Hydraulic Performance Evaluation of Harar Water Supply

Distribution System

(Haramaya, Ethiopia)

A Thesis Submitted To Institute Of Technology In Partial Fulfillment Of The

Requirements For The Degree Of

Bachelor In Water Resource And Irrigation Engineering

At The

HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

June, 2016

Advisor: Tessema Kebede (MS.C)

 A thesis submitted to Institute of Technology in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of

Bachelor in Water Resource and Irrigation Engineering

At the

HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

Thesis Group Members:

Name ID No.

1. Bereket Mulugeta 0656/04

2. Biruk Tefera 0714/04
3. Biruk Tesfaye 0721/04
4. Chala Shanko 0746/04
ABSTRACT

The thesis paper focused on the water supply network of Harar town, Ethiopia. The Harar water
supply has eight zonal distribution system among them the paper considered the zone_3
distribution system. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the hydraulic performance of
Harar water supply distribution system with the aid of computer program. To evaluate the
hydraulic performance of existing water distribution system, a model was developed utilizing
EPANET software.

EPANET software was used as tool to model water distribution system. Modeling results showed
violation of maximum and minimum pressure and velocity requirements in the system. The model
analysis result showed the different problems of high pressure and velocity in the distribution
network.

The simulation result indicate that acceptable minimum and maximum pressures have not been
met for case study Zone. During low hour flow and peak hour flow, parts of the distribution system
receive water with low pressure. These results, the distribution system is exposed to leakage and
pipe breakage. The modelling simulation result of velocity shows that both the maximum and
minimum meet the allowable velocity in system during low hour rate and peak hour rate. To
retrieve the situation there is a need of intervene. Modifications in operation and design will
improve the current situation of the case study of water distribution system.

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Acknowledgment
First of all, we would like to give our heartfelt thanks to our almighty God.

It is our great pleasure and heart full thanks to our advisor MS.C. Tessema Kebede; to his
continuous advice based on his provisional knowledge and experience with much closely approach
makes us very much indebted to him.

We would like to give our deep appreciation to MS.C Chali Dereje for giving us constructive
comments, necessary information and documents about the study area and also our appreciation
goes to MS.C Biruk to give us useful guidance during our study.

Finally, we would like to thanks our family, friends and class mates, for their encouragement, and
motivations lasted throughout undertaking our thesis work and for their personal support.

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 Table of Contents

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgment ......................................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. vi
List of Figures............................................................................................................................................ vii
Abbreviation and Acronyms ................................................................................................................... viii
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 General ................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Objective ............................................................................................................................................. 2
1.3.1 General Objective ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.3.2 Specific Objective ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.4 Significance of the Study .................................................................................................................... 2
1.5 Organization of the Study ................................................................................................................... 3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Review of related works ..................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Population Forecasting and Design Period ......................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Design period ............................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.2 Population Forecasting ................................................................................................................. 6
2.2.3 Population growth ........................................................................................................................ 6
2.3 Water Demand .................................................................................................................................... 7
2.3.1 Domestic water demand ............................................................................................................... 7
2.3.2 Per Capita Domestic water Demand ............................................................................................ 7
2.3.3 Non-domestic water demand ....................................................................................................... 8
2.3.3.1 Institutional water demand ........................................................................................................ 8
2.3.3.2Commercial water demands ....................................................................................................... 8
2.3.3.3 Industrial water demands .......................................................................................................... 9
2.3.3.4 Fire-fighting water demand ....................................................................................................... 9
2.3.4 Uncounted for water loss ............................................................................................................. 9
2.3.4 Variation in rate of consumption ................................................................................................. 9
2.3.5 Maximum Day Demand ............................................................................................................. 10
2.3.6 Peak Hour Demand .................................................................................................................... 10

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 2.4 Water Supply System ........................................................................................................................ 11
2.4.1 Types of Water Distribution System .......................................................................................... 11
2.5 Principles of Pipe Network Hydraulics ............................................................................................. 14
2.5.1 Conservation of Mass- Flows Demands .................................................................................... 14
2.5.2 Conservation of Energy ............................................................................................................. 15
2.6 Friction Losses .................................................................................................................................. 16
2.6.1 Hazen – William’s Equation ...................................................................................................... 16
2.6.2 Darcy-Weisbach Formula .......................................................................................................... 17
2.7 Hydraulic Design Parameters............................................................................................................ 17
2.7.1 Pressure ...................................................................................................................................... 17
2.7.2 Flow Rates ................................................................................................................................. 18
2.7.3 Reynolds Number ...................................................................................................................... 18
2.7.4 Water Hammer ........................................................................................................................... 19
3. METHODOOGY .................................................................................................................................. 20
3.1 Study Area ........................................................................................................................................ 20
3.1.1 Location ..................................................................................................................................... 20
3.1.2 Climate and Topography ............................................................................................................ 21
3.2 Source of Data’s................................................................................................................................ 21
3.2.1 System Maps .............................................................................................................................. 21
3.3 Data Modeling Tool .......................................................................................................................... 21
3.4 Hydraulic Modeling Capabilities ...................................................................................................... 22
3.5 Data Analysis and Presentation......................................................................................................... 23
3.6 Model Representation ....................................................................................................................... 23
3.7 Model Calibration and Validation..................................................................................................... 24
3.7.1 Hydraulic Model Calibration ..................................................................................................... 25
3.7.2 Hydraulic Model Validation ...................................................................................................... 25
3.8 General Information about Model Input ........................................................................................... 25
3.8.1 Water Source .............................................................................................................................. 25
3.8.2 Pipes ........................................................................................................................................... 26
3.8.3 Valves ........................................................................................................................................ 26
3.8.4 Reservoir and Tanks................................................................................................................... 26
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................... 27
4.1 Population Forecasting...................................................................................................................... 27

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 4.1.1 Method used by Ethiopian statistics........................................................................................... 27
4.2 Water Demand Projection (Calculation) ........................................................................................... 28
4.2.1 Domestic demand....................................................................................................................... 30
4.2.2 Non – Domestic Demand ........................................................................................................... 34
4.2.3 Uncounted for water loss ........................................................................................................... 36
4.3 Summary of Water Demand ............................................................................................................. 37
4.4 Base Demand Allocation at Nodes ................................................................................................... 38
4.5 Case Study at Zone Three ................................................................................................................. 38
4.6 Pressure and Velocity analysis.......................................................................................................... 38
4.6.1 Scenarios of Hydraulic Performance Evaluation ....................................................................... 38
4.6.2 Scenarios 1: Pressure at low hour rate ....................................................................................... 39
4.6.3 Scenarios 1: Pressure at peak hour rate ...................................................................................... 40
4.6.4 Scenarios 2: Velocity at low hour rate ....................................................................................... 41
4.6.5 Scenarios 2: Velocity at peak hour rate...................................................................................... 42
5. Conclusion and Recommendation ....................................................................................................... 43
5.1 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 43
5.2 Recommendation .............................................................................................................................. 44
References .................................................................................................................................................. 45
Appendix .................................................................................................................................................... 46
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................................. 46
Appendix B ............................................................................................................................................. 49
Appendix C ............................................................................................................................................. 52
Appendix D ............................................................................................................................................. 55
Appendix E ............................................................................................................................................. 58

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List of Tables
Table 1 Number of population and annual growth rate of Harrar town (CSA 2007). .................................. 6
Table 2 Breakdown of Per capita water demand by Purpose (Harrar water supply design project)............. 8
Table 3 peak factor for total water consumption flow rate (Brier, 2007) ................................................... 10
Table 4 Peak Hour Factor ........................................................................................................................... 11
Table 5 Summary of network element in the distribution system............................................................... 26
Table 6 Number of population and annual growth rate of Harrar town (PSC, 2008). ................................ 27
Table 7 Projected populations According to method used by Ethiopia statistics. ...................................... 28
Table 8 the project population of the year 2008, 2012 and 2016. ............................................................... 28
Table 9 Projection of per capita demand .................................................................................................... 29
Table 10 projection of per capital water demand by mode of service for 2008, 2012 and 2016. ............... 30
Table 11 Projection of the Standard of Service (Harar, 2002). ................................................................... 30
Table 12 projection of the percentage of population by modes of services ................................................ 31
Table 13 projected population by mode of service ..................................................................................... 32
Table 14 Projected average domestic demand ............................................................................................ 32
Table 15 socio-economic factor (national water supply and sanitary master plan) .................................... 33
Table 16 Climatic effects factor (national water supply and sanitary master plan) .................................... 33
Table 17 Adjusted domestic water demand ................................................................................................ 34
Table 18 Projected student water demand .................................................................................................. 35
Table 19 Health sector water demand projection of Harar city (Harar, 2002)............................................ 35
Table 20 The projected health water demand ............................................................................................. 35
Table 21 projected Industry demand ........................................................................................................... 36
Table 22 Summary of non-domestic water demand (m3/d) ...................................................................... 36
Table 23 Summary of water demand projection (m3/d) ............................................................................. 37
Table 24 Pressure distribution at low hour flow ......................................................................................... 39
Table 25 Pressure distribution at low hour flow ......................................................................................... 40
Table 26 Velocity distribution low hour rate .............................................................................................. 41
Table 27 Velocity distribution low hour rate .............................................................................................. 42

vi
List of Figures
Figure 1 Schematic of a dead-end distribution system. Source: GONU (2009) ......................................... 12
Figure 2 Schematic of Gridiron Distribution System: Source: GONU (2009) ........................................... 12
Figure 3 Circular or Ring Distribution System: GONU (2009) .................................................................. 13
Figure 4 Radial Distribution System: Source: GONU (2009) .................................................................... 14
Figure 5 Location of Study Area (Global Mapper and Google Earth)........................................................ 20
Figure 6 Model Representations Networks of Zone Three (EPANET). ..................................................... 24
Figure 7 schematic layout of Harar water supply source and distribution. ................................................. 25
Figure 8 Pressure distribution plot during low flow ................................................................................... 39
Figure 9 Pressure distribution plot of peak hour flow................................................................................. 40
Figure 10 Velocity distribution plot during low hour flow ......................................................................... 41
Figure 11 Velocity distribution plot of peak hour flow .............................................................................. 42

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Abbreviation and Acronyms
a.m.s.l. Above mean sea level

CSA Central Statistical Agency

DCI Ductile Cast Iron

FCV Flow control valves

HC House Conection

l/c/d Liter Capita Per a Demand

PF Public Fountain

PVC Polyvinyl chloride

YC Yard Conection

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 HYDRAULIC PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF HARAR WATER SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
The sustainable provision of adequate and safe drinking water is the most important of all public
services. It is one of the essential necessities of life next to oxygen, anything that disturbs the
sustainable provision and supply of water therefore, tends to disturb the very survival of humanity.
Thus “All peoples, whatever their stage of development and their social and economic conditions,
have the right to have access to drinking water in quantities and of a quality equal to their basic
needs”. However, a large population of the world does not have access to a reliable,
uncontaminated, piped water supply.

A distribution network delivers water to consumers through service connections. Such a

distribution network may have different configurations depending upon the layout of the area.
Generally, water distribution networks have a looped and branched configuration of pipelines, but
sometimes either looped or branched configurations are also provided depending upon the general
layout plan of the city roads and streets. Urban water networks have mostly looped configurations,
whereas rural water networks have branched configurations. On account of the high reliability
requirement of water services, looped configurations are preferred over branched configurations.

The population of Harrar town is growing rapidly with expansion of the city. Due to burden on the
water distribution system now it is facing some problems. Analyses of pipe systems using models
are a recent approach to evaluate the performance of water distribution network.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Water supply distribution system are the major problems facing city water works all over the world.
Even though it is a global phenomenon, as Ethiopia is on the way to economic transformation to
industrialization, urban areas are rapidly growing with influx of people increasing the urban
population.

Harar town is the capital of the Harari People Regional State, is the one of ancient town in Ethioia,
a walled part of the town (Jugal) with more than thousand years old and registered as a world
heritage by UNESCO.
The provision of adequate clean drinking water in the study area has been through challenging
situations in the past ten years. The rapid and steady population growth in and around the Harrar

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town, coupled with housing development programs are some of the overriding issues inviting
attention related to the water problem in the study area. According to the 2007 Ethiopian
population census report, the total population of Harrar town was 99,321 and based on Central
Statistical Authority’s forecast the population has increased to 125,512 in 2016 (Ethiopia Central
Statistical Authority 2007). Thus, increased urbanization, population growth, poor city planning,
and shortage of sufficient resources in Harrar town creating combined effect.
Therefore, in the light of the aforementioned problems, this paper will try to assess the distribution
of water supply system in the study area, Harrar town.

1.3 Objective
1.3.1 General Objective
The general objective of this thesis is to evaluate the hydraulic performance of existing water
supply system in Harrar town.

1.3.2 Specific Objective

 To check whether undesirable pressures and velocity in Harrar water supply system
 To understand EPANET software program
 To present possible Recommendations.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The main significance of the study is to understand the problem of hydraulic performance of water
supply system in Harrar town and to recommend the visible measure in systems. The research
findings are also intended to help implementers, as well as policy makers, planners and donors, in
water sector as working document and benchmark data for any further investigation. It will also
be helpful to understand the different barriers, which are being faced by urban households to get
access to and utilization of the available potable water. Thus, the finding of the thesis are
significant for the following reasons:

Increase the knowledge and up to date information on Harrar town water supply systems.
It will also serve as a working document to policy makers in the water sector, the Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGOs), the community and environmental advocates.

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It will further serve as baseline data for any further investigation, as a useful material for
academic purposes, and as an added literature to the existing knowledge.
It can contribute to the optimal use of water by beneficiaries.

1.5 Organization of the Study

The thesis is organized in to five chapter. The first chapter deals with introduction that covers the
statement of the problem, objective of the study and significance of the study. The second chapter
deals about general literature review regarding to the water distribution. The third chapter deals
with methodologies and source of data. The fourth chapter deals with the result and discussion and
also the final chapter deals about the conclusion and recommendation of the study.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review has four sections. The first section deals with the review of several
researchers on water distribution system. The second section present review of population
forecasting and deign period. The third section presents review of water demand analysis. The last
section present review of water distribution system modeling conceptual frame work along with
approaches of model calibration and validation.

2.1 Review of related works

The following are review of scholarly research conducted on related areas:

Several researches have been made to study the behavior of water distribution systems, and to
reach an optimal solutions and assumptions in order to improve the hydraulic performance of the
water supply networks.

Battermann A and Macke S (2001) developed a strategy to reduce technical water losses for
intermittent water supply systems in AlKoura District-Jordan. This work describes the
development of a practical simulation model for the intermittent supply of water. Standard
software is used to implement the model: Arc View GIS and the free hydraulics software EPANET.
The model has been applied to the water supply network of the village Judayta (AlKoura District)
and successfully calibrated with a loggin campaign (Battermann, 2001).

Jarrar H (1998) studied the hydraulic performance of water distribution systems under the action
of cyclic pumping; the results show that the network under consideration is exposed to relatively
high pressure values throughout. The velocity of the water through the network attained also high
values. These high values of pressure and velocity have negative effects on the performance of the
network (H., 1998).

Vairavamoorthy and Lumbrs (1998) studied the leakage reduction in water distribution systems
depending on optimal valve control. The inclusion of pressure- dependent leakage terms in
network analysis allows the application of formal optimization techniques to identify the most
effective means of reducing water losses in distribution systems. They describe the development
of an optimization method to minimize leakage in water distribution systems through the most
effective settings of flow reduction valves (Vairavamoorthy, 1998).

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Masri M (1997) studied the optimum design of water distribution networks. A computerized
technique was developed for the analysis and optimal design of water distribution networks. The
results show that the selection of the hydraulic restrictions should be reasonable and reflects the
real capacity of the water distribution system (M., 1997).

James, Liggest and Chen (1994) made a study about distribution systems. Data about pressure and
flow rate were obtained by continuous monitoring of their system. Transient analysis, time lagged
calculations and inverse calculations were applied as a tool for calibration and leak detection
(Chen., 1994).

Perez, Martinez and Vela (1993) suggested a method for optimal design by considering factors
other than pipe size. Pressure reducing valves were suggested to reduce the pressure in the
downstream pipes (Perez, 1993).

Abdel Latif, M.Y. (2001) assess the hydraulic behavior and evaluate the global performance of
Bani Suhila City water distribution network by developing a computer model for a distribution
network under actual existing and alternative conditions, especially involving intermittent supply.
The performance of the network was evaluated from a hydraulic point view using a systematic,
engineering approach, and the results indicated that the performance was adequate and the system
provided an acceptable level of service based on pressure considerations (Abdel-Latif, 2001).

2.2 Population Forecasting and Design Period

It is necessary to fix the design period and forecast the population of the area in the design of any
water supply scheme. Water supply projects are usually designed for a certain period after the
completion of construction works in order to satisfy the population demand.

2.2.1 Design period

Design period is the number of years for which the design of water works has been done. Before
designing & construction of water supply scheme, it is necessary to assure that the water works
have sufficient capacity to meet the future water demand of the town for the fixed design period.
The design period should be neither long nor short.

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2.2.2 Population Forecasting

After the design period has been fixed, the population of the town in various periods has to be
determined. As population of the area increases in the future, the correct present and past
population data have to be taken form census office to determine design population the area by
considering growth rate of the town.

The following are the common methods by which population forecasting is done:

 Arithmetic increase method

 Geometric increase method
 Decrease rate method
 Incremental increase method
 Graphical method
 Master plan method
 Logistic curve method
 Method used by Ethiopian statistics
2.2.3 Population growth
The 2007 Population and Housing Census results show that the population of Ethiopia grew at an
average annual rate of 2.6 percent between 1994 and 2007—a decrease of 0.2% from the annual
growth rate during the previous period (1984-1994). The highest annual growth rate for the period
(1994-2007) is observed for Gambella Region (4.1), followed by Benishangul-Gumuz (3.0%),
SNNP and Oromia (2.9 %).

The annual rates of population growth for Somali, Harari and Tigray Regions and Dire Dawa City
Administration are also almost the same as the national rate i.e. 2.6. The annual growth rate for
Amhara Region (1.7) is the lowest in the country, while overall, annual growth rates in four other
regions are higher than the national average.

The adapted population and annual growth rate of Harar town are presented on table below.

Table 1 Number of population and annual growth rate of Harrar town (CSA 2007).

Year Population Growth Rate

2007 99,321 2.6

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2.3 Water Demand

The design and execution of any water supply scheme requires an estimate of the total amount of
water required by community. The total amount of water demand is affected by the expected
development of the city, presence of industries, quality of water and its cost, characteristics of the
population and efficiency of the water work administration. Generally speaking in designing the
water supply scheme for a town or city, it is necessary to determine the total quantity of water
required for various purposes. The demand for various purposes is divided under the following
categories.
 domestic water demand
 Commercial water demand and industrial water demand
 Loss due to leaking joints
 Open taps on unauthorized tapping of water
 Fire water demand.
2.3.1 Domestic water demand
The water demand for actual household activity is known as domestic water demand. It includes
water for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, flushing, toilet, etc. The demand will depend on
many factors, the most important of which are economic, social and climatic factors.
Water supply for population is served by the mode of service which is prevalent to most
Ethiopian towns used to be classified in to three major categories as follows:
 House tap users (HTU)
 Yard tap users (YTU)
 Public tap users (PTU)

2.3.2 Per Capita Domestic water Demand

The per capita water demand for various demand categories varies depending on the size of the
town, the level of development, the type of water supply schemes, the socioeconomic conditions
of the town, cost of water, system of sanitation and climatic condition of the area. The per capita
water demand for adequate supply level has to be determined based on basic human water
requirements and adjusted to the specific conditions of each area as required.

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The basic human water requirement for different use could vary based on the mode of service to
be used and the closeness to water supply facilities. The following table shows the composition of
the basic human per capital water demand based on needs for different use adopted for the
estimation of water demand for Harrar town.

Table 2 Breakdown of Per capita water demand by Purpose (Harrar water supply design project)

Ser. No Activity House Private yard Shared Yard Users of public

connected connected connected fountain and
population population population neighbor’s taps
1 Drinking 4 1.5 1.5 1.5
2 Cooking 10 5.5 3.5 3.5
3 Ablutions 15 15 10 6
4 Washing Dishes 10 5 2.5 2
5 Laundry 15 15 9 7
6 House Cleaning 10 4 1
7 Bath or Shower 20 20 5.5
8 Toilets/Flushing 6 4 2
Total 90 70 35 20

2.3.3 Non-domestic water demand

Depending on the relative importance, size, economic conditions of a city, the rate of water demand
will always be associated with non-domestic need also. The various aspects of non-domestic need
will be discussed below.
2.3.3.1 Institutional water demand
This is also known as public demand and it includes the quantity of water required for various
public utility purposes. The water required for various public buildings and institutions, public
parks, playgrounds, gardening, sprinkling on roads etc., will come under this demand.
2.3.3.2Commercial water demands
This consumption includes water used for commercial buildings & commercial centers including
stores, hotels, shopping centers, cinema houses, restaurants, bars, airports and bus stations etc.

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2.3.3.3 Industrial water demands

The water required by factories, paper mills, cloth mills, cotton mills, breweries, sugar refineries
etc. The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of industries, which exist in
the city.
2.3.3.4 Fire-fighting water demand
Fire generally breaks in thickly populated localities, industrial area, and cause serious damages of
properties. Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching
materials explosions, bad iterations of criminal people or any other unforeseen happenings. If fires
are not properly controlled and extinguished in minimum possible time, they lead to serious
damages and may burn the city.
2.3.4 Uncounted for water loss
Defective joints in the main, broken and cracked pipes, defective house connections and faulty
plumbing, an authorized water connection causes the water loss. This allows a continuous flow of
water going to waste. Careful maintenance and universal metering can minimize this.
Unaccounted and losses are nearly constant values depending on:

 leakages
 unauthorized water connection in every water supply systems, even in the best
managed system,
 the pressure in the system,
 the age of the system,
 the quality of maintenance,
 specific activities like cleaning of reservoirs, streets and sewers,
 quality of operation of the system (operational losses), and
 detection and repair of leakages

2.3.4 Variation in rate of consumption

The per capita demand which we have calculated in the previous articles, is the over consumption
of the years. In practices it has been seen that this demand has not remain constant throughout the
year. But it varies from season to season; even form hour to hour, variation rate of demand may
be termed as.

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 Seasonal or monthly variations

 Daily variation
 Hourly variation

Seasonal variations: - The water demand varies from season to season. In summer the water
demand is maximum.

Daily variation: - the rate of demand for water supply may vary from day to day. This is due to
habits of the consumers, climatic conditions, holydays, etc.

Hourly variation: - the rate of demand for water during 24hrs does not remain uniform and it varies
according to the hour of the day.

2.3.5 Maximum Day Demand

Briere (2007) referred to peak factors based on population size, as given by the Ontario
Environment Ministry Guidelines for the design of water storage facilities, water distribution
system, sanitary sewage system and storm sewer (May 1979), as presented in the table below.
Table 3 peak factor for total water consumption flow rate (Brier, 2007)

Population Maximum daily factor

Under 500 3
500 to 10000 2.37
10001 to 25000 1.9
25001 to 75000 1.78
75001 to 150000 1.65
Over 150000 1.5

2.3.6 Peak Hour Demand

The size of the town, mode of service and social activities of the town significantly influence the
peak hour demand. Further, studies show that the peak hour factor is greater for smaller population
than bigger population. A peaking factor suiting the town is selected from the design criteria
associating peaking factor with number of population as stated in the table below.

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Table 4 Peak Hour Factor

Town Peak hour

Population Factors

0-20,000 2

20,001-50,000 2

50,001-100,000 1.8

>100,000 1.6

2.4 Water Supply System

The objective of water distribution network is to deliver water of suitable quality to individual
users in an adequate amount and at a satisfactory pressure. It should be capable of delivering the
maximum instantaneous design flow at a satisfactory pressure.

Networks are a system of pipes and trenches providing the appropriate quality and quantity of
water to a community. The network construction and layout have to be carefully prepared in order
to guarantee enough pressure and ensure hygienically safe water. Once constructed, maintenance;
including repair, leakage control, preventing recontamination, etc. and the operation of pumping
stations were gravity pressure is not enough has to be ensured.

2.4.1 Types of Water Distribution System

There are four principal methods to design a distribution system:

A. Dead end or tree system

B. Gridiron system
C. Circular or ring system
D. Radial system

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A. Dead-End or Tree Distribution System

In the dead end system (also called tree system), one main pipeline runs through the center of the
populated area and sub-mains branch off from both sides. The sub-mains divide into several branch
lines from which service connections are provided.

Branch

Sub Main
Main Pipe

Figure 1 Schematic of a dead-end distribution system. Source: GONU (2009)

B. Gridiron Distribution System

In this system the main supply line runs through the center of the area and sub mains branch off in
perpendicular directions. The branch lines interconnect the sub-mains. This system is ideal for
cities laid out on a rectangular plan resembling a gridiron. The distinguishing feature of this system
is that all of the pipes are interconnected and there are no dead ends. Water can reach a given point
of withdrawal from several directions, which permits more flexible operation, particularly when
repairs are required.

Branch

Main Pipe

Sub Main

Figure 2 Schematic of Gridiron Distribution System: Source: GONU (2009)

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C. Circular or Ring Distribution System

In a circular or ring system, the supply main forms a ring around the distribution area. The branches
are connected cross-wise to the mains and also to each other. This system is most reliable for a
town with well-planned streets and roads. However, in case of fire, a larger quantity of water is
available, and the length of the distribution main is much higher.

Sub Main

Sub Main
Main Pipe Main Pipe

Figure 3 Circular or Ring Distribution System: GONU (2009)

D. Radial Distribution System

In this system, the whole area is divided into a number of distribution districts. Each district has a
centrally located distribution reservoir (elevated) from where distribution pipes run radially
towards the periphery of the distribution district. This system provides swift service, without much
loss of head.

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Branch
Distribution
Reservoir

Main Pipe

Sub Main

Figure 4 Radial Distribution System: Source: GONU (2009)

2.5 Principles of Pipe Network Hydraulics

Flow in a pipe network satisfies two basic principles, conservation of mass, and conservation of
energy.

2.5.1 Conservation of Mass- Flows Demands

Conservation of mass states that, for a steady state system, the flow into and out of the system
must be the same (Lansey, 1991). This principle is a simple one, at any node in the system under
incompressible flow conditions; the total volumetric or mass flow is must equal the mass flow out
(less the change in storage).

This relationship holds for the entire network and for individual nodes. Mass balance equation is
written for each node in the network as:

∑ Q in − ∑ Q out = Q demand … … … … … … … … … . (2.1)

Where: ∑Q in = flows in pipes entering the node (L3/T).

∑Q out = flows in pipes exiting the node (L3/T).

Q demand = the user demand at that location (L3/T).

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Separating the total volumetric flow into flows from connecting pipes, demands, and storage, we
obtain the following equation:

∑ Q in ∆t = ∑ Q out ∆t + ∆Vs … … … … … … … … … . (2.2)

Where: ∑Q in = the total flow into the node (L3/T).

∑Q out = the total demand at the node (L3/T).

∆Vs = is the change in the storage (L3).

∆t = is the change in time (T).

2.5.2 Conservation of Energy

“The principle of conservation of energy dictates that the difference in energy between two points
must be the same regardless of the path that is taken” (Thomas M. Walski, 2003)

The equation for conservation of energy is written in terms of head as follows:

P1 V1² P2 V2²
Z1 + + + ∑ hp = Z2 + + + ∑ hl + ∑ hm … … … … … … . (2.3)
ɣ 2g ɣ 2g

Where, Z = elevation (L)

P = Pressure (M/L/T2)

γ = fluid specific weight (M/L2/T2)

V = velocity (L/T)

g = gravitational acceleration constant (L/T2)

hp = head added at pump (L)

hl = head loss in pipes (L)

hm = head loss due to minor losses (L)

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Therefore, in connected network the difference in energy at any two point is equal to the energy
increases from pumps and energy losses in pipes (frictional head loss) as well as energy losses in
bending and fittings (minor head loss) that occur in the path between them.

2.6 Friction Losses

Hazen-Williams equation and the Darcy-Weisbach equation are the most commonly used methods
for determining head losses in pressure piping Systems. The assumptions for a pressure pipe
system can be described as the, Pressure piping is almost always circular, so the area of flow,
wetted perimeter, and the hydraulic radius can all be directly related to Diameter, through a given
length of a pipe in a pressure piping system .flow is full so the friction slope is constant for a certain
flow rate. This means that the energy grade and hydraulic Grade drop linearly in the direction of
flow, the velocity must be constant, since the flow rate and cross-area are Constant (Thomas M.
Walski, 2003).

2.6.1 Hazen – William’s Equation

The most frequently used equation in the design and analysis of water distribution networks, it was
developed by the experiment and used only for water within temperatures normally experienced
in potable water systems (Thomas M. Walski, 2003).

V= KC𝑅0.63𝑆0.54 …………………………………………………………… (2.4)

Where: V = mean velocity.

K = 1.32 for U.S. standard units, or 0.85 for S.I. units

C = Hazen –William’s roughness coefficient.

R = Hydraulic radius of the pipe in meters

S = the dimensionless slope of the energy grade line.

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2.6.2 Darcy-Weisbach Formula

When water flow in pipe, it experience some resistance to its motion due to which its velocity and
ultimately the head of water available is reduced this loss of energy (head) is categorized as major
head loss and minor head loss.

The Darcy-Weisbach formula is used to quantify the loss of head or energy in pipes as follows
(Thomas M. Walski, 2003).

4flv2
hf = ………………………………………………………… (2.5)
D2g

Where: l = length of a pipe

v = Velocity flow in pipe

D = Diameter of pipe

g = Acceleration due to gravity

f = Coefficient of friction factor

2.7 Hydraulic Design Parameters

The main hydraulic parameters in water distribution networks are the Pressure and the flow rate;
other relevant design factors are the pipe Diameters, velocities, and the hydraulic gradients
(Thomas M. Walski, 2003).

2.7.1 Pressure
The pressure at nodes depends on the adopted minimum and maximum pressures within the
network, topographic circumstances, and the size of the network (M., 1997).

The minimum pressure should be maintained to avoid water column separation and to ensure that
consumer demands are provided at all times. The maximum pressure constraints results from
service performance requirements such fire needs or the pressure-bearing capacity of the pipes,
also limit the leakage in the distribution system , especially that there is a direct relationship
between the high pressure and the increasing of leakage value in the system.

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2.7.2 Flow Rates

It is the quantity of water passes within a certain time through a certain section. Velocity is directly
proportional to the flow rate. For a known pipe diameter and a known velocity, the flow rate
through a section can be estimated. Low velocities affect the proper supply and will be undesirable
for hygienic reasons (sediment formation may cause due to the longtime of retention).The effect
of the velocity on the diameters of pipe system can be observed from the following equation
(Thomas M. Walski, 2003).

4Q
V= ………………………………….………………………. (2.6)
Πd²
Where: D = diameter of the pipe (m)

Q = discharge (m3 /sec)

V = velocity (m/sec)

2.7.3 Reynolds Number

It is an index used to classify flow as either laminar flow (it is a flow characterized by smooth flow
lines) or turbulent flow (it is a flow characterized by the formation of eddies within the flow)
(Thomas M. Walski, et al, 2003)

4𝑉𝑅
Re = ………………………………………………………. (2.7)
𝜈

Where: Re = Reynolds number.

V = Mean velocity (m/s)

R = Hydraulic radius (m)

ν = Kinematics viscosity (m2 /s)

If the number below 2000, flow is laminar. The number is above 4000 the flow is turbulent.
Between 2000 and 4000, may be either turbulent or laminar flow.

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2.7.4 Water Hammer

When the velocity of flow in a pipe changes suddenly, surge pressures are generated as some, or
all, of the kinetic energy of the fluid is converted to potential energy and stored temporarily via
elastic deformation of the system. As the system rebounds and the fluid returns to its original
pressure, the stored potential energy is converted to kinetic energy and a surge pressure wave
moves through the system. Ultimately , the excess energy associated with the wave is dissipated
through frictional losses .This phenomenon , generally known as “water hammer” , occurs most
commonly when valves are opened or closed suddenly , or when pumps are started or stopped .
The excess pressures associated with water hammer can be significant under some circumstances.
The maximum pressure surge caused by abruptly stopping the flow in a single pipe is given by:

4660
a= Kd ……………………………………………….. (2.8)
[1 + Et ] 0.5

Where: k = bulk modulus of the fluid, pounds per square inch.

d = internal diameter of the pipe, inches.

E = modulus of elasticity of the pipe materials, pounds per square inch.

t = thickness of the pipe wall, inches.

The magnitude of the maximum potential water hammer pressure surge as illustrated by the above
equation is a function of fluid velocity, and the pipe material. In water distribution systems, water
hammer is usually not a problem because flow velocities are typically low, when higher than
normal flow velocities are expected, consideration should be given to the use of slow-operating
control valves, safety valves, surge tanks, air chambers, and special pump control systems (Thomas
M. Walski, 2003).

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3. METHODOOGY
3.1 Study Area
3.1.1 Location
Harar City is the Administrative center of the Harari Region and one of the oldest towns in the
country. Harar City lies 51 kilometers to the southeast of Dire Dawn. It is located to the eastern
part of Ethiopia at 9° 19’N and 42° 07’E and also lies on a hill side that slopes roughly in the
direction west to east and it is located in the eastern wall of the Great Rift Valley looking over the
vast Danakil desert to the north, the cattle rich savannas to the south and fertile lands of the Harar
City Mountains to the east. The elevation of Harar Town ranges between 1754 to 2098 m.a.s.l.

Figure 5 Location of Study Area (Global Mapper and Google Earth).

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3.1.2 Climate and Topography

Climate is the average state of the atmosphere over an area during a period of time. Climatic
elements include rainfall, precipitation, humidity, temperature, sunshine, wind and frost, fog,
lightning, thunder, flood, drought etc. Climate influences all human endeavors and thus it is an
important resource.

The temperature is lies between 17.1°C-20.2°C throughout the year. The coolest season is between
June and September, and coincides with large rains accompanied by thunderstorms. The average
annual intensity of precipitation is about 750-1,000 mm. An approximate area coverage of 1300
hectare of the region has an elevation in the range of 1800-2000m above sea level and it is mostly
the western part of the region. Whereas, the eastern part of the region has mostly an elevation in
the range 1600-1800m and 1400-1600m which covers 21.4% and 26.3% of the region respectively

3.2 Source of Data’s

3.2.1 System Maps
System layout plan of the water supply systems are typically the most useful documents for gaining
an overall understanding of a water distribution system because they illustrate a wide variety of
valuable system characteristics they are obtained from surveying data and from the design report.

System layout may include information such as:

 Pipe alignment, connectivity, material, diameter, and so on

 The locations of other system components, such as tanks and valves
 Pressure zone boundaries
 Elevations
 Miscellaneous notes or references for tank characteristics
 Background information, such as the locations of roadways, streams, planning zones, and
so on

3.3 Data Modeling Tool

To evaluate the hydraulic performance of the water supply system, secondary data is used like:
population data, demand pattern, water source, network distribution zones, per capita demand,

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reservoir, tank, pump, pipes with their length and diameter. The collected data are analyzed by
computer application called EPANET.

EPANET is a computer program that performs extended period simulation of hydraulic and water
quality behavior within pressurized pipe networks. A network consists of pipes, nodes (pipe
junctions), pumps, valves and storage tanks or reservoirs. EPANET tracks the flow of water in
each pipe, the pressure at each node, the height of water in each tank, and the concentration of a
chemical species throughout the network during a simulation period comprised of multiple time
steps. In addition to chemical species, water age and source tracing can also be simulated.
EPANET is designed to be a research tool for improving our understanding of the movement and
fate of drinking water constituents within distribution systems. It can be used for many different
kinds of applications in distribution systems analysis. Sampling program design, hydraulic model
calibration, chlorine residual analysis, and consumer exposure assessment are some examples.
EPANET can help assess alternative management strategies for improving water quality
throughout a system. These can include:
 altering source utilization within multiple source systems
 altering pumping and tank filling/emptying schedules
 use of satellite treatment, such as re-chlorination at storage tanks
 targeted pipe cleaning and replacement
Running under Windows, EPANET provides an integrated environment for editing network input
data, running hydraulic and water quality simulations, and viewing the results in a variety of
formats. These include color-coded network maps, data tables, time series graphs, and contour
plots.

3.4 Hydraulic Modeling Capabilities

EPANET contains a state-of-the-art hydraulic analysis engine that includes the following
capabilities:

 Places no limit on the size of the network that can be analyzed.

 Computes friction head loss using the Hazen-Williams, Darcy-Weisbach, or Chezy-
Manning formulas.
 Includes minor head losses for bends, fittings, etc.
 Models constant or variable speed pumps.

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 Computes pumping energy and cost.

 Models various types of valves including shutoff, check, pressure regulating, and flow
control valves.
 Allows storage tanks to have any shape (i.e., diameter can vary with height).
 Considers multiple demand categories at nodes, each with its own pattern of time variation.
 Models pressure-dependent flow issuing from emitters (sprinkler heads).
 Can base system operation on both simple tank level or timer controls and on complex rule-
based controls.

3.5 Data Analysis and Presentation

The data which collected is analysis using model tools to connect together in the form of junction
with a pipe again pipes connected to junctions or to tanks, reservoirs and pumps according to
distribution network system layout on maps. Which used for input into EPANET application to
run the system network. Then the hydraulic parameters such as pressure, velocity and others are
checked weather the parameters values in the range of design values. Population projection
estimated to quantify base demand at each junction. Data’s are presented in the form of table,
numerical, maps and graph.

The analysis was an iterative solution of a set of algorithms that simulate the hydraulic behavior
of the flow of water through the piped network, solving the equations to specified tolerances by
successive approximations subject to the following rules:

 the algebraic sum of the flows entering and leaving a node must be zero;
 in any closed loop in the system the algebraic sum of the pressure losses must be zero;
 the combined inputs to the system must equal the total of the nodal demands

For hydraulic analysis, simulation time step was 60, minute intervals over a 24 hour period.

3.6 Model Representation

Frequently system maps are drawn as combination of various system components enclosed in
water distribution system. It is common to include; Reservoirs, Tanks, Pipes, Pumps and Valves
as much as possible and the resulting sketch fairly represent the actual water network. With little
difference the real water distribution system represented as combination of nodes and links.

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Junctions, Reservoirs and Tanks are usually referred as nodes. Pipes, Pumps and Valves are
categorized as links. In figure below shows the cases study zones layout maps of zone three.

Figure 6 Model Representations Networks of Zone Three (EPANET).

3.7 Model Calibration and Validation

For the majority of water distribution models, calibration is an iterative procedure of parameter
evaluation and refinement, as a result of comparing simulated and observed values of interest.
Model validation is in reality an extension of the calibration process. Its purpose is to assure that
the calibrated model properly assesses all the variables and conditions which can affect model
results, and demonstrate the ability to predict field observations for periods separate from the
calibration.

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3.7.1 Hydraulic Model Calibration

Hydraulic behavior refers to flow conditions in pipes, valves and pumps, and pressure/head levels
at junctions and tanks. Accordingly the hydraulic model calibration Parameters that are typically
set and adjusted include pipe roughness factors, minor losses, demands at nodes, the position of
isolation valves (closed or open), control valve settings, pump curves, and demand patterns. When
initially establishing and adjusting these parameters, care should be taken to keep the values for
the parameters within reasonable bounds.

3.7.2 Hydraulic Model Validation

After a model is calibrated to match a given set of test data, the modeler can gain confidence in
the model and/or identify its shortcomings by validating it with test data obtained under different
conditions. In performing validation, system demands, initial conditions, and operational rules are
adjusted to match the conditions at the time the test data were collected.

3.8 General Information about Model Input

3.8.1 Water Source
Currently Harar town obtain water from ground source. Well fields along with various drilled wells
are major ground sources. The water supply source at Dire Jara well fields from Hasselisso wells
which exploited to the maximum 43,500 m3/day are major ground source.

GRAVITY LINE
GRAVITY LINE

15.43 km Dengego
2000m3 Harar

Harala

Haseliso Well field area PS_3 PS_4 Pumping Head

PS_1 1,000 m
Jelobelina
Gende rige
PS_2

72 km
Not to scale

Figure 7 schematic layout of Harar water supply source and distribution.

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3.8.2 Pipes
The Harar City water supply system consists of over 38,500meters of various diameters ranging
from 300-25mm in its design life. The system was characterized by high rate of leakage amounting
to 40% and contamination due frequent breakage aged pipes. Except in certain key locations such
as the service reservoirs, no gate-valves, air-release valves or washouts could be identified. Many
of the distribution lines have been laid at a shallow depth, as little as 200 to 300 mm. In general,
the pipe material for the distribution network is PVC, while in the areas where there are rivers or
road crossing and areas with pipe diameter greater than 300 mm shall be ductile cast iron (DCI).

3.8.3 Valves
In water distribution system regulation and control of either discharge or pressure is frequently
achieved through use of valves. Different types of valves are available. Among them the most
widespread are: Pressure reducing valves, pressure sustaining valves, flow reducing valves, check
valves and general purpose valves.

3.8.4 Reservoir and Tanks

Due to many factors water demand in a particular city varies from hour to hour, day to day and
even season to season. In contrary to this most water utilities supply water of constant flow. To
overcome this variation frequently Service reservoirs are provided. Hence, balance of demand and
supply is achieved. Practically, water at low demand is collected in reservoirs and at time of
maximum need water is continuously withdrawn.

Table 5 Summary of network element in the distribution system

Description Number
Junction 400
Pipe 490
Reservoir 2
Tank 4
Valve 5

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Population Forecasting
The population forecasting has different methods from those methods we select the method used
by Ethiopian Central Statistic Authority, because Harrar town is expected to grow fast in the future.

4.1.1 Method used by Ethiopian statistics

This method is used by the central statistics authority of Ethiopia. It is expressed as:

Pn = Po ek*n

Where Pn = population at n years

P0 = population at present

k = growth rate in percentage

n = decade or year

Table 6 Number of population and annual growth rate of Harrar town (PSC, 2008).

Year Population Growth Rate

2007 99,321 2.6

Sample calculation:

P2010 = P2007 ek*n

= 99,321 e0.026*3

= 107,380

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Table 7 Projected populations According to method used by Ethiopia statistics.

Year Growth rate Projected population

2008 2.6 101,938
2009 104,624
2010 107,380
2011 110,209
2012 113,113
2013 116,093
2014 119,151
2015 122,290
2016 125,512

4.2 Water Demand Projection (Calculation)

The result of the project population of the year 2008, 2012 and 2016 is presented as follows.

Table 8 the project population of the year 2008, 2012 and 2016.

Year 2010 2013 2016

Projected Population 107,380 116,093 125,512

Estimation of per capital water domestic demand by mode of service for the year 2010, 2013 and
2016. Change in living standard and improved service coverage are two of the main factors which
often have substantial influence on percentage distribution of population by modes of services. In
estimating projected per capital water demand corresponding to each mode of service, Water
Works Design and Supervision Enterprise (WW DSE) had adopted the following growth rates.
HC = 2%, YC = 2%, PF= 1%, HC2005 is given.
To calculate the domestic demand by mode services we use the following formula:
For HC2006 = HC2005 + (HC2005*R)

HC2006 = HC2005 (1+R)………………………………………………. (a)

For HC2007 = HC2006 + (HC2006*R)……………………………………… (b)

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Substitute equation (a) in to equation (b)

HC2006 = HC2005+ (HC2005*R) + (HC2005 (1+R)*R)
HC2006 = HC2005 (1+R)(1+R)
HC2006 = HC2005 (1+R)2…………………………………………………… (c)

 For HCn = HC2005 (1+R)a

Where: n = is the year for which domestic demand by mode of service is to be estimated
a = is the number of years between HC2005&HCn and
R = is growth rate per year.
Sample calculation for year 2010
HC2005 = 4 l/c/d
a = 2010 – 2005 = 5
n = 2010
R = 2%
a
HC2010 = HC2005 (1+R)

= 4 (1+2/100) 5
= 4.42

Table 9 Projection of per capita demand

Activity Year 2010 Year 2013 Year 2016

HC YC PF HC YC PF HC YC PF
Drinking 4.42 1.65 1.58 4.69 1.76 1.62 4.97 1.86 1.67
Cooking 11.04 6.07 3.70 11.72 6.44 3.79 12.43 6.84 3.90
Ablutions 16.56 16.56 6.31 17.57 17.57 6.49 18.65 18.65 6.69
Washing Dishes 11.04 5.52 2.11 11.72 5.86 2.16 12.43 6.22 2.23
Laundry 16.56 16.56 7.36 17.57 17.57 7.58 18.65 18.65 7.81
House Cleaning 11.04 4.42 - 11.72 4.69 - 12.43 4.97 -
Bath or Shower 22.08 22.08 - 23.44 23.44 - 24.86 24.86 -
Toilets/Flushing 6.62 4.42 - 7.03 4.69 - 7.46 4.97 -
Total 99.36 77.28 21.06 105.46 82.02 21.64 111.88 87.02 22.3

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Table 10 projection of per capital water demand by mode of service for 2008, 2012 and 2016.

Year Demand l/c/d

HC YC PF
2010 99.36 77.28 21.06
2013 105.46 82.02 21.64
2016 111.88 87.02 22.30

4.2.1 Domestic demand

4.2.1.1 Domestic demand by mode of service

Table 11 Projection of the Standard of Service (Harar, 2002).

Percentage Population Year

Served by 1994 1999 2002 2007
House Connection 2 3 4 15
Yard Connection 40 52 56 60
Public Fountain 46 35 31 20

Calculation for the percentage of population for years 2010, 2013, and 2016 are follows.
Mode service type: - House Connection (HC)
Percentage of population in 1999……………PHC-1999 = 3%
Percentage of population in 2002……………PHC-2002 = 4%
Percentage of population in 2007……………PHC-2007 = 15%
Percentage growth rate from 1999 to 2002
Where R= percentage growth rate
Percentage growth from 1999 to 2002
PHC 2002−PHC 1999
R=
2002−1999
4−3
=
3
= 0.33

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The percentage of HC in 2007 = PHC2002+R*(2007-2002)

= 4%+0.33(5)
= 5.65
The percentage of HC in 2010 = PHC2007+R*(2010-2007) = 6.64%
The percentage of HC in 2013 = PHC2010+R*(2013-2010) = 7.63%
The percentage of HC in 2016 = PHC2013+R*(2016-2013) = 8.62%
The values of YC and PF is calculated as above and the result is summarized in table below

Table 12 projection of the percentage of population by modes of services

Connection type Year

2010 2013 2016
HC 6.64 7.63 8.62
YC 66.64 70.63 74.62
PF 20.36 16.37 12.38

4.2.1.2 The projected average domestic water demand

Based on the above results and information the projected average domestic water demand of Harrar
town is calculated and tabulated as follows.
Projected population = population distribution by mode of service * total population

 Sample calculation of projected population for the year 2010

Total population = 107,380
Population distribution by mode of service
HC = 6.64%
YC = 66.64%
PF = 20.36%

Projected population = population distribution by mode of service * total population

HC = 6.64%*107,380 = 7,130
YC = 66.64%*107,380= 71,558
PF = 20.36%*107,380= 21,863

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Table 13 projected population by mode of service

Year Mode of Total population Population Projected population

service distribution
2010 HC 107,380 6.64% 7,130
YC 107,380 66.64% 71,558
PF 107,380 20.36% 21,863
2013 HC 116,093 7.63% 8,858
YC 116,093 70.63% 81,997
PF 116,093 16.37% 19,005
2016 HC 125,512 8.62% 10,820
YC 125,512 74.62% 93,658
PF 125,512 12.38% 15,539

4.2.1.3 Projected daily average domestic demand

Projected daily average domestic demand can be obtained by multiplying the projected population
of each mode of service and the projected per capita water demand by mode of service.
Projected average domestic demand (l/d) = projected population * projected per capita water
demand.
Table 14 Projected average domestic demand

Year Mode of Projected population Projected per Projected

service capita water average
demand domesticate
2010 HC 7,130 99.36 708,436.8
YC 71,558 77.28 5,530,002.24
PF 21,863 21.06 460,434.78
Total average domestic demand (l/d) 6,698,873.82
2013 HC 8,858 105.46 934,164.68
YC 81,997 82.02 6,725,393.94
PF 19,005 21.64 411,268.2
Total average domestic demand (l/d) 8,070,826.82

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2016 HC 10,820 111.88 1,210,541.6

YC 93,658 87.02 8,150,119.16
PF 15,539 22.30 346,519.7
Total average domestic demand (l/d) 8,496,638.86

4.2.1.4 Adjustment for domestic water demand

The projected daily average domestic demand should be adjusted considering socio-economic
factor and climatic effects.
4.2.1.5 Adjustment due to socio-economic factor
The socio-economic factor is selected from socio-economic factors table given below;

Table 15 socio-economic factor (national water supply and sanitary master plan)

Group Distribution Factor

A Town enjoining high living standard and with high potential for 1.10
development
B Town having a very high potential for development, but lower 1.05
living standard at present
C Town under normal Ethiopian condition 1.00
D Advanced rural town 0.9

 The socio-economic factor for Harrar town is selected to be group “B”, with factor 1.05.

4.2.1.6 Adjustment due to climatic effect

Table 16 Climatic effects factor (national water supply and sanitary master plan)

Group Mean annual precipitation (mm) Factor

A 600 or less 1.10
B 601-900 1.05
C 901 or more 1.00
 Harrar town has a mean annual rainfall of 750-1000 mm, it is grouped under group “C” town with
adjusted factor of 1.0.

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The overall adjustment of the projected average domestic demand for the town can be calculated
as:
D adjusted = D* socio-economic factor * climatic factor
Where: D adjusted = adjusted average domestic demand
D = the projected average domestic demand for Harrar town,
D adjusted = D * 1.05* 1.0= 1.05D
The results are tabulated below.

Table 17 Adjusted domestic water demand

Year Projected average domestic Adjusted domestic water

demand(l/d)=[D] demand(l/d)=[1.05*D]

2010 6,698,873.82 7,033,817.51

2013 8,070,826.82 8,474,368.16
2016 8,496,638.86 8,921,470.81

4.2.2 Non – Domestic Demand

4.2.2.1 Educational demand
In the Harrari Region, there are seven Kindergartens (KG), 45 Primary and 3 Senior Secondary
Schools. Out of 45 primary schools in the region, the shares of urban and rural areas are 23 and 22
respectively. KG and senior high schools are limited to the urban area (Harar, 2002). Total number
of population in Harrar city at 2005 based on population from the 2007 censes population by
extrapolating is 96,098. And the number of students for the city is 41003. Among the total
population of the town the percentage of student can be calculated as follows:
Total no of student
Percentage of students =
Total no of population
41003
= ∗ 100
96098
= 42%

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Table 18 Projected student water demand

Description Year
2005 2010 2013 2016
Total population 96,098 107,380 116,093 125,512
Percentage of student 42% 42% 42% 42%
Number of student 40,362 45,100 48,760 52,716
Consumption (lpcd) 5 5 5 5
Demand (m3/day) 201.81 225.5 243.8 263.58

4.2.2.2 Health Water Demand

Table 19 Health sector water demand projection of Harar city (Harar, 2002)

Year 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

No. Beds 430 541 451 480 515 550 610
Lpcd 170 170 170 210 230 230 230
Health demand 73.10 76.67 76.67 100.80 118.04 126.50 140.20

The projected health water demand for the year 2010, 2013 and 2016 is as follows: the average
value from the above table for the number of beds will be taken.

Table 20 The projected health water demand

Year 2005 2010 2013 2016

Health Demand 76.67 100.80 109.6 122.45
(m3/d)

4.2.2.3 Industry Water Demand

The large-scale industries placed in Harrar includes: Harrar Brewery, Hamaressa Edible Oil
Factory, Babile Mineral Water Factory and Harrar Printing Enterprise. From the design report of
Harrar water supply project the industry water demand is 30% of domestic water demand (Harar,
2002).

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Table 21 projected Industry demand

Year Adjusted domestic water Projected industrial water

demand demand 30% of domestic
demand
2010 7,033,817.51 2,110,145.253
2013 8,474,368.16 2,542,310.448
2016 8,921,470.81 2,676,441.243

Table 22 Summary of non-domestic water demand (m3/d)

Year 2010 2013 2016

Population 107,380 116,093 125,512
Educational Demand 225.5 243.8 263.58
Health Demand 100.80 109.6 122.45
Industrial Demand 2110.14 2542.31 2676.44
Total Demand (m3/d) 2,436.44 2,895.71 3,062.47

4.2.3 Uncounted for water loss

This unaccounted quantity of water is introduced with 10% for the year 2010, 15% for the year
2015 and 25% for 2025 (Harar, 2002). By assuming the water loss above, the unaccounted quantity
of water for the year 2016 is 16%.

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4.3 Summary of Water Demand

Table 23 Summary of water demand projection (m3/d)

Year 2010 2013 2016

Population 107,380 116,093 125,512
Domestic demand 7,033.817 8,474.368 8,921.47
Non-domestic 2,436.44 2,895.71 3,062.47
demand
Total demand 9,470.257 11,370.078 11,983.94
excluding losses
Percentage (%) losses 10 - 16
Losses 947.026 - 1917.43
Total average 10,417.38 11,370.078 13,901.37
demand
Maximum daily 1.65 1.65 1.65
factor
Maximum daily 17,188.67 18,760.62 22,937.26
demand
Peak hourly factor 1.6 1.6 1.6
Peak hourly demand 17,994.38 28,027.62 39,282.53

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4.4 Base Demand Allocation at Nodes

A nodal base demand allocation is determined by using nodal service area and number of
population who used from the node. In our case base demand allocated is total average day demand
dividing by number of zones in the system by considering they use equal amount of demand in
each zone. For case study of zone three, the total average day demand is 160.95l/s from table
above, the base demand in each zone is 22.985l/s.

4.5 Case Study at Zone Three

The maximum and minimum elevation of the zone three ranges between 1912.65m and 1830m
a.s.l respectively. Cover the industrial part of the town which is Bira, part of Shenkor, Michael
Church, Bote and also Kelad-Amba. It covers a total area of nearly 267.84 hectares and
encompasses the whole Kebele 9 and 14, major parts of Kebele 10 and 15, almost half of Kebele
12, and part of Kebele 8 and 16.

4.6 Pressure and Velocity analysis

Literature based recommendation for optimum operating pressure was used to assess system
hydraulic performance. From the modeling result of our case study, the minimum and maximum
pressure in the distribution network is < 25m and 75m respectively. The velocity in a certain
system as simulation result, the minimum velocity in the system is <0.01m/s and maximum
velocity is 1.0m/s.

4.6.1 Scenarios of Hydraulic Performance Evaluation

In the hydraulic performance evaluation, the simulation needs a system of runs to analyze the
pressure and velocity in the system. The simulation analyzed for this study was pressure and
velocity in the selected zones (zone_3). In the distribution network the variation of water demand
occurred in the system at low hour rate at 2am and peak hour rate at 8am.

In general to evaluate the hydraulic performances such as: velocity and pressure in the network
system, the Harar City assigned in two possible scenarios for the case study.

Scenarios 1:

i. Pressure at low hour and pressure at peak hour for the selected zone.

Scenarios 2:

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ii. Velocity at low hour and velocity at peak hour for the selected zones.

4.6.2 Scenarios 1: Pressure at low hour rate

The pressure analysis during low hour is explaining detail in appendix A.
Table 24 Pressure distribution at low hour flow

Pressure (m) Number of node Percentage (%)

>75 6 8.57
50-75 29 41.42
25-50 32 45.71
0-25 3 4.28

 As table 4.19 showed that 8.57% nodes exceeds the maximum allowable pressure in the system,
4.28% nodes below the allowable pressure and 87.13% nodes operate under normal pressure.

Figure 8 Pressure distribution plot during low flow

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4.6.3 Scenarios 1: Pressure at peak hour rate

The pressure analysis during peak hour is explaining detail in appendix B.

Table 25 Pressure distribution at low hour flow

Pressure (m) No. node Percentage (%)

>75 7 10
50-75 30 42.85
25-50 30 42.85
0-25 3 4.28

As table 4.20 showed that 10% nodes exceeds the maximum allowable pressure in the system,
4.28% nodes below the allowable pressure and 85.7% nodes operate under normal pressure.

Figure 9 Pressure distribution plot of peak hour flow

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4.6.4 Scenarios 2: Velocity at low hour rate

The analysis of velocity during low hour rate is explained in appendix C.

Table 26 Velocity distribution low hour rate

Velocity (m/s) No. node Percentage (%)

>1.00 - -
0.1-1.0 45 56.25
0.01-0.1 34 42.5
0-0.01 1 1.25

As table 4.21, show that 1.25% links operate below the allowable velocity and 98.75% links
operate under permissible velocity in a system.

Figure 10 Velocity distribution plot during low hour flow

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4.6.5 Scenarios 2: Velocity at peak hour rate

The analysis of velocity during peak hour rate is explained in appendix D.

Table 27 Velocity distribution low hour rate

Velocity (m/s) No. node Percentage (%)

>1.00 0 0
0.1-1.00 73 91.25
0.01-0.1 7 8.75
0-0.01 0 0

As table 4.22 the velocity at peak hour rate is operate under permissible velocity in a system it
mean from 0.01m/s to 1m/s.

Figure 11 Velocity distribution plot of peak hour flow

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5. Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Conclusions
To assess the current situation of Harrar town water supply network system modeling was found
appropriate technique and accordingly modeling efforts were carried out for case study of the
supply system. The base of the assessment was evaluating hydraulic performance of the
distribution system for case of Zone 3. With intended objectives the study was undertaken and it
has come with significant outcomes.

The hydraulic performance evaluation indicated that acceptable minimum and maximum pressures
have not been met. During low hour flow and peak hour flow, parts of the distribution system
receive water with low pressure.

About 8.57% of the nodes during peak hour flow is prone to undesirable pressures which exceed
maximum allowable pressure. As a result, the distribution system is exposed to leakage and pipe
breakage during low hour flows. When the nodal pressure exceeds the allowable maximum, it
indicate the existence of both design and operational problems. Observed pressures which exceed
maximum allowable pressure even during peak hour flow and observed pressures which is lower
than minimum allowable pressure during low flow hours clearly proved the existence of design
problems.

In the case of velocity performance evaluation the acceptable minimum velocity have not been
met during low hour flow. During low hour flow the maximum allowable velocity and during the
peak hour flow both maximum and minimum allowable velocity have been met.

In general, the simulated hydraulic result indicated that the current hydraulic performance of the
water supply system is not satisfactory. But it doesn’t mean that the distribution system is not
functional. Rather the frequency of service interruption is occur. This interruption is partly
contributing for the current water shortage in the Harrar water supply system.

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5.2 Recommendation
From the study undertaken and modeling result the following sets of recommendations are drawn:

 To permanently modify the hydraulic performance of the distribution network, the design
needs to be reviewed and modified.
 To control occurrences of maximum pressures in the system, uses of implementing
pressure reducing valve or break pressure tanks are recommended.
 To control the occurrences of minimum pressures in the system, uses of pressure sustaining
valves are recommended.
 To reduce the quantity of water in system, unaccounted water loss from the system has
been controlled.
 To eliminating dead-ends and letting water to route in the system installing new pipes are
recommended.
 The model is good in predicting hydraulic and water quality parameters in distribution
system.

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References
Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (2008). Summary and Statistical Report of the 2007
Population and Housing Census, Population size by Age and Sex, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, United
Nations Population Fund.

Chali D. “Model Based Water Supply Network Assessment: Case of Gefersa Supply System”,
M.SC. Thesis, Addis Abeba University.

Jarrar H. (1998). “Evaluation of the Hydraulic Performance of Water Distribution Systems Under
The Action of Cyclic Pumping”, M.SC. Thesis, An-Najah National University.

Masri M. (1997). “Design of Optimal Water distribution Networks”, M.SC. Thesis, An-Najah
National University.

Probhata K. Swamee, Ashok K. Sharma (2008). Design of Water Supply Networks, New Jersey,
U.S., John wiley and Sons, Inc.

S.C. Rangwala (1982). Fundamental of Water Supply and Sanitation. Seventh Edition, Charota
Publishing House Opposite.

Thomas M. Walski, Donald V. Chase, Dragan A. Savic, Walter Grayman, Stephen Beckwith,
Edmundo Koelle (2003). Advanced Water Distribution Modeling and Management, U.S., Haestad
press.

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Appendix
Appendix A
Pressure at low hour flow

NODE ID PRESSURE (m)

Junc N-105 23.18

Junc B-2 46.80

Junc N-138A 74.04

Junc B-27 86.71

Junc B-33 31.07

Junc B-11 49.96

Junc N-130 57.17

Junc B-19A 36.60

Junc N-135 30.58
Junc N-114 57.26
Junc N-126 65.51
Junc N-101 33.35
Junc N-132 61.74
Junc B-6 60.71
Junc N-115 53.31
Junc N-133 50.58
Junc N-128 45.58
Junc B-24 78.62
Junc B-10 53.94
Junc B-15 68.83
Junc N-131 61.14
Junc B-21 39.99
Junc N-111 48.02

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Junc B-30 58.77

Junc B-1 36.001
Junc N-120 61.57
Junc B-34 42.84
Junc B-32 38.23
Junc N-116 43.15
Junc B-23 58.71
Junc B-16 61.81
Junc N-103 42.69
Junc N-129 54.12
Junc B-20A 35.02
Junc N-119 57.33
Junc N-106 43.76
Junc N-138 64.01
Junc N-134 38.37
Junc B-12 55.88
Junc N-127 34.21
Junc N-100 16.53
Junc N-124 57.48
Junc B-17 43.02
Junc B-31 40.88
Junc B 41.92
Junc N-136 35.35
Junc N-104 41.75
Junc B-25 88.65
Junc B-9 48.98
Junc N-102 31.05
Junc N-110 43.07
Junc B-14 59.40
Junc B-31A 37.20
Junc N-112 60.04

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Junc B-28 48.82

Junc B-20 70.65
Junc N-117 39.88
Junc N-122 57.21
Junc N-125 65.59
Junc B-19 88.69
Junc B-18 43.02
Junc N-118 73.71
Junc B-13 55.93
Junc B-29 78.63
Junc B-7 62.69
Junc B-22 41.98
Junc N-502 75.97
Junc B-26 98.59
Junc S-6 62.64
Resvr R-1 0.00

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Appendix B
Pressure at peak hour flow

NODE ID PRESSURE (m)

Junc N-105 22.26

Junc B-2 45.75

Junc N-138A 72.71

Junc B-27 85.60

Junc B-33 29.50

Junc B-11 49.42

Junc N-130 55.67

Junc B-19A 33.54

Junc N-135 29.33
Junc N-114 56.66
Junc N-126 64.21
Junc N-101 33.03
Junc N-132 58.11
Junc B-6 59.44
Junc N-115 52.37
Junc N-133 50.13
Junc N-128 44.68
Junc B-24 77.18
Junc B-10 53.36
Junc B-15 68.00
Junc N-131 58.59
Junc B-21 39.49
Junc N-111 47.54
Junc B-30 57.66

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Junc B-1 35.52

Junc N-120 60.41
Junc B-34 41.86
Junc B-32 35.28
Junc N-116 42.16
Junc B-23 57.44
Junc B-16 60.88
Junc N-103 42.14
Junc N-129 52.94
Junc B-20A 34.59
Junc N-119 55.90
Junc N-106 42.55
Junc N-138 62.51
Junc N-134 37.37
Junc B-12 55.14
Junc N-127 33.85
Junc N-100 16.47
Junc N-124 56.52
Junc B-17 42.61
Junc B-31 40.02
Junc B 41.18
Junc N-136 32.35
Junc N-104 41.19
Junc B-25 87.38
Junc B-9 48.50
Junc N-102 30.67
Junc N-110 42.64
Junc B-14 57.12
Junc B-31A 34.18
Junc N-112 59.29
Junc B-28 47.81

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Junc B-20 69.28

Junc N-117 38.99
Junc N-122 56.27
Junc N-125 64.54
Junc B-19 87.53
Junc B-18 42.61
Junc N-118 72.51
Junc B-13 55.34
Junc B-29 77.23
Junc B-7 661.37
Junc B-22 41.43
Junc N-502 75.09
Junc B-26 97.19
Junc S-6 59.11
Resvr R-1 0.00

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Appendix C
Velocity at low hour flow

LINK ID VELOCITY (m/s)

Pipe P-1 0.14

Pipe P-2 0.19
Pipe P-3 0.16
Pipe P-4 0.16
Pipe P-5 0.15
Pipe P-6 0.15
Pipe P-7 0.14
Pipe P-8 0.06
Pipe P-9 0.09
Pipe P-10 0.00
Pipe P-11 0.04
Pipe P-12 0.08
Pipe P-13 0.12
Pipe P-14 0.10
Pipe P-15 0.09
Pipe P-16 0.10
Pipe P-17 0.11
Pipe P-18 0.15
Pipe P-19 0.05
Pipe P-20 0.04
Pipe P-21 0.15
Pipe P-22 0.13
Pipe P-23 0.10
Pipe P-24 0.08
Pipe P-25 0.05
Pipe P-26 0.10

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Pipe P-27 0.04

Pipe P-28 0.02
Pipe P-29 0.12
Pipe P-30 0.08
Pipe P-31 0.12
Pipe P-32 0.06
Pipe P-33 0.16
Pipe P-34 0.19
Pipe P-35 0.10
Pipe P-36 0.08
Pipe P-37 0.08
Pipe P-38 0.11
Pipe P-39 0.00
Pipe P-42 0.03
Pipe P-43 0.05
Pipe P-44 0.09
Pipe P-45 0.13
Pipe P-46 0.17
Pipe P-41 0.07
Pipe P-47 0.10
Pipe P-48 0.17
Pipe P-49 0.09
Pipe P-50 0.12
Pipe P-51 0.14
Pipe P-52 0.17
Pipe P-53 0.15
Pipe P-54 0.16
Pipe P-55 0.17
Pipe P-56 0.09
Pipe P-57 0.12
Pipe P-58 0.24

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Pipe P-59 0.22

Pipe P-60 0.16
Pipe P-61 0.15
Pipe P-62 0.16
Pipe P-63 0.12
Pipe P-64 0.04
Pipe P-65 0.12
Pipe P-66 0.02
Pipe P-67 0.22
Pipe P-68 0.18
Pipe P-71 0.17
Pipe P-72 0.07
Pipe P-73 0.03
Pipe P-74 0.14
Pipe P-75 0.24
Pipe P-76 0.34
Pipe P-77 0.10
Pipe P-78 0.09
Pipe P-79 0.11
Pipe P-80 0.08
Pipe P-81 0.16
Pipe P-69 0.20
Pipe P-70 0.10

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Appendix D
Velocity at peak hour flow

LINK ID VELOCITY (m/s)

Pipe P-1 0.31

Pipe P-2 0.41
Pipe P-3 0.36
Pipe P-4 0.34
Pipe P-5 0.33
Pipe P-6 0.31
Pipe P-7 0.30
Pipe P-8 0.14
Pipe P-9 0.20
Pipe P-10 0.01
Pipe P-11 0.10
Pipe P-12 0.18
Pipe P-13 0.27
Pipe P-14 0.22
Pipe P-15 0.20
Pipe P-16 0.22
Pipe P-17 0.23
Pipe P-18 0.33
Pipe P-19 0.11
Pipe P-20 0.09
Pipe P-21 0.34
Pipe P-22 0.28
Pipe P-23 0.23
Pipe P-24 0.17
Pipe P-25 0.12
Pipe P-26 0.22

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Pipe P-27 0.09

Pipe P-28 0.05
Pipe P-29 0.27
Pipe P-30 0.18
Pipe P-31 0.27
Pipe P-32 0.13
Pipe P-33 0.35
Pipe P-34 0.41
Pipe P-35 0.23
Pipe P-36 0.17
Pipe P-37 0.17
Pipe P-38 0.23
Pipe P-39 0.01
Pipe P-42 0.06
Pipe P-43 0.11
Pipe P-44 0.19
Pipe P-45 0.28
Pipe P-46 0.36
Pipe P-41 0.16
Pipe P-47 0.21
Pipe P-48 0.38
Pipe P-49 0.20
Pipe P-50 0.26
Pipe P-51 0.31
Pipe P-52 0.36
Pipe P-53 0.32
Pipe P-54 0.35
Pipe P-55 0.37
Pipe P-56 0.20
Pipe P-57 0.26
Pipe P-58 0.51

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Pipe P-59 0.49

Pipe P-60 0.35
Pipe P-61 0.33
Pipe P-62 0.36
Pipe P-63 0.27
Pipe P-64 0.09
Pipe P-65 0.25
Pipe P-66 0.04
Pipe P-67 0.48
Pipe P-68 0.40
Pipe P-71 0.36
Pipe P-72 0.14
Pipe P-73 0.08
Pipe P-74 0.29
Pipe P-75 0.51
Pipe P-76 0.73
Pipe P-77 0.21
Pipe P-78 0.19
Pipe P-79 0.24
Pipe P-80 0.16
Pipe P-81 0.35
Pipe P-69 0.44
Pipe P-70 0.22

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Appendix E
Demand Pattern Multiplier

0.5, 0.4, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 1.2, 1.8, 2, 1.3, 12, 1.1, 1, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 0.9, 0.7, 0.6, 0.6, 0.5, 1.2

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