyrrolidone (NPM) or water [57]. Moreo-
and scanning sequence for x​ ​and ​y​axes is alternated from ver, it is also possible to create polymer-ceramic composite
layer to layer; moreover, scan lines in alternate layers are objects simply suspended ceramic particles, such as alumina
staggered so that scan lines overlap gaps between scan or hydroxyapatite, in the SL resin [58-60]. Table IV lists the
lines of the previous layer. The basic idea of the ACE pat- properties, process details, and typical application for some
tern is that of curing each layer by multiple scans. During of the most common materials used in SL [61].
the first scan, the penetration depth does not reach the The main advantage of the SL process is its ability to
previous layer and more material is cured. Subsequent fabricate parts with smooth surfaces and high level of accu-
scans then complete the bond to the previous layer. In racy. The average superficial roughness (​​R​a​​​) is typically
such a way, a 98% of solidification is reached with mini- below ​10 μm​, and the accuracy ranges from 0.025 mm to
mum distortion [55]. 0.05 mm per 25.4 mm of part dimension. These values may

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Table IV  List of the most common materials used in SL.

vary depending on build parameters, part geometry and size, has evolved from SL to fabricate small-size, high-resolution
part orientation, and postprocessing methods. The differ- parts based on a light-induced polymerization of a liquid
ent SL machines have building volume from small to large resin [63], [64]. Two basic approaches are used:
(up to ​1500 × 750 × 550​mm3). The SL process is relatively
• 
D ynamic mask method systems. A liquid crystal
quick; however, it often requires support structures, which
mask is used to expose the layer surface in one step.
adversely affect the surface quality touched by them, and
The resolution is limited by pixel size and diffrac-
long and labor-intensive postprocessing operations. SL parts
tion effects.
can be further processed by finishing operations to improve
• 
Scanning MSL systems. Similarly to SL, a laser spot is
the aesthetic appearance. Thus, parts can be sanded to elim-
focused on the layer surface. To get a better resolution
inate the support marks and painted. Also the range of mate-
than SL, the spot size is reduced to a few micrometers
rials is wide enough to meet the need of different users, from
(scanning MSL systems). Several opto-mechanical
general purpose materials to materials for specific applica-
scanning solutions have been developed to maintain
tions. To overcome the limitations in mechanical properties
uniform characteristics of the laser spot and thus pro-
of SL parts, a metallization process can be applied to the
duce micro-features with high resolution [65].
surfaces of the component. Thus, the strength of SL parts is
enhanced, while maintaining a low weight, and functional Multiple material stereolithography (MMSL) uses dif-
parts are obtained [9], [62]. Microstereolithography (MSL) ferent materials while building a piece. To do this, when

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Calignano et al. : Over view on Additive Manufac turing Technologies

the material has to be changed, all the resin is drained,

and the new material is filled. A material build schedule
is required [66].
SL technology is applied in many industries, including
the aerospace sector, to produce functional components
in a cost-effective and quick manner and the production of
prototypes for automotive design verification and functional
testing. Complex functional electronic and electromechani-
cal systems can be produced by integrating additive AM
technologies with systems able to 1) insert, by process inter-
ruption, electronic components into cavities specifically
designed in the AM structure; 2) dispense different mate-
rials depending on the functionality (i.e., conductive inks
[67]); and 3) embed electronic components within polymer
substrates during fabrication [68].
MSL is used for the fabrication of microelectrome- Fig. 7. Selective laser melting machine.
chanical system (MEMS) components [61]. The biomedi-
cal applications of SL are numerous. However, the SL
technique is not yet extensively used in the medical field. D. Selective Laser Melting
3D models can be built from medical imaging data (x-ray Selective Laser Melting (SLM) process (Fig. 7) has been
CT scanners or RMI) to give an understanding of the developed by Dr. M. Fockele and Dr. D. Schwarze of F & S
shape, orientation, relative location, and size of internal Stereolithographietechnik GmbH, with Dr. W. Meiners, Dr.
structures. The dimensional accuracy and surface qual- K. Wissenbach, and Dr. G. Andres of Fraunhofer ILT to pro-
ity of SL models derived from x-ray tomography has been duce metal components from metallic powders. It is a pow-
proven to be reliable enough to be used in applications der bed fusion process that uses high intensity laser as an
such as diagnosis, surgical planning, design of customized energy source to melt the powder layer by layer in accord-
implants, or teaching surgical anatomy and biomolecular ance with the computer-aided design (CAD) data.
structures [69-72]. The implantation of patient-specific The SLM process consists of a series of steps from CAD
devices has been also reported in literature; in tissue engi- data preparation to the removal of fabricated component
neering, the development of biodegradable polymers has from the building platform. Before the 3D CAD data are
allowed the preparation of restorable scaffolds for tissue uploaded to the SLM machine, the STL (Standard Tessel-
generation [56], [73]. lation Language) files have to be processed by software to
The most widespread clinical application of SL in den- provide support structures for any overhanging features and
tistry has been in the fabrication of surgical templates to to generate slice data (2D cross-section) for laser scanning
assist in dental implant planning and placement [74]. Other of individual layers. The building process begins with lay-
applications include the fabrication of clear plastic ortho- ing a thin layer of metal powder on a substrate plate in a
dontic treatment devices (aligners) and the production of building chamber. After the powder is laid, a high-energy
maxillary/mandibular prosthesis [75]. density laser is used to fuse selected areas according to the
Due to the evolution of SL toward microfabrication, processed data. Once the laser scanning is completed, the
this technique can be applied in the chemical engineering building platform is lowered, a next layer of powder is depos-
field for the production of microtransducers, micropumps ited on top, and the laser scans a new layer. The process is
in microfluidic applications, or micro heat-exchangers with then repeated until completion of the components. During
internal channels dimensions of millimeters. Thanks to the the SLM process, due to the high temperatures necessary
high-resolution and smooth surface finish of SL parts, this for melting, the parts are built under a controlled oxygen
AM technique is used in filmmaking to create solid objects atmosphere by using an inert process gas, argon or nitrogen,
from digital models for visual special effects and to fabri- to prevent oxidation and other problems that can impact
cate characters and props in stop-motion films. In design mechanical properties of the finished part [76].
application, SL is the tool used by the designer to fabricate In SLM, laser power, scanning speed, hatching distance,
conceptual prototypes to communicate ideas to manufactur- and layer thickness are the common process parameters
ers or to physically visualize parts characterized by intricate adjusted to optimize the process. These parameters affect
undercuts, small features, and overhangs with the aim to the volumetric energy density that is available to heat up
push the boundaries of the computer-aided design. SL tech- and melt the powders, mechanical properties, and surface
nology can be used for the production of functional end-user roughness of the parts produced. When heating and melting
performance prototypes also in the field of packaging and occur, heat capacity and latent heat are heavily dependent
sporting goods (protective athletic cups). on the material and proportional to the mass to be melted.

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Calignano et al . : Over view on Additive Manufac turing Technologies

Cobalt-chrome-molybdenum-based superalloys are char-

acterized by excellent mechanical properties, corrosion, and
temperature resistance. Over the years cobalt-chromium-
molybdenum (CoCrMo) was used in biomedical applications,
dental restorations, and orthopedic implants (body joints and
fracture fixation applications) because it is the hardest known
biocompatible alloy along with good corrosion resistance,
good tensile, and fatigue properties [90, 94-97].
Nickel-based superalloys (Inconel, Rene alloys, etc.) are
Fig. 8.  Diagram of the hatch angle.
adopted for part of aircraft turbine engines, high-speed air-
frame parts, high-temperature bolts and fasteners, and for
nuclear engineering due to the improved balance of creep,
A combination of low laser power, high scanning speed, and damage tolerance, tensile properties, and corrosion and oxi-
large layer thickness generates usually an insufficient energy dation resistance [98].
that often produces a balling phenomenon due to lack of Aluminium alloys are of major interest for lightweight
wetting of molten pool with the preceding layer [77]. Ball- applications in aerospace and automotive sector. AlSi10Mg
ing phenomenon is detrimental to the forming quality. In is an age-hardenable cast alloy with good mechanical prop-
addition, poor hatch spacing often results in regular poros- erties. Castability and weldability are good as a result of the
ity in built parts as adjacent melt lines do not fuse together composition being close to eutectic Al-Si. Age hardening is
completely. enabled by Mg, which raises strength by Mg2Si precipita-
The laser scanning strategy used in the creation of each tion sequence. Due to these reasons, AlSi10Mg is a good
layer influences the thermal gradients inside the part with candidate for SLM. Process parameters, support struc-
consequences on the properties of the finished part [78- tures, resulting microstructure and mechanical properties,
81]. The main scanning patterns (Fig. 8) include hatches and surface roughness have already been under thorough
in arrays of parallel stripes, spirals, contours from the outer research for this alloy [99]–[103].
edge of a part to the center, and zig-zagging tracks [78–79, The tensile strength of parts produced by SLM in tita-
81]. The choice of any of these scanning strategies requires nium alloys (typically Ti6Al4V) can be higher than the
the specification of some process variables, such as scan one of parts produced by conventional machining. Many
spacing between neighboring passes of the laser [76], [78]. properties of Ti6Al4V are restricted by the phases (​α​ and​
Some degree of overlap between adjacent melting zones is β​) of the microstructure that are controlled by phenomena
desired to ensure that the material is fully dense. in solidification. As a result, the properties of Ti6Al4V are
It is intuitive that re-coat process parameters, such as greatly affected by the process of solidification. A significant
recoater type, recoater velocity, powder dosing, and layer amount of research has been conducted in the fabrication
thickness, have an impact on the density of each layer and of Ti6Al4V alloy parts by using SLM process, which is an
on the finished part properties [76, 82–84]. ideal material for aerospace and maxillofacial applications
The SLM process parameters can be useful in improving [104]–[107]. Moreover, titanium provides an exceptional
surface quality [85]–[88] , but it is usually inferior than the corrosion resistance in the physiological environment.
conventional manufacturing. For this reason, various post-
processing techniques, including sand blasting, machin-
ing, etching, electro-polishing, and plasma spraying, are
employed. However, it is not always possible to use these
techniques on certain complex parts.
The alloys currently available for this process include
stainless steel, cobalt chromium (Co–Cr alloys), Ni-based
alloys, aluminium (Al-Si-Mg alloys), and titanium (Ti6Al4V
alloy). Maraging steels (combination of martensite and
aging) have good properties like high strength and tough-
ness, good weldability, and dimensional stability during
aging heat treatment. Mainly, they are used in the aircraft
and aerospace industry in which superior mechanical prop-
erties and weldability are the most important features, and
in tooling applications that require superior machinability
[89]. Stainless steel 316L is among the most investigated
for SLM due to its wide applications in marine, biomedical Fig. 9. The PowerGripper, which mimics a bird©s beak, employs
equipment, and fuel cell [90]–[93]. Watt©s linkage as a motion principle. Source: Festo.

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Calignano et al. : Over view on Additive Manufac turing Technologies

SLM technology offers the possibility of creating com- ­ owadays multi-beam machines have been already devel-
n
plex architectures inspired by biological systems. Fig. 9 oped and commercialized by Arcam, too. Up to now, more
shows an example. The lightweight structures on the inte- than 150 EBM machines have been installed worldwide
rior and exterior of the PowerGripper, developed by Festo both in universities, research centers, as well as indus-
[108], are designed considering the forces acting on the tries. Besides Arcam, there are some research centers and
component and can be produced only in this form by means universities that are contributing to the development of
of the metal laser melting. The PowerGripper is modelled EBM technology for specific application fields [111].
on the complex kinematics of the bird’s break. Thanks to the higher energy density with respect to SLM
technology, EBM generally allow the processing of higher
E. Electron Beam Melting thickness of each powder layer (even higher than 100 μ ​ m​);
In the Electron Beam Melting (EBM) process, a high however, when growing at a high-production rate, the part
power (around 4 kW) electron beam is used as the power suffers of an inferior surface, finishing as drawback [112].
source instead of a laser, which can be used only on conduc- Thanks to the higher thickness of each powder layer and
tive metals. The process may also be referred to as Selective a typical particle size, distribution of the powder stays in the
Electron Beam Melting (SEBM) or Electron Beam Addi- range 45-​150  μm​, which is a particle size distribution big-
tive Manufacturing (EBAM). The fact that the energy per ger than that used in SLM. Karlsson et al. [113] reported a
volume unit (energy density) is higher than that for laser study that evaluated the effects of using a smaller particle
equipment and that the management of the electron beam size of the powder (25–​45 μm​): the material properties were
is controlled by electromagnetic coils allow for an increased not affected so that when a smaller grain size of the powder
melting capability, thus leading to a higher productivity was used, there may be the chance to improve the surface
with respect to SLM machines. finishing of the part even if it reduces the part’s productiv-
The scheme of the EBM process is shown in Fig. 10. ity. According to this subject, the EBM process typically
Arcam in Sweden is the only company that developed and resulted in lower resolutions and higher surface roughness
commercializes the EBM machines [109]. with respect to SLM. Up to now, the surface roughness of
The first patent, which describes a process in which a an EBM part is always around 30-​50 μm​in Ra [114]. Similar
conductive powder is melted by an electric beam in a layer- to roughness, in literature, there is an effort to try to also
by-layer way to produce a 3D component, was recorded improve the geometric accuracy of EBM parts as described
in 1992 [110]. However, only in 2002 the first commer- in Smith et al. [115].
cial EBM system was developed by Arcam. Several kinds Similar to SLM, the powder can be recycled in the EBM
of commercial EBM machines are available today and process, and some works are present in literature about the
investigation of powder recyclability in an EBM process. For
example, Tang et al. [116] and Petrovic et al. [117] evaluated
the effects of powder recycle times on Ti6Al4V, and it seems
while the SLM chamber in an inert atmosphere that many
builds with recycled powder can be done without significant
alteration.
One of the fundamental differences between SLM and
EBM powder bed processes is that the EBM chamber works
in a vacuum atmosphere (around ​1 × ​10​​ -5​​ mbar), thus
reducing any contamination picked up during the process.
This reduced level of contaminations is particularly useful
when processing reactive materials, such as titanium alloys
or gamma titanium aluminide intermetallic alloys.
Another important difference is that the electron beam,
thanks to its high scanning rate, allows a general preheating
of the powder (depending from the processed material, even
up to 1100°C) before melting, which is a central point to
reduce the thermal stresses of the component that is grow-
ing [111]. This results in a stress-relieved component, thus
limiting the risk of crack formation and the production of
not very ductile, or even brittle, materials, such as gamma
titanium aluminide intermetallic alloys [118]–[121].
Speaking of the industrial market of EBM, two main
fields may be pointed out as also appearing on the ARCAM
Fig. 10.  Scheme of the EBM process (Courtesy of Arcam). website [109]: aerospace and orthopedic implants.

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Calignano et al . : Over view on Additive Manufac turing Technologies

In relation to the route opened in the aeroengine sector

with EBM and titanium aluminide components production,
the automotive field might also be interested. Baudana et
al. [137] evaluated the feasibility of titanium aluminide tur-
bochargers for the automotive engine.
Other interesting applications of EBM in the aerospace
sector that speak about complex components feasibility and
testing are analyzed in the scientific literature [138], [139].
Liang et al. [138] proved the feasibility of an EBM and elec-
trical discharge machining (EDM) combined method to
produce shrouded blisks. EBM was used to generate a near-
Fig. 11.  Ti6Al4V implant (acetabular cup) with surface design shape component of the final shrouded blisk, and EDM was
improved for osseointegration (Courtesy of Arcam).
used for finishing. The part is made of Ti6Al4V, and the
evaluated mechanical properties are considered promising.
The required blade accuracy was achieved, and through the
With regard to orthopedic implants, EBM is used to combination of EBM and EDM method, the machining time
produce parts, such as acetabular cups, knee, maxillofa- of the shrouded blisk was greatly reduced. Tang et al. [139]
cial plates, hip, jaw replacements, etc. that are CE certi- designed and proved the feasibility with the EBM technol-
fied since 2007 and gaining the approval from the United ogy of a honeycomb rotor with hexagonal cone-shaped pore
States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) since 2010 channels for oil and gas separation. The part is also made of
[122–126]. Ti6Al4V.
Nowadays, more than 40.000 titanium acetabular cups As it is possible to see, Ti6Al4V is a well-established
produced by EBM, with a porous surface for an improved osse- material for EBM technology whose microstructure and
ointegration, have been implanted since April 2014, which is mechanical properties have been broadly investigated and
about 2% of the total manufacture of acetabular cups [111]. already reviewed by [111], [129]. In general, the mechanical
Two of the most used metals for the production by EBM properties of Ti6Al4V fabricated by EBM are comparable to
of orthopedic implants are Ti6Al4V and CrCo, and several the properties of wrought Ti6Al4V and are higher than that
works are present in literature about these two materials of as-cast Ti6Al4V [140].
that have been already well-reviewed by Sing et al. [122] and Other materials evaluated for the EBM process feasibility
Murr et al. [127]. (apart from gamma-TiAl alloys described earler) are nickel
A central point of the suitability of EBM or the produc- superalloys, such as Inconel 718 and Inconel 625, Rene142,
tion of orthopedic implants is its great capability in the man- and CMSX4 [129, 141-144]; Cobalt superalloy [129], copper
ufacture of porous (cellular) metallic structures [128]–[131] [129], [141], [145], stainless steels [111], [146], and CoCrMo
allowing a high regulation of pore size, strut diameter, and [111], [147].
cell geometry. In addition, it integrates different porous Recently, the EBM feasibility has been evaluated also
structures in different parts of a single component. These for pure Niobium. Terrazas et al. evaluated the processabil-
EBM cellular structures have been extensively studied to ity of high-purity niobium powder by EBM with the aim
ensure safe use in the human body: a brilliant behavior in of manufacturing the new generation of superconducting
compression [132], [133], a similar elastic modulus with radio frequency cavities. They are key components of lin-
respect to the human bones [134], [135] as well as a superior ear accelerators that are employed to transmit the energy
biocompatibility with promoting bone regeneration behav- necessary for the acceleration of subatomic particles, such
ior [128] are reported. as electrons [148].
Fig. 11 shows a Ti6Al4V implant (acetabular cup) with a With regard to the modelling of the EBM process,
surface design that was improved for osteointegration pro- different approaches exist. In [149], [150], Korner et
vided by Arcam. al. used the Lattice Boltzman Method (LBM) to calcu-
With regard to aerospace, one of the promising EBM late the temperature reached when processing Ti6Al4V
applications that can be reported is related to feasibility of powder. Nevertheless, this simulation approach is com-
the process for gamma-TiAl alloys [118]–[121]. putationally intensive and consequently not very easy
Actually, General Electric is currently using Ti48Al- to use for the modelling of the entire EBM process. The
2Cr2Nb intermetallic alloy in low-pressure turbine blades second approach is the finite element method (FEM),
of the GEnex gas turbine engine designed for Boeing’s 787 which, considering the powder as a continuum with its
Dreamliner [136]. For this reason, great attention is given own characteristics, seems to be more proper. The FEM
to the possibility of applying EBM for the production of tita- approach is used in [151], [152] to predict stresses and
nium aluminide low-pressure turbine blades in the aeroen- distortions arising during the processing of Ti6Al4V by
gine sector. EBM. Similarly, the FEM approach is used in [153-156] to

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Calignano et al. : Over view on Additive Manufac turing Technologies

calculate the temperature distribution in the powder bed complex-shaped components with relevant physic-­chemical
modelling in the preheating phase of the EBM process as properties is a real challenge [165]. Ceramics present some
well as to determine the influence of different scanning characteristics that limit their processing through AM
strategies during melting. ­methods. They are generally processed as powders, hav-
A central point to fully exploiting AM technologies is ing high melting temperatures; they are brittle materials,
the possibility of not only producing complex parts but also and they have a poor resistance to thermal shocks. For
tailoring different microstructures (with different mechani- these reasons, the direct interaction between a laser source
cal properties) on different zones of a complex component. and ceramic powders is rarely exploited not only for SLM
This will be possible when the correlation among the tran- but also for selective laser sintering (SLS). In fact, in the
sient phenomena of repeated melting, the rapid solidifica- first case, laser energy is not able to reach the high melt-
tion during the process, and the resulting microstructure ing temperatures of technical ceramics. Up to now, the
is well understood, thus achieving an on-the-spot specific only ceramic material processed through SLM is based on
microstructure control within a manufactured part. Just as ­alumina-zirconia eutectic mixtures that allow the reduction
an example, experimental studies are available on the crys- of melting temperatures at 1860 °C (condition reached with
tallographic texture control of Inconel 718 fabricated by a preheating of the highly packed powder bed at 1600 °C in
EBM. Actually, Korner et al. [157] and Dehoff et al. [158] a homemade AM system) [166]. An indirect approach was
described the possibility to control, by changing the scan- often applied for SLM processing, adding to ceramic pow-
ning strategy and/or process parameters, the formation of ders other substances that when interacting with the laser
orientated columnar or near equiassic grains in different develop a glassy phase, which consolidates the final compo-
zones. In some recent studies, Price et al. [159], [160] used nent by embedding ceramic particles. In this case, contrary
infrared thermal imaging techniques to measure the tem- to traditional methods, the chemical composition of the
perature distribution on the surface of the melt pool for ceramic system is modified during processing that in turn
microstructural engineering. influences the final properties of the parts (generally lower),
Although the control of the microstructure can be and no pure materials can be processed.
achieved experimentally by a trial-and-error correction of As stated, SLS processing of ceramic parts is also hardly
the process, this might require enormous and time-consum- feasible due to difficulties with consolidating them by
ing work. However, in this regard, modelling of the process, exploiting sintering mechanisms. In general, ceramic den-
as described earlier, has the potential to be a powerful tool, sification requires high green density and long duration
thus reducing the number of experimental trials. The works isotherms necessary for material diffusion at high tempera-
of Raghavan et al. [161] and Vastola et al. [162] are recent tures, whereas in SLS systems, ceramic powders are gener-
examples of this on Inconel 718 and Ti6Al4V, respectively. ally poorly packed (for their low flowability) and the process
Recently, also multimaterial components were fabri- does not last enough to completely sinter them [165].
cated by EBM and the joining interfaces were characterized. Up to now, the only AM technology able to realize dense
Hinojos et al. [163] explore the feasibility of the EBM pro- ceramics with interesting mechanical features is based
cess of Inconel 718 powder on top of a 316L stainless steel on SL: obviously in this case the liquid resin is filled with
substrate and vice versa. ceramic particles, with solid contents of 40– 65 vol%, and
Another particular and interesting exploitation of the a sintering post-treatment is necessary to obtain the final
EBM process that is worth mentioning is reported by Hossain part [167]. The exploitation of ceramic suspensions allows
et al. [164]. They demonstrated that it is possible to use EBM the processing of submicrometric and nanometric particles,
technology to produce energy system components containing adding dispersant and other substances to avoid agglomera-
embedded piezoelectric sensors for in situ monitoring. In this tion phenomena and to control liquid viscosity [165], [167],
paper, an interesting stop-and-go procedure was developed to reachinch high green densities. To burn out the polymeric
achieve the goal of implanting piezoelectric ceramic sensors resin present in green components at the end of the print-
within metallic components at a specific height. The metallic ing, it is necessary to carry out a debinding thermal treat-
component, built by EBM, contained a predesigned cavity for ment prior to sintering. This step is very ticklish; therefore,
sensor placement within the part. The fabrication process was customized thermal cycles must be defined on the basis
stopped at a desired height for sensor placement and allowed of the used resins, because gaseous species could develop
to continue until the part was complete. and create cracks and pores in ceramic walls, inducing part
­failure [168].
In the case of SL technology, some commercial solutions
III.   E M ERGI NG T EC H NOL O GI E S for ceramic materials are actually available, such as the sys-
Among the AM emerging technologies, the ones that are in tems developed by Lithoz [169] or, starting in September
development to realize fully dense monolithic ceramic sam- 2016, by Admatec Europe BV [170]. These machines are
ples are not yet largely exploitable. In fact, in the case of able to cure the ceramic suspensions starting from a thin
ceramic materials, at the moment, the possibility to create slurry layer deposited on a glass and building the part not

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Calignano et al . : Over view on Additive Manufac turing Technologies

fully immersed in the liquid feedstock, thus lowering the

process costs and consumption of raw materials.

I V.   S AT EL L I T E A PPL IC AT IONS
Supported by the recent developments of design optimi-
zation tools and manufacturing capabilities, components
and parts produced using AM are emerging in the space
industry. Decisive factors in the space industry are the
weight reduction (every ounce saved is an ounce that does Fig. 12.  Eurostar E3000 bracket (Source: Airbus Defence and Space
not have to be launched into space) and how the compo- Ltd [171]).
nent performs under extremely harsh conditions in space
and during the launch procedure. Therefore, the compo-
nent does not only have to be light but also extremely stiff. Airbus Defence and Space has developed a new bracket
Another factor is that these parts for satellite applications in titanium alloy: the entire structure can easily withstand a
are typically made of materials that are hard to machine span of 330°C under a force of 20kN.
and are made in low quantities. A key simulation technol- FDM technology was also used for microwave applica-
ogy being leveraged to shorten the design cycle for AM tions to develop planar and nonplanar conformal antennas.
is Topology Optimization, a nonparametric optimization In particular, the dielectric layers and the metallic structures
technique that identifies and removes areas of a design of the antennas are printed via multimaterial AM systems:
space not contributing to the stiffness of the part or to the FDM of thermoplastic polymers with micro-dispensing of
part load path. conductive inks [172].
The current generation of satellites includes specific
brackets that serve as a link between the body of the satel-
lite and the reflectors. By combining topology optimization V.   CONCLUSION
techniques with AM technologies, new brackets are actually AM technology has begun to show great potential and advan-
produced as structural brackets for Eurostar E3000 (Airbus tages in many industrial fields by providing an efficient solu-
Defence and Space) telecommunications satellites manu- tion to producing low volume, customized products with
factured from aluminium alloy (Fig. 12). In contrast to the complex geometries using materials with properties com-
previous bracket that consists of four parts and 44 rivets, the parable, if not higher, to those obtained using traditional
AM bracket is a single piece obtained by laser melting and manufacturing.
has a weight 35% lower than that of the previous component Despite the fact that some additive technologies, such
and an increase in stiffness of 40%. as the SL process, were introduced many years ago, the
RUAG Space, in conjunction with Altair ProductDesign, research and development work is still ongoing to try to
has developed an antenna bracket (40 cm long) in alumin- fine-tune the various AM technologies and understand the
ium alloy that is one of the longest metal components ever physical phenomena associated with them during the crea-
produced using laser melting technology. tion of the part, to expand the usable materials, and explore
the fabrication of complex integrated systems.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Flaviana Calignano was born in Nardo Á, he lectured for the master course Materials for Cutting Tools in the
Italy, in 1976. She received the M.Sc. in 2005 Materials for Precision Manufacturing module. Since 2010, he joined
in management and industrial engineer- the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia. His research activity in the Addi-
ing and the Ph.D. in 2008 in industrial pro- tive Manufacturing/3D Printing research line of Center for Sustainable
duction systems engineering, both at the Futures CSF@POLITO is now focused on lightweight structural and
Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy. functional components for various applications fabricated through
From 2005 to 2011, she worked on the additive manufacturing.
virtual reality in the study of facial morphol- Dr. Manfredi holds one patent, and is the author and/or co-author of
ogy, wed-based interactive 3D models for three book chapters, more than 35 papers in international journals, and
the design and training, virtual machines for 40 communications to national and international scientific conferences.
simulation of machining, reverse engineer-
ing, and workability of aluminium alloys. She
joined the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT) in 2012. Her research activity Elisa Paola Ambrosio was born in Turin,
in the Additive Manufacturing/3D Printing research line of the Center for Italy, in 1976.
Sustainable Futures CSF@POLITO is focused on designing complex parts After earning the M.Sc. degree in 2000
to be fabricated through additive manufacturing (AM), on the study and in industrial chemistry at UniversitaÁ degli
the definition of design rules for AM, and on the final surface optimization Studi di Torino, she worked as a Failure
of the parts after 3D printing. Analysis Engineer at International Rectifier
Dr. Calignano holds one patent and is the author and/or co-author of in activities focused on the electrical and
three book chapters, one monograph, one review, 28 papers in interna- structural characterization of semiconduc-
tional journals, and 30 communications to national and international sci- tors. In January 2005, she joined the Mate-
entific conferences. rial Science and Chemical Engineer Depart-
ment at Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy,
and received the Ph.D. degree in 2008 in
Diego Manfredi was born in Turin, Italy, materials science and technology. The research activities focused on the
in 1978. He received the M.Sc. in materials synthesis and characterization of catalyst supports for Proton Exchange
engineering (summa cum laudae) and the Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC), on the preparation and characterization
Ph.D. degree in materials science and tech- of Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) for aerospace application and on
nology at Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy, the characterization of SiC foams and carbon derived polymeric resins.
in 2003 and 2008, respectively. Since March 2010, she joined the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT). The
From January 2008, he worked with research activity in the Additive Manufacturing/3D Printing research line
a two-year Postdoctorate Fellowship in of Center for Sustainable Futures CSF@POLITO now focuses on the mate-
the Materials Science and Chemical Engi- rials optimization and development for the Direct Metal Laser Sintering
neering Department at Politecnico di (DMLS) technique.
Torino on metal matrix composites and Dr. Ambrosio holds one patent and is the author and/or co-author
alloys for aerospace applications. In Octo- of two book chapters, more than 20 papers in international journals,
ber 2009, he was an Invited Professor at SUPSI (Scuola Universitaria and about ​40​communications to national and international scientific
Professionale della Svizzera Italiana) in Manno, Switzerland, where conferences.

18  Proceedings of the IEEE

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Calignano et al. : Over view on Additive Manufac turing Technologies

Sara Biamino was born in Asti, Italy, in 1977. Prof. Atzeni is the author of more than 50 articles and conference
She received the M.S. degree in chemical proceedings. Her research interests include additive manufacturing (AM),
engineering from the Politecnico di Torino High Speed Machining (HSM), self-piercing riveting, and FEM process
(Italy) in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in simulation. Dr. Atzeni's awards include the Best Young Scientist Award at
materials science and technology from the the 4th International Conference on Additive Technologies (iCAT) in 2012
Politecnico di Torino in 2005. and the Best Paper Award at the International Conference on Innovative
From 2002 to 2010, she was a Research Design and Manufacturing (ICIDM) in 2014.
Assistant; from 2010 to 2014, she was Assis-
tant Professor; and since 2014, she has been
Associate Professor of Materials Science and Alessandro Salmi was born in Torino, in
Technology with the Department of Applied 1978. He received the B.S. and M.S. degrees
Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino. in mechanical engineering from the Politec-
She is scientifically responsible for or coordinates several research projects nico di Torino, Italy, in 2004, and the Ph.D.
involving industries (both EU projects, regional projects, and direct contracts degree in production engineering from
with companies). In the last ten years, she gained experience in the field of Politecnico di Torino in 2008.
intermetallics, in particular TiAl alloys, additive manufacturing technologies From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research
for metals, Ni-superalloys, heat treatment setup, ceramic multilayers, and Assistant with the Department of Manage-
metal matrix composites. ment and Production Engineering, Politec-
Prof. Biamino holds three patents, and is the author of 54 publications nico di Torino, and since 2011, he has been an
on refereed international journals and more than 80 conference proceed- Assistant Professor. Dr. Salmi is the author
ings, in the areas of material science and engineering. Prof. Biamino was and/or co-author of one book and more than
awarded with the XVIII Italgas Prize in the section ªDebut in Researchº in 20 papers in international jour­nals and conferences.
2005. His research interests include additive manufacturing (AM), High
Speed Machining (HSM) of Aluminium alloys, and FEM process simulation,
mainly about injection moulding, casting, metal-cutting and AM p
­ rocesses.
Mariangela Lombardi was born in Venosa Dr. Salmi was one of the authors who won the Best Young ­Scientist
(PZ), Italy, in 1980. She received the B.S. and Award at the 4th International Conference on Additive T
­ echnologies (iCAT)
M.S. degrees in industrial chemistry from in 2012.
University of Turin, Turin, Italy, in 2002 and
2004, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in
materials science and technology at Politec- Paolo Minetola was born in Torino, Italy,
nico di Torino, Italy, and at INSA (Institut in 1976. He received the B.Sc. degree in
National des Sciences Appliqu�es) of Lyon, mechanical engineering from the Politec-
France, in 2009. nico di Torino, Turin, Italy and the Universi-
From 2010 to 2011, she was a Postdoc- tat Polit�cnica de Catalunya (UPC), Terrassa,
torate at the Center for Space Human Robot- Spain, in 1998. He received the M.Sc. degree
ics CSHR of Italian Instute, Technology IIT@ in mechanical engineering in 2003 and the
POLITO, Turin, Italy. From 2011 to 2014, she was an Assistant Professor Ph.D. degree in production systems engineer-
with the Department of Applied Science and Technology at Politecnico di ing in 2006, both from Politecnico di Torino.
Torino. Since 2014, she has been an Associate Professor with the Depart- From 2006 to 2015, he was an Assistant
ment of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino. Her scien- Professor at Politecnico di Torino. He is an
tific activity concerned materials science and technology aspects related Associate Professor with the Department of
to the preparation and characterization of dense and porous ceramics, Management and Production Engineering (DIGEP), Politecnico di Torino.
dense and porous polymer matrix composites, and additive manufactured His research interests include 3D printing, additive manufacturing (AM),
metals. 3D scanning, reverse engineering, and metrology.
Prof. Lombardi is the author or co-author of eight book chapters and Prof. Minetola is the author and coauthor of over 40 papers published
more than 55 articles, including publications in international journals and in national and international conference proceedings and scientific jour-
international conferences proceedings. She is a member of the European nals. He is a member of the Scientific Committee of the Interuniversity
Powder Metallurgy Association and was one of the authors who won the Centre CIRTIBS of the University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy. In
Best Biannual Paper Award published in the Journal of the European 2015, he won the first prize in ªThe Cubesat Challenge,º a design chal-
Ceramic Society (2009-2010). lenge promoted and sponsored by Stratasys Vertical Solutions − Aero-
space about the optimization for additive manufacturing of the structure
of small research satellites.
Eleonora Atzeni was born in Torino, in
1974. She received the B.S. and M.S. degrees
in mechanical engineering from the Politec- Luca Iuliano was born in San Maurizio
nico di Torino, Italy, in 2001, and the Ph.D. Canavese, Turin, Italy, in 1961. He received
degree in industrial production system engi- the B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical engi-
neering from Politecnico di Torino in 2005. neering from the Politecnico di Torino, Turin,
From 2001 to 2005, she was a Research Italy, in 1985.
Assistant with the Department of Manage- From 1990 to 1998, he was an Assis-
ment and Production Engineering, Politec- tant Professor with the Department of
nico di Torino. Since 2005, she has been an Manufacturing Systems and Econom-
Assistant Professor with the Department of ics, Politecnico di Torino. From 1998 to
Management and Production Engineering at 2001, he was an Associate Professor at the
Politecnico di Torino. same institution. Since 2001, he has been

Proceedings of the IEEE   19

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Calignano et al . : Over view on Additive Manufac turing Technologies

a Full Professor with the Department of Management and Production to 2014, he was an Associate Professor with the Department of Applied
Engineering, Politecnico di Torino. His research interests include High Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino. Since 2014, he has been
Speed Machining (HSM) and nonconventional machining of Ni-based a Full Professor with the Department of Applied Science and Technol-
superalloys and Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs), reverse engineering (RE), ogy, Politecnico di Torino. His research interests include development
additive manufacturing (AM), and Rapid Manufacturing/Tooling (RM/RT). and characterization of ceramic powders and massive materials, metal-
Prof. Iuliano is the author of two Italian books on AM and invest- ceramic matrix composites, ceramic matrix composites and multi-layers,
ment casting and the author and editor of a handbook on foundry. He and structural materials produced through additive technologies.
has published over 70 papers in academic journals and in national and Prof. Fino holds five patents, is the author or co-author of six book
international conference proceedings. He is a member of the Society of chapters and more than 130 articles, including publications on interna-
Plastic Engineers (SPE), the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME), the tional journals and international conferences proceedings.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and the Italian Society Prof. Fino is a member of the Editorial Advisory Board of ªSurface
of Manufacturing Technology (ASME). Modeling and Additive Manufacturingº (Ed. DeGruyter Open, ISSN 2299-
6923), and he was one of the authors to win the award for the most cited
paper in the Chemical Engineering Science Journal during 2003-2006.
Paolo Fino was born in Cuneo, Italy, in 1972.
He received the degree in chemical engi-
neering from Politecnico di Torino, Turin,
Italy, in 1997 and the Ph.D. degree in mate-
rials engineering from Politecnico di Milano,
Milan, Italy, in 2001.
From 2001 to 2003, he was a Research
Assistant with the Department of Material
Science and Chemical Engineering, Politec-
nico di Torino, where from 2004 to 2010, he
became an Assistant Professor. From 2011

20  Proceedings of the IEEE