Rushat/ Internet of Things

Fed up of studying with those long ppts?

Internet of Things
Unit One.

What is IOT?
The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical
objects—“things”—that are embedded with sensors, software, and other
technologies for the purpose of connecting and exchanging data with other
devices and systems over the internet.
Why is IOT important?
Over the past few years, IoT has become one of the most important technologies
of the 21st century. Now that we can connect everyday objects—kitchen
appliances, cars, thermostats, baby monitors—to the internet via embedded
devices, seamless communication is possible between people, processes, and
things. By means of low-cost computing, the cloud, big data, analytics, and mobile
technologies, physical things can share and collect data with minimal human
intervention. In this hyperconnected world, digital systems can record, monitor,
and adjust each interaction between connected things. The physical world meets
the digital world—and they cooperate.

Characteristics of IOT.
Connectivity:
Connectivity is an important requirement of the IoT infrastructure. Things of IoT
should be connected to the IoT infrastructure. Anyone, anywhere, anytime can
connect, this should be guaranteed at all times.
Intelligence and Identity:
The extraction of knowledge from the generated data is very important. For
example, a sensor generates data, but that data will only be useful if it is
interpreted properly. Each IoT device has a unique identity. This identification is
helpful in tracking the equipment and at times for querying its status.
Scalability:
The number of elements connected to the IoT zone is increasing day by day.
Hence, an IoT setup should be capable of handling the massive expansion. The
data generated as an outcome is enormous, and it should be handled
appropriately.
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Dynamic and Self-Adapting:

IoT devices should dynamically adapt themselves to the changing contexts and
scenarios. Assume a camera meant for surveillance. It should be adaptable to
work in different conditions and different light situations.
Architecture:
IoT architecture cannot be homogeneous in nature. It should be hybrid, supporting
different manufacturers ‘ products and multiple domains to function in the IoT
network.
Safety:
There is a danger of the sensitive personal details of the users getting
compromised when all his/her devices are connected to the internet. This can
cause a loss to the user. Hence, data security is the major challenge. Besides, the
equipment involved is huge. IoT networks may also be at risk.
Self Configuring:
This is one of the most important characteristics of IoT. IoT devices are able to
upgrade their software in accordance with requirements with a minimum of user
participation. Additionally, they can set up the network, allowing for the addition of
new devices to an already-existing network.
Interoperability: (IMP This was discussed during the lecture)
IoT devices use standardized protocols and technologies to ensure that they can
communicate with each other and with other systems. Interoperability is one of
the key characteristics of the Internet of Things (IoT). It refers to the ability of
different IoT devices and systems to communicate and exchange data with each
other, regardless of the underlying technology or manufacturer. Interoperability is
critical for the success of IoT, as it enables different devices and systems to work
together seamlessly and provides a seamless user experience. Without
interoperability, IoT systems would be limited to individual silos of data and
devices, making it difficult to share information and create new services and
applications.

Architecture of IOT.

Quick Talk<
There is no specific architecture of IoT, there are different architectures proposed
by different people, the architecture which is mentioned below is widely used and
was there on all the major computer science edu sites like GeeksforGeeks,
InterviewBit and the Tutorialspoint.
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Sensing Layer –
The sensing layer is the first layer of the IoT architecture and is responsible for
collecting data from different sources. This layer inc
ludes sensors and actuators that are placed in the environment to gather
information about temperature, humidity, light, sound, and other physical
parameters. These devices are connected to the network layer through wired or
wireless communication protocols.
Network Layer –
The network layer of an IoT architecture is responsible for providing
communication and connectivity between devices in the IoT system. It includes
protocols and technologies that enable devices to connect and communicate with
each other and with the wider internet. Examples of network technologies that are
commonly used in IoT include WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee.
Data Processing Layer –
The data processing layer of IoT architecture refers to the software and hardware
components that are responsible for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data
from IoT devices. This layer is responsible for receiving raw data from the devices,
processing it, and making it available for further analysis or action. The data
processing layer includes a variety of technologies and tools, such as data
management systems, analytics platforms, and machine learning algorithms.
These tools are used to extract meaningful insights from the data and make
decisions based on that data.
Application Layer –
The application layer of IoT architecture is the topmost layer that interacts directly
with the end-user. It is responsible for providing user-friendly interfaces and
functionalities that enable users to access and control IoT devices.This layer
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includes various software and applications such as mobile apps, web portals, and
other user interfaces that are designed to interact with the underlying IoT
infrastructure. It also includes middleware services that allow different IoT devices
and systems to communicate and share data seamlessly.

Architectural View of IOT (CISCO)

This was also given in the ppt, this is actually the Cisco Reference Architecture for
IoT, or also called the seven layered reference model.

Physical design of IoT.

A physical design of an IoT system refers to the individual node devices and their
protocols that are utilized to create a functional IoT ecosystem. Each node device
can perform tasks such as remote sensing, actuating, monitoring, etc., by relying
on physically connected devices. It may also be capable of transmitting
information through different types of wireless or wired connections.
The things/devices in the IoT system are used for:
● Building connections
● Data processing
● Providing storage
● Providing interfaces
● Providing graphical interfaces
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The devices generate data, and the data is used to perform analysis and do
operations for improving the system.

IOT Protocols (we all know that it’s IMP)

IoT Protocols Should also Satisfy These Requirements

● Allow communication among various devices simultaneously.

● IoT is being used in critical areas like health, industries, home surveillance,
etc. hence communication security needs to be ensured.
● Transport data efficiently.
● IoT devices can be added or removed from the IoT network. Hence
protocols must provide scalability.

IoT Network Protocols:

IoT network protocols are used to connect devices over the network. These are
the set of communication protocols typically used over the Internet. Following are
the various IoT Network protocols:

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

HyperText Transfer Protocol is the best example of IoT network protocol. This
protocol has formed the foundation of data communication over the web. It is the
most common protocol that is used for IoT devices when there is a lot of data to
be published. However, the HTTP protocol is not preferred because of its cost,
battery-life, energy saving, and more constraints.

LoRaWan (Long Range Wide Area Network)

It is a long-range low power protocol that provides signal detection below the
noise level. LoRaWan connects battery operated things wirelessly to the Internet
in either private or global networks. This communication protocol is mainly used
by smart cities, where there are millions of devices that function with less power.
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Bluetooth
Bluetooth is one of the most widely used protocols for short-range
communication. It is a standard IoT protocol for wireless data transmission. This
communication protocol is secure and perfect for short-range, low-power,
low-cost, and wireless transmission between electronic devices. Bluetooth
protocol is mostly used in smart wearables, smartphones, and other mobile
devices, where small fragments of data can be exchanged without high power
and memory. Offering ease of usage, Bluetooth tops the list of IoT device
connectivity protocols.

ZigBee
ZigBee is an IoT protocol that allows smart objects to work together. It is
commonly used in home automation. More famous for industrial settings, ZigBee
is used with apps that support low-rate data transfer between short distances.
Street lighting and electric meters in urban areas, which provides low power
consumption, use the ZigBee communication protocol. It is also used with
security systems and in smart homes.

These were the IoT network protocols HTTP, LoRaWan, Bluetooth, ZigBee and now
we will see the IoT data protocols.

IoT Data Protocols:

IoT data protocols are used to connect low power IoT devices. These protocols
provide point-to-point communication with the hardware at the user side without
any Internet connection. Connectivity in IoT data protocols is through a wired or a
cellular network. Some of the IoT data protocols are:

(The applications of these protocols are highlighted with bold)

Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT)
One of the most preferred protocols for IoT devices, MQTT collects data from
various electronic devices and supports remote device monitoring. It is a
subscribe/publish protocol that runs over Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
which means it supports event-driven message exchange through wireless
networks. MQTT is mainly used in devices which are economical and it requires
less power and memory. For instance, fire detectors, car sensors, smart watches,
and apps for text-based messaging.

Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)

CoAP is an internet-utility protocol for restricted gadgets. Using this protocol, the
client can send a request to the server and the server can send back the response
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to the client in HTTP. For light-weight implementation, it makes use of UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) and reduces space usage. The protocol uses binary data
format EXL (Efficient XML Interchanges). CoAP protocol is used mainly in
automation, mobiles, and microcontrollers. The protocol sends a request to the
application endpoints such as appliances at homes and sends back the response
of services and resources in the application.

Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP)

AMQP is a software layer protocol for message-oriented middleware environment
which provides routing and queuing. It is used for reliable point-to-point
connection and supports the seamless and secure exchange of data between the
connected devices and the cloud. AMQP consists of three separate components
namely Exchange, Message Queue, and Binding. All these three components
ensure a secure and successful exchange and storage of messages. It also helps
in establishing the relationship of one message with the other. AMQP protocol is
mainly used in the banking industry. Whenever a message is sent by a server, the
protocol tracks the message until each message is delivered to the intended
users/destinations without failure.

Machine-to-Machine (M2M) Communication Protocol

It is an open industry protocol built to provide remote application management of
IoT devices. M2M communication protocols are cost-effective and use public
networks. It creates an environment where two machines communicate and
exchange data. This protocol supports the self-monitoring of machines and allows
the systems to adapt according to the changing environment. M2M
communication protocols are used for smart homes, automated vehicle
authentication, vending machines, and ATM machines.

Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP)

The XMPP is uniquely designed. It uses a push mechanism to exchange messages
in real-time. XMPP is flexible and can integrate with the changes seamlessly.
Developed using open XML (Extensible Markup Language), XMPP works as a
presence indicator showing the availability status of the servers or devices
transmitting or receiving messages. Other than the instant messaging apps such
as Google Talk and WhatsApp, XMPP is also used in online gaming, news
websites, and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).
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Communication Models of IoT.

(this is also a very important topic)
It is important and useful to understand how various IoT devices communicate
with each other. Communication models used in IoT have great value. The IoTs
allows people and things to be connected any time, any space, with anything and
anyone, using any network and any service.

I’ve added easy to understand diagrams.

Request & Response Model

● The communication takes place between a client and a server.

● Whenever required, the client will request information from the
server. This request is usually in the encoded format.
● So in this model, basically a client sends requests to the server and
the server responds to the requests. That is why it is called request -
response model.
● After receiving the request from the client, the server decides how to
respond, fetches the data from the database and its resource
representation, prepares a response and ultimately sends the
response to the client.
● Request - Response model is a stateless model. Each
request-response pair is independent of others.
● Example is HTTP. HTTP operates as a query-response protocol
between a client and a server. A web browser can be the client, and
an application on a computer that supports a website can be the
server. The client(browser) submits an HTTP request to the server and
the server will return a response back to the client.
● Other Example(s):- CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)
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Publisher-Subscriber Model

● In this model, you will find three main entities:- Publisher, Broker and
Consumer Let us see the roles of each of these 3 entities.
● Publishers send the data to the topics that are managed by the
broker. They are the source of data.
● The Man in the Middle, the Broker, has the responsibility to accept the
data sent by the publisher and deliver that data to the consumers.
● What is the task of the Consumers? Consumers will subscribe to the
broker-managed topics.
● Publishers aren't aware of who the consumers are.
● Once the data is published on a topic, the broker sends this message
to all consumers who have subscribed to the specific topic.
● Example(s):- MQTT (Message Queue Telemetry Transport), AMQP
(Advanced Message Queue Protocol), DDS (Data Distribution Service).

Push-Pull Model

● Here too, we have 3 entities:- Publisher, Queues and Consumers.

● Push-Pull is a communication model where data producers push data
into queues and consumers pull data out of queues.
● What are Queues? They are used to separate out single
producer-consumer communication.
● At times, there might be some mismatch in the push-pull rates.
Queues act as a buffer which helps in situations when there is a
mismatch between the rate at which the producers push data and the
rate at which the consumer pulls the data.
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Exclusive Pair

● It's a bi-directional, full duplex communication model in which a

dedicated communication link is set between the client and the
server.
● The connection remains open until the client sends a request to close
the connection.
● The client and server can send messages to one another after
configuring the connection. As soon as the connection is terminated,
no exchange of messages would take place between the client and
the server.
● The Server has the record of all the connections which has been
opened.
● This model is a stateful type.
● Example(s):- Websockets.

IoT Communication APIs.

What are APIs?
● An API is an interface used by programs to access an application.
● It enables a program to send commands to another program and receive
replies from the app.
● IoT APIs are the interface points between an IoT device and the Internet
and/or other network components.
Websocket based APIs
● Websocket APIs enable bi-directional and duplex communication between
customers and servers.
● It works on the principle of the exclusive pair model. Can you recall it? Yes.
Once a connection is set up, there is a constant exchange of messages
between the client and the server. All we need is to establish a dedicated
connection to start the process. the communication goes on unless the
connection is terminated.
● It is a stateful type.
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● Due to one time dedicated connection setup, there is less overhead, lower
traffic and less latency and high throughput.
● So Web socket is the most suitable IoT Communication APIs for IoT System.
REST-based APIs (not so important topic)
● Representational state transfer (REST) is a set of architectural principles by
which you can design Web services, the Web APIs that focus on the
system's resources and how resource states are addressed and transferred.
● URIs(example:- example.com/api/tasks) are used to depict resources in the
RESTful web service.
● Client tries to access these resources via URIs using commands like GET,
PUT, POST, DELETE and so on that are defined by HTTP.
● In response, the server responds with a JSON object or XML file.
● The REST APIs follow the request-response model.

IoT Enabling Technologies.

IoT primarily exploits standard protocols and networking technologies. However,
the major enabling technologies and protocols of IoT are RFID, NFC, low-energy
Bluetooth, low-energy wireless, low-energy radio protocols, LTE-A, and
WiFi-Direct. These technologies support the specific networking functionality
needed in an IoT system in contrast to a standard uniform network of common
systems.
NFC and RFID
RFID (radio-frequency identification) and NFC (near-field communication) provide
simple, low energy, and versatile options for identity and access tokens,
connection bootstrapping, and payments.
RFID technology employs 2-way radio transmitter-receivers to identify and track
tags associated with objects.
NFC consists of communication protocols for electronic devices, typically a
mobile device and a standard device.
Low-Energy Bluetooth
This technology supports the low-power, long-use need of IoT function while
exploiting a standard technology with native support across systems.
Low-Energy Wireless
This technology replaces the most power hungry aspect of an IoT system. Though
sensors and other elements can power down over long periods, communication
links (i.e., wireless) must remain in listening mode. Low-energy wireless not only
reduces consumption, but also extends the life of the device.
Radio Protocols
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ZigBee, Z-Wave, and Thread are radio protocols for creating low-rate private area
networks. These technologies are low-power, but offer high throughput unlike
many similar options. This increases the power of small local device networks
without the typical costs.
LTE-A
LTE-A, or LTE Advanced, delivers an important upgrade to LTE technology by
increasing not only its coverage, but also reducing its latency and raising its
throughput. It gives IoT tremendous power through expanding its range, with its
most significant applications being vehicles.
WiFi-Direct
WiFi-Direct eliminates the need for an access point. It allows P2P (peer-to-peer)
connections with the speed of WiFi, but with lower latency. WiFi-Direct eliminates
an element of a network that often bogs it down, and it does not compromise on
speed or throughput.
Other Important IoT enabling technologies:
Wireless Sensor Network
A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor the
environmental and physical conditions. A wireless sensor network consists of end
nodes, routers and coordinators.
Cloud Computing
It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over the
internet. Cloud means something which is present in remote locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like
databases, web servers, storage, any device, and any software over the internet.
Big Data Analytics
It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data. Collection
of data whose volume, velocity or variety is simply too massive and tough to store,
control, process and examine the data using traditional databases.
Communications Protocols
They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and
linking to applications. Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data
over the network. Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single
communication.
Embedded System
It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.
It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units
(Ethernet Wi-Fi adapters), input output units (display keyword etc. ) and storage
devices (flash memory). It collects the data and sends it to the internet.
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Internet of Things
Unit two.

Machine to Machine (M2M)

M2M stands for Machine to Machine communication. It is a direct communication
system between the devices using wired or wireless communications channels
without any human interaction. It collects the data and shares it with other
connected devices. It is a technology that allows devices without the use of the
internet to connect between devices. Various applications, such as defense,
monitoring and tracking, production and facility management, are provided by
M2M communications. M2M technology may be present in offices, shopping malls,
houses, and many other places. A common example of a machine to machine is
controlling electrical devices like fans and bulbs using Bluetooth from the
smartphone. Here, the smartphone and electrical devices are the two interacting
devices with each other (now you can elaborate this).
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Difference between IoT and M2M

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Software Defined Networking (SDN)

SDN stands for Software Defined Network which is a networking architecture
approach. It enables the control and management of the network using software
applications. Through Software Defined Network (SDN) networking behavior of the
entire network and its devices are programmed in a centrally controlled manner
through software applications using open APIs.
Various planes involved in networking.
● Data Plane:
All the activities involving as well as resulting from data packets sent by the
end-user belong to this plane.
● Control Plane:
All activities necessary to perform data plane activities but do not involve
end-user data packets belong to this plane. In other words, this is the brain
of the network.

Why (SDN) is important?

Better Network Connectivity: SDN provides very better network connectivity and
a faster data transfer rate.
Better Deployment of Applications: Deployment of new applications, services,
and many business models can be sped up using this.
Better Security: Software-defined network provides better visibility throughout
the network.
Better Control with High Speed: Software-defined networking provides better
speed than other networking types.

Where SDN is used?

Enterprises use SDN, the most widely used method for application deployment, to
deploy applications faster while lowering overall deployment and operating costs.
SDN allows IT administrators to manage and provision network services from a
single location.
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Difference between SDN and Traditional Networking

SDN Architecture is?

DIRECTLY PROGRAMMABLE
Network control is directly programmable because it is decoupled from
forwarding functions.
AGILE
Abstracting control from forwarding lets administrators dynamically adjust
network-wide traffic flow to meet changing needs.
CENTRALLY MANAGED
Network intelligence is (logically) centralized in software-based SDN controllers
that maintain a global view of the network, which appears to applications and
policy engines as a single, logical switch.
PROGRAMMATICALLY CONFIGURED
SDN lets network managers configure, manage, secure, and optimize network
resources very quickly via dynamic, automated SDN programs,
OPEN STANDARDS-BASED AND VENDOR-NEUTRAL
When implemented through open standards, SDN simplifies network design and
operation because instructions are provided by SDN controllers instead of
multiple, vendor-specific devices and protocols.

Different Models in SDN

Open SDN: Network administrators use a protocol like OpenFlow to control the
behavior of virtual and physical switches at the data plane level.
SDN by APIs: Instead of using an open protocol, application programming
interfaces control how data moves through the network on each device.
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SDN Overlay Model: Another type of software-defined networking runs a virtual

network on top of an existing hardware infrastructure, creating dynamic tunnels to
different on-premise and remote data centers.
Hybrid SDN: This model combines software-defined networking with traditional
networking protocols in one environment to support different functions on a
network.

Networks Functions Virtualization (NFV)

Network functions virtualization (NFV) allows service providers and operators to
abstract network services, such as firewalling and load balancing, into software
that runs on basic servers. NFV virtualizes the network services and applications
that once ran on hardware appliances. In fact, network functions virtualization
could replace many network devices with more flexible software running on bare
metal servers, enabling a new kind of service chaining. Network functions
virtualization (NFV) is the replacement of network appliance hardware with virtual
machines. The virtual machines use a hypervisor to run networking software and
processes such as routing and load balancing.
Hypervisor:
(A hypervisor, also known as a virtual machine monitor or VMM, is software that
creates and runs virtual machines (VMs). A hypervisor allows one host computer to
support multiple guest VMs by virtually sharing its resources, such as memory and
processing. Hypervisors make it possible to use more of a system’s available
resources and provide greater IT mobility since the guest VMs are independent of
the host hardware.)

NFV Architecture
An individual proprietary hardware component, such as a router, switch, gateway,
firewall, load balancer, or intrusion detection system, performs a specific
networking function in a typical network architecture. A virtualized network
substitutes software programs that operate on virtual machines for these pieces
of hardware to carry out networking operations. Three components make up an
NFV architecture:
Centralized virtual network infrastructure: The foundation of an NFV
infrastructure can be either a platform for managing containers or a hypervisor
that abstracts the resources for computation, storage, and networking.
Applications: Software delivers many forms of network functionality by
substituting for the hardware elements of a conventional network design
(virtualized network functions).
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Framework: To manage the infrastructure and provide network functionality, a

framework is required (commonly abbreviated as MANO, meaning Management,
Automation, and Network Orchestration).

Reasons to use NFV / Advantages of NFV

Pay-as-you-go: Pay-as-you-go NFV models can reduce costs because businesses
pay only for what they need.
Fewer appliances: Because NFV runs on virtual machines instead of physical
machines, fewer appliances are necessary and operational costs are lower.
Scalability: Scaling the network architecture with virtual machines is faster and
easier, and it does not require purchasing additional hardware.
(You can also write reduced hardware needs, lesser time, saves space and power)

SDN, NFV, Network Virtualization and WhiteBox networking

They are all complementary approaches, they offers the following services:
SDN: separates the network’s control (brains) and forwarding (muscle) planes and
provides a centralized view of the distributed network for more efficient
orchestration and automation of network services.
NFV: focuses on optimizing the network services themselves. NFV decouples the
network functions, such as DNS, caching, etc., from proprietary hardware
appliances, so they can run in software to accelerate service innovation and
provisioning, particularly within service provider environments.
NV: ensures the network can integrate with and support the demands of
virtualized architectures, particularly those with multi-tenancy requirements.
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White Box: uses network devices, such as switches and routers, that as based on
“generic” merchant silicon networking networking chipset available for anyone to
buy, as opposed to proprietary silicon chips designed by and for a single
networking vendor.

Difference between SDN and NFV

Data Storage in IoT

IoT collects data from smart devices, environmental sensors, smartphones,
intelligent vehicles, and all kinds of sensors. The data can then be sent over the
network with common standard protocols such as MQTT, CoAP, and HTTP to the
edge gateway (the edge gateway provides functionalities, such as sensor data
aggregation, pre-processing of the data, and securing connectivity to the cloud)
and then the data is sent to the cloud where it is stored for short-term and
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long-term applications. In the cloud, there are various database management

systems built for IoT applications. The systems can store and manage those
enormous amounts of data for further applications. IOT can generate a massive
amount of data and that data can be very useful when we use the concepts of
data analytics and data science. This data is used to create actionable insights to
unlock data-driven business intelligence, optimize operations, engage more
customers, control processes automatically, fitness goals, etc.

Cloud based services for IoT

One component that improves the success of the Internet of Things is Cloud
Computing. Cloud computing enables users to perform computing tasks using
services provided over the Internet. The use of the Internet of Things in
conjunction with cloud technologies has become a kind of catalyst: the Internet of
Things and cloud computing are now related to each other. These are true
technologies of the future that will bring many benefits.

Cloud Platforms for IoT:

Microsoft Azure IoT Suite
Microsoft Azure provides multiple services to create IoT solutions. It enhances
your profitability and productivity with pre-built connected solutions.

Google Cloud’s IoT Platform

Google's platform is among the best platforms we currently have. Google has an
end-to-end platform for Internet-of-Things solutions. It allows you to easily
connect, store, and manage IoT data.

IBM Watson IoT Platform

IBM Watson is a powerful platform backed by IBM ’s the Bluemix and hybrid cloud
PaaS (platform as a service) development platform. By providing easy sample
apps and interfaces for IoT services, they make it accessible to beginners.

AWS IoT Platform

Amazon made it much easier for developers to collect data from sensors and
Internet-connected devices. They help you collect and send data to the cloud and
analyze that information to provide the ability to manage devices.

Cisco IoT Cloud Connect

Cisco Internet of Things accelerates digital transformation and actions from your
data. Cisco IoT Cloud Connect is a mobile, cloud-based suite. It offers solutions for
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mobile operators to provide phenomenal IoT experience. It provides flexible

deployment options for your devices.

Salesforce IoT Cloud

Salesforce IoT Cloud is powered by Salesforce Thunder. It gathers data from
devices, websites, applications, and partners to trigger actions for real-time
responses. Salesforce combined with IoT delivers improved customer service.

Benefits and functions of IoT and Cloud:

There are many benefits of combining these services –

● IoT Cloud Computing provides many connectivity options, implying large

network access. People use a wide range of devices to gain access to cloud
computing resources: mobile devices, tablets, laptops. This is convenient for
users but creates the problem of the need for network access points.
● Developers can use IoT cloud computing on-demand. In other words, it is a
web service accessed without special permission or any help. The only
requirement is Internet access.
● Based on the request, users can scale the service according to their needs.
Fast and flexible means you can expand storage space, edit software
settings, and work with the number of users. Due to this characteristic, it is
possible to provide deep computing power and storage.
● Cloud Computing implies the pooling of resources. It influences increased
collaboration and builds close connections between users.
● As the number of IoT devices and automation in use grows, security
concerns emerge. Cloud solutions provide companies with reliable
authentication and encryption protocols.
● Finally, IoT cloud computing is convenient because you get exactly as much
from the service as you pay. This means that costs vary depending on use:
the provider measures your usage statistics. A growing network of objects
with IP addresses is needed to connect to the Internet and exchange data
between the components of the network.

End of Unit 2.
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Internet of Things
Unit Three

IoT Design Methodology

Designing IoT systems can be a complex and challenging task as these systems
involve interactions between various components. A wide range of choices are
available for each component. IoT designers often tend to design the system
keeping specific products in mind. This design methodology is independent of
specific product, service or programming language. IoT systems designed with
this methodology will have reduced design time, testing time, maintenance time,
complexity and better interoperability.

The steps involved in the designing of an IoT system or application can be

summarized as shown in the below figure:
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We are taking an example of home automation system, throughout this topic.

1) Purpose and Requirements Specification

First step is to define the purpose and requirements of the system. In this step, the
purpose of the system, its behavior and requirements are captured.
Requirements can be:
● Data collection requirements
● Data analysis requirements
● System management requirements
● Security requirements
● User interface requirements
For home automation system the purpose and requirements specification is as
follows:

2) Process Model Specification

The use cases of the IoT system are formally described based on or derived from
the purpose and requirements specifications. The process specification for home
automation system is as shown below:
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3) Domain Model Specification

The domain model describes the main concepts, entities and objects in the
domain of the IoT system to be designed. Domain model defines the attributes of
the objects and relationships between objects. The domain model is independent
of any specific technology or platform. Using domain model system designers can
get an understanding of the IoT domain for which the system is to be designed.
The entities, objects and concepts defined in the domain model of home
automation system include the following:
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The domain model specification diagram for home automation system is as shown
in the below figure:

4) Information Model Specification

Information model defines the structure of all the information in the IoT system.
Does not describe how the information is stored and represented. To define the
information model, we first list the virtual entities. Later more details like attributes
and relationships are added. The information model specification for home
automation system is as shown below:
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5) Service Specifications
The service specification defines the following:
● Services in the system
● Service types
● Service inputs/output
● Service endpoints
● Service schedules
● Service effects
For each state and attribute in the process specification and information model,
we define a service. Services either change the state of attributes or retrieve their
current values. The service specification for each state in home automation
systems are as shown below:
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6) IoT Level Specification

Based on the requirements we will choose the IoT application deployment level.
The deployment level for the home automation system is shown in the below:

7) Functional View Specification

The functional view defines the functions of the IoT systems grouped into various
functional groups. Each functional group provides functionalities for interacting
with concepts in the domain model and information related to the concepts. The
functional groups in a functional view include: Device, Communication, Services,
Management, Security, and Application. The functional view specification for
home automation system is shown in the below figure:
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8) Operational View Specification

In this step, various options related to the IoT system deployment and operation
are defined, such as:
● Service hosting options
● Storage options
● Device options
● Application hosting options
The options chosen for home automation system are as shown in the below figure:

9) Device and Component Integration

In this step the devices like sensors, computing devices and other components are
integrated together. There is the interconnection of different components in our
home automation system.

10) Application Development

Using all the information from previous steps, we will develop the application
(code) for the IoT system. The application interface for home automation system is
shown below:
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Some other important topics:

Arduino
Arduino is an open-source platform used for building electronics projects. Arduino
consists of both a physical programmable circuit board (often referred to as a
microcontroller) and a piece of software, or IDE (Integrated Development
Environment) that runs on your computer, used to write and upload computer
code to the physical board.

The Arduino platform has become quite popular with people just starting out with
electronics, and for good reason. Unlike most previous programmable circuit
boards, the Arduino does not need a separate piece of hardware (called a
programmer) in order to load new code onto the board – you can simply use a
USB cable. Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it
easier to learn to program.

Raspberry Pi
A Raspberry Pi is a credit card-sized computer originally designed for education,
inspired by the 1981 BBC Micro. Creator Eben Upton's goal was to create a
low-cost device that would improve programming skills and hardware
understanding at the pre-university level. But thanks to its small size and
accessible price, it was quickly adopted by tinkerers, makers, and electronics
enthusiasts for projects that require more than a basic microcontroller (such as
Arduino devices).

The Raspberry Pi is slower than a modern laptop or desktop but is still a complete
Linux computer and can provide all the expected abilities that implies, at a
low-power consumption level.

10 Steps to design a successful enterprise IoT strategy:

1. Define business goals and the expected outcome
2. Identify the hardware and devices participating in the connected solution
3. Prepare the data points and metrics aligned with the outcome
4. Define the device connectivity and data format
5. Implement security, governance, and policy across each layer
6. Identify reference datasets required for transforming sensor data
7. Factor in machine learning and predictive analysis
8. Define hot path analytics for near real-time processing
9. Define cold path analytics for long-term, batch processing
10. Design an intuitive user experience for business decision makers
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Internet of Things
Unit Four

Security Issues in IoT

(Mostly theoretical topics in this unit)
The security of IoT devices has been a cause for concern for some time and has
had the inevitable consequence of allowing both small and large-scale attacks.
Security for the Internet of Things means protecting internet devices and the
networks they connect to from online threats and breaches. This is achieved by
identifying, monitoring, and addressing potential security vulnerabilities across
devices. IoT security is the practice that keeps IoT systems safe.

What Is IoT Security?

IoT security is an umbrella term that covers the strategies, tools, processes,
systems, and methods used to protect all aspects of the internet of things.
Included in IoT security is the protection of the physical components, applications,
data, and network connections to ensure the availability, integrity, and
confidentiality of IoT ecosystems.

Security challenges abound, because of the high volume of flaws regularly

discovered in IoT systems. Robust IoT security includes all facets of protection,
including hardening components, monitoring, keeping firmware updated, access
management, threat response, and remediation of vulnerabilities. IoT security is
critical as these systems are sprawling and vulnerable, making them a
highly-targeted attack vector. Securing IoT devices from unauthorized access
ensures that they do not become a gateway into other parts of the network or leak
sensitive information. IoT security vulnerabilities are found in everything from
vehicles and smart grids to watches and smart home devices. For example,
researchers found webcams that could be easily hacked to gain access to
networks and smartwatches containing security vulnerabilities that allowed
hackers to track the wearer’s location and eavesdrop on conversations.

The Importance of IoT Security

IoT is widely believed to be one of the most significant security vulnerabilities that
impact nearly everyone—consumers, organizations, and governments. For all of
the convenience and value derived from IoT systems, the risks are unparalleled.
The importance of IoT security cannot be overstated, as these devices provide
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cybercriminals with a vast and accessible attack surface. IoT security provides the
vital protections needed for these vulnerable devices. Developers of IoT systems
are known to focus on the functionality of the devices and not on security. This
amplifies the importance of IoT security and for users and IT teams to be
responsible for implementing protections.

How to secure IoT?

Assign an administrator of things. Having a person act as an administrator of IoT
devices and the network can help minimize security oversights and exposures.
They will be in charge of ensuring IoT device security, even at home. The role is
critical especially during this time of WFH setups, where IT experts have limited
control in securing home networks that now have a stronger influence on work
networks.
Regularly check for patches and updates. Vulnerabilities are a major and constant
issue in the field of the IoT. This is because vulnerabilities can come from any layer
of IoT devices. Even older vulnerabilities are still being used by cybercriminals in
order to infect devices, demonstrating just how long unpatched devices can stay
online.
Use strong and unique passwords for all accounts. Strong passwords help prevent
many cyberattacks. Password managers can help users create unique and strong
passwords that users can store in the app or software itself.
Prioritize Wi-Fi security. Some of the ways users can do this include enabling the
router firewall, disabling WPS and enabling the WPA2 security protocol, and using
a strong password for Wi-Fi access. Ensuring secure router settings is also a big
part of this step.
Monitor baseline network and device behavior. Cyberattacks can be difficult to
detect. Knowing the baseline behavior (speed, typical bandwidth, etc.) of devices
and the network can help users watch for deviations that hint at malware
infections.
Apply network segmentation. Users can minimize the risk of IoT-related attacks by
creating an independent network for IoT devices and another for guest
connections. Network segmentation also helps prevent the spread of attacks, and
isolate possibly problematic devices that cannot be immediately taken offline.
Secure the network and use it to strengthen security. IoT devices can place
networks at risk, but networks can also serve as ground level through which users
can implement security measures that cover all connected devices.
Secure IoT-cloud convergence and apply cloud-based solutions. The IoT and the
cloud are becoming increasingly integrated. It is important to look at the security
implications of each technology to the other. Cloud-based solutions can also be
considered to deliver added security and processing.
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Consider security solutions and tools. A large hurdle that users face in trying to
secure their IoT ecosystems is the limited capacity in which they can implement
these steps. Some device settings might have restricted access and are difficult to
configure. In such cases users can supplement their efforts by considering security
solutions that provide multi-layered protection and endpoint encryption.
Take into consideration the different protocols used by IoT devices. To
communicate, IoT devices use not only internet protocols, but also a huge set of
different networking protocols, from the well-known Bluetooth and Near Field
Communication (aka NFC), to the lesser-known LoRA, LoRaWAN and optical,
infrared communication. Administrators must understand the whole set of
protocols used in their IoT systems in order to reduce risks and prevent threats.
Secure the heavy use of GPS. Some IoT devices and applications use GPS heavily,
which carries potential security concerns. Organizations, in particular, need to be
wary of cases where GPS signals can be jammed or even faked, especially if they
use positioning systems for manufacturing, monitoring, and other functions.

IoT Vulnerabilities

1. Weak, Guessable Passwords- Use of easily brute forced, publicly available, or

unchangeable credentials, including backdoors in firmware or client software that
grants unauthorized access to deployed systems.
2. Insecure Network Services- Unneeded or insecure network services running on
the device itself, especially those exposed to the internet, that compromise the
confidentiality, integrity/authenticity, or availability of information or allow
unauthorized remote control.
3. Insecure Ecosystem Interfaces- Insecure web, backend API, cloud, or mobile
interfaces in the ecosystem outside of the device that allows compromise of the
device or its related components. Common issues include a lack of
authentication/authorization, lacking or weak encryption, and a lack of input and
output filtering.
4. Lack of Secure Update Mechanism- Lack of ability to securely update the
device. This includes lack of firmware validation on devices, lack of secure
delivery (un-encrypted in transit), lack of anti-rollback mechanisms, and lack of
notifications of security changes due to updates.
5. Use of Insecure or Outdated Components- Use of deprecated or insecure
software components/libraries that could allow the device to be compromised.
This includes insecure customization of operating system platforms, and the use
of third-party software or hardware components from a compromised supply
chain.
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6. Insufficient Privacy Protection- User’s personal information stored on the device

or in the ecosystem that is used insecurely, improperly, or without permission.
7. Insecure Data Transfer and Storage- Lack of encryption or access control of
sensitive data anywhere within the ecosystem, including at rest, in transit, or
during processing.
8. Lack of Device Management- Lack of security support on devices deployed in
production, including asset management, update management, secure
decommissioning, systems monitoring, and response capabilities.

Tomography

Computational Tomography
● A computing method of producing a three-dimensional picture of the
internal structures of an object
● observation and recording of the differences in effects on passage of energy
waves impinging on those structures

Computational Security Tomography

● Identifying the network vulnerabilities
● Used in computational security in complex set of networks
● Needed for the design of efficient attack strategies

Security Tomography
● Means finding attack vulnerable sections/subsections
● Observations of behavior, using a finite number of objects or threats in a
complex set of subsystems

Security Reference Models of different companies:

Cisco's reference model for security. It's a layered architecture with the lowest
layers being device centric and the highest layers being more cloud centric. For
control, information flows top to bottom. For monitoring, the flow is opposite.
Security is considered at each layer.
IBM's own model emphasizes the sensor gateway and IoT gateway where security
is important. However, it too recognizes that security concerns the entire system. It
identifies data security, device security, user security and application security.
Microsoft Azure divides the system into things (IoT devices), insights (data
processing in the cloud), and action (business integration and machine learning).
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Security is a cross-cutting concern across all three parts. We need secure

provisioning of devices, secure connectivity, data protection.

Network Tomography
● Refers to study of vulnerabilities and security aspects for network
monitoring in a complex system
● WSNs
● RFIDs networks
● IoT networks
● Allocating resources and ensuring the network reliability and security

Layer Attacker Model

How we are supposed to memorize/understand this shit :(

But sadly it is what it is.

Layer 1 Attacks Solution

Depends on the devices used
For example, link level provisioning of security
Uses—BT LE link level AES-CCM 128 [Advanced Encryption
Standard-Counter-Rijndael algorithm , Cryptography Cipher] authenticated
encryption algorithm for confidentiality and authentication, and
ZigBee at link level security using AES-CCM-128.
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Layer 2 Attacks Solution

Programming the network switches to prevent internal node attacks during use of
DHCP or Spanning Tree Protocol (STP, 802.1)
Additional controls:
● ARP inspection,
● Disabling unused ports and
● Enforcing effective security on VLAN’s (Virtual LAN) to prevent VLAN
hopping.
● Provisions for *MAS [Monetary Authority of Singapore] for security, root key
data store, and devices and data authentication in LWM2M OMA
specification for device gateway to Internet.

Layer 3 Attacks Solution

● Use of temper resistant router
● Use of packet filtering
● A firewall for controlling routing messages and packets data between layers
3 and 4 for reducing the risks.

Layer 4 Attacks Solution

● Port scanning method to Identify the vulnerable port
● Effective firewall configuring and opening of network ports and locking
down ports only to those required
● DTLS between layers 5 and 4
● The DTLS three types of security services: integrity, authentication and
confidentiality.
● Inclusion of SASL (Simple Authentication and Security Layer) for security
when using the XMPP protocol.

Layer 5 and 6 Attacks Solution

● Results of poor coding practices of Application programmer
● Use HTTPS communication link for Web applications/services.

HTTPS
● Content privacy domain header:
● Allows use of digital signatures and encryption, various encryption options
● Server-client negotiations
● Cryptographic scheme is a Property assigned for the link
● Specific algorithm is the Value assigned
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● Direction specification done: One-way or two-way security

Identity and Access Management (IAM)

Identity and access management (IAM) ensures that the right people and job roles
in your organization (identities) can access the tools they need to do their jobs.
IAM systems are designed to perform three key tasks: identify, authenticate, and
authorize. Meaning, only the right persons should have access to computers,
hardware, software apps, any IT resources, or perform specific tasks.

IAM Framework
1. A database containing users’ identities and access privileges
2. IAM tools for creating, monitoring, modifying, and deleting access privileges
3. A system for auditing login and access history

Role-Based Access
Many IAM systems use role-based access control (RBAC). Under this approach,
there are predefined job roles with specific sets of access privileges.
Single Sign-On
Some IAM systems implement Single Sign-On (SSO). With SSO, users only need to
verify themselves one time. They would then be given access to all systems
without the need to log separately into each system.
Multi-Factor Authentication
Whenever extra steps are required for authentication, it’s either a two-factor
authentication (2FA) or multi-factor authentication (MFA). This authentication
process combines something the user knows (like a password) with something the
user has (like a security token or OTP) or something that’s part of the user’s body
(like biometrics).

Benefits of IAM
IAM enhances security. This is perhaps the most important benefit organizations
can get from IAM. By controlling user access, companies can eliminate instances
of data breaches, identity theft, and illegal access to confidential information. IAM
can prevent the spread of compromised login credentials, avoid unauthorized
entry to the organization’s network, and provide protection against ransomware,
hacking, phishing, and other kinds of cyber attacks.
IAM streamlines IT workload. Whenever a security policy gets updated, all access
privileges across the organization can be changed in one sweep. IAM can also
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reduce the number of tickets sent to the IT helpdesk regarding password resets.
Some systems even have automation set for tedious IT tasks.
IAM helps in compliance. With IAM, companies can quickly meet the requirements
of industry regulations (like HIPAA and GDPR) or implement IAM best practices.
IAM allows collaboration and enhances productivity. Companies can provide
outsiders (like customers, suppliers, and visitors) access to their networks without
jeopardizing security.
IAM improves user experience. There's no need to enter multiple passwords to
access multiple systems under SSO. If biometrics or smart cards are used, users
may have no more need to remember complex passwords.

Access Control

● Access control is a data security process that enables organizations to

manage who is authorized to access corporate data and resources.
● Secure access control uses policies that verify users are who they claim to
be and ensures appropriate control access levels are granted to users.
● Implementing access control is a crucial component of web application
security, ensuring only the right users have the right level of access to the
right resources.
● The process is critical to helping organizations avoid data breaches and
fighting attack vectors, such as a buffer overflow attack, KRACK attack,
on-path attack, or phishing attack.

Physical access control: limits access to campuses, building and other physical
assets, e.g. a proximity card to unlock a door.
Logical access control: limits access to computers, networks, files and other
sensitive data, e.g. a username and password.

Components of Access Control

Access control is managed through several components:
1. Authentication
Authentication is the initial process of establishing the identity of a user. For
example, when a user signs in to their email service or online banking account
with a username and password combination, their identity has been
authenticated. However, authentication alone is not sufficient to protect
organizations’ data.
2. Authorization
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Authorization adds an extra layer of security to the authentication process. It

specifies access rights and privileges to resources to determine whether the user
should be granted access to data or make a specific transaction.
3. Access
Once a user has completed the authentication and authorization steps, their
identity will be verified. This grants them access to the resource they are
attempting to log in to.
4. Manage
Organizations can manage their access control system by adding and removing
the authentication and authorization of their users and systems. Managing these
systems can become complex in modern IT environments that comprise cloud
services and on-premises systems.
5. Audit
Organizations can enforce the principle of least privilege through the access
control audit process. This enables them to gather data around user activity and
analyze that information to discover potential access violations.

Different types of Access Control (one-time read)

1. Attribute-based Access Control (ABAC)
ABAC is a dynamic, context-based policy that defines access based on policies
granted to users. The system is used in identity and access management (IAM)
frameworks.
2. Discretionary Access Control (DAC)
DAC models allow the data owner to decide access control by assigning access
rights to rules that users specify. When a user is granted access to a system, they
can then provide access to other users as they see fit.
3. Mandatory Access Control (MAC)
MAC places strict policies on individual users and the data, resources, and systems
they want to access. The policies are managed by an organization’s administrator.
Users are not able to alter, revoke, or set permissions.

4. Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)

RBAC creates permissions based on groups of users, roles that users hold, and
actions that users take. Users are able to perform any action enabled to their role
and cannot change the access control level they are assigned.
5. Break-glass Access Control
Break-glass access control involves the creation of an emergency account that
bypasses regular permissions. In the event of a critical emergency, the user is
given immediate access to a system or account they would not usually be
authorized to use.
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6. Rule-based Access Control

A rule-based approach sees a system admin define rules that govern access to
corporate resources. These rules are typically built around conditions, such as the
location or time of day that users access resources.

Difference between Authentication and Authorization

Internet of Things
Unit Five

Previously there were only IoT applications in this unit but in the ppt shared on the
official group some new topics are also mentioned in addition with applications.
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These new topics are: [ Sensor Technology, Participatory Sensing, Industrial IOT,
Actuator, Sensor Data Communication Protocols, Radio Frequency Identification
technology, Wireless Sensor Network Technology ],
I am adding all these topics in this pdf.

Sensor Technology
Sensors are now found in a wide variety of applications, such as smart mobile
devices, automotive systems, industrial control, healthcare, oil exploration and
climate monitoring. Sensors are used almost everywhere, and now sensor
technology is beginning to closely mimic the ultimate sensing machine @ the
human being. A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input
from the physical environment. The specific input could be light, heat, motion,
moisture, pressure, or any one of a great number of other environmental
phenomena.
Smart Sensor
A smart sensor is a device that takes input from the physical environment and
uses built-in compute resources to perform predefined functions upon detection
of specific input and then process data before passing it on.
Difference between Sensor and Transducer
The main difference between sensor and transducer is that a transducer is a
device that can convert energy from one form to another, whereas a sensor is a
device that can detect a physical quantity and convert the data into an electrical
signal. Sensors are also a type of transducers.

Participatory Sensing
Participatory sensing is the process whereby individuals and communities use
ever more capable mobile phones and cloud services to collect and analyze
systematic data for use in discovery. Participatory sensing is the concept of
communities (or other groups of people) contributing sensory information to form
a body of knowledge. Participatory sensing can be used to retrieve information
about the environment, weather, urban mobility, congestion as well as any other
sensory information that collectively forms knowledge.
Industrial IoT (IIOT)
● IIoT incorporates machine learning and big data technology, harnessing the
sensor data, machine-to-machine (M2M) communication and automation
technologies that have existed in industrial settings for years.
● The driving philosophy behind the IIoT is that smart machines are better
than humans at accurately, consistently capturing and communicating data.
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● This data can enable companies to pick up on inefficiencies and problems

sooner, saving time and money and supporting business intelligence efforts.
● In manufacturing specifically, IIoT holds great potential for quality control,
sustainable and green practices, supply chain traceability and overall
supply chain efficiency.
● The Industrial Internet of Things originally described the IoT (Internet of
Things) as it is used across several industries such as manufacturing,
logistics, oil and gas, transportation, energy/utilities, mining and metals,
aviation and other industrial sectors and in use cases which are typical to
these industries.

Benefits of IIOT
● Improving operational efficiency.
● Improving productivity.
● Creating new business opportunities.
● Reducing downtime.
● Maximizing asset utilization.

Use Cases of IIOT

1. Smart factory applications and smart warehousing.
2. Predictive and remote maintenance.
3. Freight, goods and transportation monitoring.
4. Connected logistics.
5. Smart metering and smart grid.
6. Smart environment solutions.
7. Smart city applications.
8. Smart farming and livestock monitoring.
9. Industrial security systems
10. Energy consumption optimization
11. Industrial heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
12. Manufacturing equipment monitoring.
13. Asset tracking and smart logistics.

Actuator
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and
controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple
terms, it is a "mover". An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy.
An actuator is a motor that converts energy into torque which then moves or
controls a mechanism or a system into which it has been incorporated. It can
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introduce motion as well as prevent it. An actuator typically runs on electric or

pressure (such as hydraulic or pneumatic).

Context Awareness
● Sensor fusion, along with embedded processing and connectivity, enables
context awareness, and context awareness enables a new world of services.
● Context is defined as the circumstances or facts that form the setting for an
event, statement, situation or idea.
● Context-aware apps examine who, where, when and what, and the software
designer uses this contextual information to determine why a situation is
happening and then encodes some action in the application.
● Based on this definition, the four most important categories of information
to formulate a context-aware action are:
1. Identity
2. Location
3. Time
4. Activity

Sensor Data Communication Protocols

Application Layer Protocols for WSNs

1) Sensor Management Protocol

SMP is a management protocol that provides the software operations needed to
perform the following administrative tasks:
• Introducing the rules related to data aggregation, attribute-based naming and
clustering to the sensor nodes,
• Exchanging data related to the location finding algorithms,
• Time synchronization of the sensor nodes,
• Moving sensor nodes,
• Turning sensor nodes on and off,
• Querying the sensor network configuration and the status of nodes, and
re-configuring the sensor network, and
• Authentication, key distribution and security in data communications.
2) Task Assignment and Data Advertisement Protocol
Here, users send their interest to a sensor node, a subset of the nodes or whole
network. This interest may be about a certain attribute of the phenomenon or a
triggering event. Another approach is the advertisement of available data in which
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the sensor nodes advertise the available data to the users, and the users query the
data which they are interested in. An application layer protocol that provides user
the software with efficient interfaces for interest dissemination is useful for lower
layer operations, such as routing.

3) Sensor Query and Data Dissemination Protocol (SQDDP)

It provides user applications with interfaces to issue queries, respond to queries
and collect incoming replies. These queries are generally not issued to particular
nodes. Instead, attribute-based or location-based naming is preferred.

Likewise, the sensor query and tasking language (SQTL) is proposed as an

application that provides even a larger set of services. SQTL supports three types
of events, which are defined by keywords receive, every, and expire. Receive
keyword defines events generated by a sensor node when the sensor node
receives a message; every keyword defines events occurred periodically due to a
timer time-out; and expire keyword defines the events occurred when a timer is
expired. If a sensor node receives a message that is intended for it and contains a
script, the sensor node then executes the script. Although SQTL is proposed,
different types of SQDDP can be developed for various applications.
The use of SQDDPs may be unique to each application.

Transport Layer Protocol for WSNs

The main objectives and the desired features of the transport layer protocols that
can address the unique requirements of the
wireless sensor networks paradigm can be stated as follows:
● Reliable Transport
● Congestion Control
● Self-configuration
● Energy Awareness
● Biased Implementation
● Constrained Routing/Addressing
Radio Frequency Identification Technology (RFID)
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically
identify and track tags attached to objects. The tags contain electronically-stored
information. RFID is one method for Automatic Identification and Data Capture
(AIDC). RFID refers to a wireless system, which has two components: tags and
readers. The reader is a device that has one or more antennas that emit radio
waves and receive signals back from the RFID tag. RFID methods utilize radio
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waves to accomplish this. At a simple level, RFID systems consist of three

components: an RFID tag or smart label, an RFID reader, and an antenna. RFID tags
contain an integrated circuit and an antenna, which are used to transmit data to
the RFID reader (also called an interrogator).

Wireless Sensor Network Technology (WSN)

A Wireless Sensor Network is one kind of wireless network that includes a large
number of circulating, self-directed, minute, low powered devices named sensor
nodes called motes. These networks certainly cover a huge number of spatially
distributed, little, battery-operated, embedded devices that are networked to
caringly collect, process, and transfer data to the operators, and it has controlled
the capabilities of computing & processing. Nodes are tiny computers, which work
jointly to form networks.

The sensor node is a multi-functional, energy-efficient wireless device. The

applications of motes in industry are widespread. A collection of sensor nodes
collects the data from the surroundings to achieve specific application objectives.
The communication between motes can be done with each other using
transceivers. In a wireless sensor network, the number of mote can be in the order
of hundreds/ even thousands. In contrast with sensor n/ws, Ad Hoc networks will
have fewer nodes without any structure.

WSN Architecture
The most common wireless sensor network architecture follows the OSI
architecture Model. The architecture of the WSN includes five layers and three
cross layers. Mostly in sensor n/w, we require five layers, namely application,
transport, n/w, data link & physical layer. The three cross planes are namely power
management, mobility management, and task management. These layers of the
WSN are used to accomplish the n/w and make the sensors work together in
order to raise the complete efficiency of the network.
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Application Layer
The application layer is liable for traffic management and offers software for
numerous applications that convert the data in a clear form to find positive
information. Sensor’s network is arranged in numerous applications in different
fields such as agricultural, military, environment, medical, etc.

Transport Layer
The function of the transport layer is to deliver congestion avoidance and
reliability where a lot of protocols intended to offer this function are either
practical on the upstream. These protocols use dissimilar mechanisms for loss
recognition and loss recovery. The transport layer is exactly needed when a
system is planned to contact other networks.

Network Layer
The main function of the network layer is routing, it has a lot of tasks based on the
application, but actually, the main tasks are in the power conserving, partial
memory, buffers, and sensor don’t have a universal ID and have to be
self-organized.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer is liable for multiplexing data frame detection, data streams,
MAC, & error control and confirms the reliability of point–point, point– multipoint.

Physical Layer
The physical layer provides an edge for transferring a stream of bits above the
physical medium. This layer is responsible for the selection of frequency,
generation of a carrier frequency, signal detection, Modulation & data encryption.

Limitations of Wireless Sensor Networks

● Possess very little storage capacity – a few hundred kilobytes
● Possess modest processing power-8MHz
● Works in short communication range – consumes a lot of power
● Requires minimal energy – constrains protocols
● Have batteries with a finite life time
● Passive devices provide little energy

Characteristics of Wireless Sensor Network

Rushat/ Internet of Things

● The consumption of Power limits for nodes with batteries

● Capacity to handle with node failures
● Some mobility of nodes and Heterogeneity of nodes
● Scalability to large scale of distribution
● Capability to ensure strict environmental conditions
● Simple to use
● Cross-layer design

Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks

● Network arrangements can be carried out without immovable
infrastructure.
● Apt for the non-reachable places like mountains, over the sea, rural areas
and deep forests.
● Flexible if there is a casual situation when an additional workstation is
required.
● Execution pricing is inexpensive.
● It avoids plenty of wiring.
● It might provide accommodations for the new devices at any time.
● It can be opened by using centralized monitoring.

Applications of IoT
(According to syllabus)
Home Automation, smart lighting, home intrusion detection, smart
cities, smart parking, environment, weather monitoring system, agriculture.

These applications are available on Google you can refer them from there and we
can even write about them with our own imagination.

And in this way we have completed the syllabus of IoT in just 46 pages.
END