2023

PHYSICS CLASS 10
RUNNINGNOTES
This pdf Is the special edition for people who contributed in the study pdf maker
comeption . this was made and edited by slide share group for full details visit
https://www.slideshare.net or download slide share from play store for free

Slide Share
To Abu Obaida Khan
1/8/2023
1
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Contents
7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE ....................................................................................................... 3
8.CHEMICAL BONDING .......................................................................................................................................................13
9. ELECTRIC CURRENT .......................................................................................................................................................18
10 Electromagnetism .............................................................................................................................................................26
11. PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY ........................................................................................................................................30
12 Carbon and its Compounds .................................................................................................................................................35
2. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS ...................................................................................................................................................39
3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS .................................................................................................................................................43
4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES ..................................................................................................................50
5. HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD..............................................................................................................................58
6. ATOMIC STRUCTURE .......................................................................................................................................................61
1. REFLECTION ................................................................................................................................................................65

To Abu Obaida Khan | 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE 2

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE

⓿ Robert Boyle defined an element as any substance that cannot be decomposed into
further simple substances by a physical or chemical change.
⓿ Scientists discovered more than 118 elements. As the number of elements increased, it
became difficult to keep in memory the chemistries of individual elements and their
compounds. So, there was a need to classify them in a better way.
⓿ Various ways have been explored to scientifically classify elements based on their
physical and chemical properties to form their compounds. Atomic numbers and Atomic
weights were used to arrange the elements in order.

⓿ Atomic number: The sum of positive charges in the atom of an element is called
particles the atomic number.
⓿ Atomic Weight: The sum of protons and neutrons in an element is called the atomic
weight. For example, Atomic weight of Helium is A = p + n = 2+2 = 4.
⓿ The prominent scientists among those who classified the elements were Johann
Wolfgang Dobereiner, John Newlands, Mendeleev and Mosley.

DOBEREINER’S LAW OF TRIADS

⓿ The first classification of elements was made by Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner, a
German Chemist. He identified groups of three elements that had the same chemical
properties and called them traid.
⓿ According to Dobereiner “the atomic weight of the middle element is the average of the
atomic weights of the first and third elements”. This statement is called Dobereiner’s law of
triads.
Example for Dobereiner triads: A(Li, Na, K), B (Ca, Sr, Ba), C(Cl, Br, I), D(S, Se,Te) E(Mn,
Cr, Fe)

Limitations of Dobereiner’s Law of Triads :

⓿ All the known elements at that time could not be arranged in the form of triads.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE 3
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

⓿ The law failed for very low mass or for very high mass elements .
⓿ As the techniques improved for measuring atomic masses accurately the law was
unable . to remain strictly valid.

Newland’s Law of Octaves

⓿ John Newlands was a British Chemist. He found that when elements were arranged in
the ascending order of their atomic weight, they appeared to fall into seven groups, in which
their properties repeat at regular intervals.
⓿ According to Newlands when elements are arranged in the ascending order of their
atomic weights “Every eighth element starting from a given element resembles in its
properties to that of given element”. This is called Newlands law of Octaves.

Limitations of Newland’s Law of Octaves :

⓿ He placed two elements into the same slot. Ex: Cobalt and Nickel
⓿ Certain elements were totally dissimilar in their properties and were placed in the same
group. For Example, He arranged Co, Ni, Pd and Ir which have different properties
compared with Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I ) in the same row.
⓿ This table was restricted to only 56 elements and did not leave any room for new
elements.
⓿ He attempted to link the periodicity of the chemical properties of elements with the
periodicity found in music as sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, da, ni, sa (A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H)
Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table
⓿ Dimitri Ivanovich Mendeleeff, a Russian Chemist arranged the elements known at that
time in a table in a systematic order in the increasing order of their atomic weights.
⓿ Mendeleeff‘s Periodic law states that “ the physical and chemical properties of the
elements are periodic functions of the atomic weights”.
⓿ Mendeleff tried to explain the similarities of elements in the same group in terms of
their common valency.
⓿ He divided the table into 8 vertical columns called groups. They are represented by
Roman numerals I to VIII. Elements present in a given vertical have similar properties.
Each group divided into A, B sub groups.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE 4

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

⓿ The Horizontal rows in Mendeleeffs periodic table are called Periods. Elements in a
period differ in their properties.
⓿ He predicted some elements were missing and he left blank spaces at the appropriate
places in the table.
⓿ He predicted the properties of these additional elements in advance and named those
predicted elements tentatively by adding the prefix ‘eka’( eka is Sanskrit word for numeral
one ) to the name of the element immediately. eka-boron, eka-aluminium and eka-silicon
were almost the same as those of Scandium, Gallium and Germanium respectively which
were discovered later.

⓿ The placement of elements in Mendeleev’s periodic table helped in correcting the

atomic masses of some elements like beryllium, indium and gold.

Limitations of Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table:

⓿ Certain elements of the highest atomic weight precede those with lower atomic weight.
⓿ Dissimilar elements placed together in the same group. For example Cl is VII A group
element and Mn is VII B element, but Chlorine is a nonmetal, whereas Manganese is a
Metal.

Modern Periodic Table (Long from Periodic Table)

⓿ The modern periodic table which is based on the modern periodic law is called the long
form of the periodic table. This was proposed by Moseley.

⓿ Modern periodic law:- It may be stated as “The properties of the elements are periodic
functions of their atomic numbers.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE 5

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

⓿ The modern periodic table has 18 vertical columns known as groups and 7 horizontal
rows
known as periods.

Positions of Elements according to Modern Periodic Table

⓿ The elements with similar outer shell electronic configurations in their atoms are in the
same column called Group.
Examples: Li :1s2 2s1; Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 etc.
⓿ Depending upon which subshell the differentiating electron i.e., the last coming
electron
enters in the atom of the given element, the elements are classified as s, p, d and f block
elements.
⓿’ s-block Elements: If the differentiating electron enters into the s- subshell, then such
elements are called s-block elements.
Example: Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 and Ca= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
⓿ p–block Elements: If the differentiating electron enters into the p – subshell, then such
elements are called p-block elements.
Example: Ar = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
⓿ d –block Elements: If the differentiating electron enters into the d-subshell, then such
elements are called d-block elements.
Example: Sc = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
⓿ f-block Elements: If the differentiating electron enters into the f-subshell, then such
elements are called f-block elements.
Example: Pr = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 5d1 4f 2

Groups:
⓿ The vertical columns in the modern periodic table are known as groups. There are 18
groups, They are represented by using Roman Numbers I to VIII with letters A and B in
Traditional notation or According to IUPAC, these groups are represented by Hindu Arabic
numbers 1– 18 .
Example :-Group 2 (II A) ; Group 16 (VI A).

Periods:
To Abu Obaida Khan | 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE 6
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

⓿ The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods. There are 7 periods. These
periods are represented by Arabic Numerals 1 to 7.
⓿ The number of main shells present in the atom of a particular element decides to which
period it belongs.
⓿ The first period contains only 2 elements H and He.
⓿ The second period contains 8 elements and consists of two s- block elements ( Li, Be)
and Six p –block elements ( B, C, N, O, F & Ne ).
⓿ Third period starts with the third main shell ( M ). 3rd period contains only 8 elements,
which include 2 s-block elements ( Na, Mg) and six p-block elements ( Al, Si, P, S, Cl & Ar).
⓿ Fourth period contains 18 elements which include 2 s-block (K, Ca) elements; 10
elements from d-block (Sc to Zn) and 6 elements from p-block.
⓿ On the same lines, the Fifth period also contains 18 elements. There are 32 elements in
the sixth period which includes 2 elements from s-block ( 6s), 14 elements form f-block (4f),
10 elements from d-block (5d) and 6 elements from p-block (6p).
⓿ 7th Period is incomplete.
⓿ 4f elements are called Lanthanoids (or) Lanthanides. 5f elements are called Actinoids
(or) Actinides.
⓿ The f-block elements known as Lanthanides & Actinides are shown separately at the
bottom of the periodic table.

Periodic properties of elements in the Modern Periodic Table

⓿ The physical and chemical properties of the elements in the periodic table are related to
their outermost shell electronic configuration.
⓿ The elements in the same group of the periodic table possess the same valence shell
electronic configuration. Hence the elements in the same group possess the same chemical
properties. Their physical properties change gradually. The recurrence or repetition of
properties of the elements with similar(valence) electronic configuration at regular intervals
is called periodicity.
⓿ In a period, as we move from left to right the atomic number increases by one unit and
so no two elements possess the same valence electronic configuration. Hence in a period the
chemical properties of the elements would be different from other elements. The physical
properties of the elements in a period change gradually.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE 7
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Properties of elements and their trends in Periods and Groups

1. Valency:
⓿ Valency of an element is the combining capacity of an element with respect to
hydrogen, oxygen or indirectly any other element through hydrogen and oxygen.
⓿ Valency of an element with respect to hydrogen is the number of hydrogen atoms with
which one atom of that element chemically combines.
⓿ Valency of an element with respect to oxygen is twice the number of oxygen atoms with
which one atom of that element combines.
Eg: i. What is the valency of sodium in NaH?
The number of hydrogen atoms in NaH is 1, so the valency of Na is 1.
ii. What is the valency of calcium in CaO?
The number of oxygen atoms in CaO is 1.
So, the valency of Ca is twice the number of oxygen atoms in CaO = 2 x 1 = 2.

2. Atomic radius
⓿ Atomic radius or atomic size is defined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus of
an element to its outermost shell. It is measured in ‘pm’ (picometer) units 1 pm = 10-12m
⓿ In a group, atomic radii increases from top to bottom. This is because of addition of an
extra shell in the electronic configuration of elements which results in the increase of the
distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell.

⓿ In a period, atomic radii decreases as we move from left to right. This is because, as we
go from left to right in a period, the atomic number increases by one unit and the incoming
electron enters into the same shell with which the nuclear attraction on the outer shell
electrons increases. As a result, the size of the atom decreases.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE 8

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

3. Ionization energy
⓿ The energy required to remove an electron from the outer most orbit or shell of a
neutral gaseous atom is called ionization energy. It is measured in KJ/mol units.
⓿ The energy required to remove the first electron from the outermost orbit or shell of a
gaseous neutral atom of the element is called its first ionization energy.
⓿ The energy required to remove an electron from a uni-positive ion of the element is
called its second ionization energy.
⓿ Usually, the second ionization energy of an element is higher than its first ionization
energy.
⓿ M(g) + IE1 ——> M+(g) + e- (IE1 = First ionization energy).
⓿ M+(g) + IE2 ——> M+2(g) + e- (M+ = uni-positive ion; IE2 = Second
ionization energy).

Ionization energy of an element depends on the following factors:

Ionozation Energy of an element depends on its:

4. Electron affinity
⓿ The energy liberated when an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom of an element
is called affinity. Electron affinity of an element is also called electron gain enthalpy of that
element. It is expressed in the units of KJ mol-1.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE 9

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

⓿ The energy liberated when an electron is added to a uni-negative ion is called second
electron affinity

⓿ In a period, as we move from left, the value of electron affinity increases gradually.
⓿ In a group, as we move from top to bottom, the value of electron affinity decreases
gradually.

⓿ Metals have very low electron affinity. Alkaline earth metals have even positive electron
affinity.
⓿ Negative values of electron affinity indicates that energy is liberated or lost.
⓿ Positive values of electron affinity indicates that energy is absorbed or gained.
⓿ All the factors which influence the ionization energy also influence the electron affinity.
⓿ The element with highest electron affinity is Chlorine (Cl).

5. Electronegativity
⓿ The electronegativity of an element is defined as the relative tendency of its atom to
attract electrons towards itself when it is bonded to the atom of another element.
⓿ It has no units but expressed in Pauling‘s scale. Pauling assigned the electronegativity
values for elements on the basis of their bond energies.
⓿ All the factors that influence the ionization energy and the electron affinity of elements
also influence the electronegativity values of those elements.
⓿ Mullikena proposed that the electronegativity of an element is the average of its
ionization energy and electron affinity.

⓿ In a period, as we go from left to right, electronegativity values increase.

⓿ In a group, as we from top to bottom, electronegativity values decrease.
⓿ The most electropositive element is Fluorine (F).
To Abu Obaida Khan | 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE 10
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

⓿ The least electronegative element is Cesium (Cs).

6. Metallic and Non-metallic Properties:

⓿ Metals present in compounds generally show a tendency to remain as positive ions.
This property of metals is called electropositivity.
⓿ Generally metals show more electropositive character and less electronegative
character.
⓿ Non-metals are generally more electronegative due to their smaller atomic radii and
are generally least electropositive.
⓿ The elements present on the left side of the periodic table are metals and the elements
present on the right side of the periodic table are non-metals.
⓿ So, in a period, we find the metals on the left side and the nonmetals on the right side.
⓿ Hence, as we move from left to right in a period, the metallic character decreases and
the non-metallic character increases.
⓿ The groups present on the left side of the periodic table have all the elements as metals
whereas the groups present on the right side of the periodic table have non-metals in them at
the top and have metals at the bottom.
⓿ Hence, as we move from top to bottom in a group, metallic character increases and the
nonmetallic character decreases.

Periodic properties of elements and their trends in groups and periods.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE 11

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

To Abu Obaida Khan | 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – THE PERIODIC TABLE 12

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

8.CHEMICAL BONDING
→ A chemical bond is an attractive force between two atoms in a molecule.
→ Atoms which contain 8 electrons in the outermost shell are stable and less reactive.
→ Electron transfer occurs from one atom to another because atoms try to acquire an inert
gas configuration.
→ Ions are charged particles.
→ The atom which loses electron acquire positive charge and the atoms gain electrons
acquire a negative charge.
→ The formation of ionic compounds involves the formation of ions and the attraction of
ion pairs.
→ Oxidation involves the removal of electrons.
→ Reduction involves the addition of electrons.
→ Oxidation and reduction go side by side.
→ The compounds containing molecules that are formed by sharing of electrons are known
as covalent compounds.
→ Covalent compounds are soft with low melting and boiling points.
→ Molecules having two oppositely charged poles are called polar molecules.
→ Vander Waal’s forces are purely electrostatic forces operating between molecules at a
short distance.
→ A dipolar molecule attracting announcer dipolar molecule is called dipole-dipole
attraction.
→ A strong bond is formed by the maximum overlap of orbitals.
→ End-end overlap of orbitals leads to the formation of sigma (σ) bond and part overlap of
orbitals leads to the formation of pi (π) bond.
→ a bond is stronger than an π bond.
→ σ (Sigma) bond exists independently.
→ π bond has no independent existence. It exists only in the presence of a sigma bond.
→ In → In a triple bond, one d and two π bonds are present.
→ s – s overlap is present in H2.
→ p – p overlap is present in F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 8.CHEMICAL BONDING 13
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

→ s – p overlap is present in HF, HC/, HBr, and HI.

→ Molecules having single bonds have only o bonds.
→ Molecules having a single bond are H2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, BeCl2, etc.
→ Molecules having double bonds are O2, C2H4, CO2, etc.
→ C2H2, IM2, HCN, CaC2, etc. have triple bonds.
→ The number of valence electrons available in the atoms decides the type of bond.
→ To explain the bond angles in the molecules through covalent bonds the Valence – Shell
– Electron – Pair – Repulsion – Theory (VSEPR).
a double bond one, a and one π bond are present.
→ VSEPR was proposed by Sidgwickand Powell (1940). It was further improved by
Gillespie and Nyholm (1957).
→ Electrons: Elementary particles in an atom with a negative charge.
→ Noble gases: A group of monoatomic gaseous elements forming group ‘O’ of the
periodic table.
→ Lewis dot structure: The valence electrons in the atom of an element are depicted in a
short form by Lewis symbol or Lewis dot structure.
→ Octet rule: A stable group of eight electrons in the outer shell of an atom is called the
octet rule.
→ Chemical bond: The force of attraction between any two atoms or a group of atoms that
results in a stable entity is called a chemical bond.
→ Ionic bond: The electrostatic attraction force that keeps cation and anion together to
form a new electrically neutral compound is called ‘Ionic bond’.
→ Covalent bond: The chemical bond formed between two atoms by mutual sharing of a
pair of valence shell electrons so that both of them can attain octet or duplet in their valence
shell is called the covalent bond.
→ Cation: It is a positively charged ion formed by the removal of an electron from an atom.
→ Anion: It is a negatively charged ion formed by the addition of an electron to the atom.
→ Electrostatic force: Force of attraction between positively charged and negatively
charged bodies or ions is called electrostatic force.
→ Electrovalent: The valence concept has been explained in terms of electrons. It is also
called electrovalent.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 8.CHEMICAL BONDING 14
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

→ Polar solvent: Polar solvents are the compounds such as water and liquid ammonia
which have dipole moments and consequently high dielectric constants. The solvents are
capable of dissolving ionic compounds or covalent compounds that ionize.
→ Non-polar solvent: Non-polar solvents are compounds such ethane and benzene, which
do not have dipole moments. These do not dissolve in but will dissolve nonpolar covalent
compounds
→ Formation of molecules: Atoms combine and form molecules. This is called the
formation of molecules.
→ Ionic compounds: The compounds formed by the ionic bonds are called compounds.
→ Covalent compounds: The compounds formed by the covalent bonds are covalent
compounds.
→ Electropositive character: The ability to lose electrons and become a positively charged
ion of an atom is called the electropositive character.
→ Electronegative character: The tendency of an atom to gain electrons and become a
negative ion.
→ Polar bonds: These are formed due to unequal sharing of electrons by the combining
atoms.
→ Bonded pair of electrons: Electrons which arranged by atoms to share and form a bond
is called bonded pair of electrons.
→ Lone pair: Unshared electron pair or non-bonding electron pair.
→ Bond length: Bond length or bond distance is the equilibrium distance between the
nuclei of two atoms that form a covalent bond.
→ Bond energy: An amount of energy associated with a bond in a chemical compound.
→ The shape of the molecules: While atoms combine and form molecules they should have
some shape. They are called the shape of the molecules.
→ Linear: A molecule in which the atoms are in a straight line as in carbon dioxide O = C
= O.
→ Tetrahedral: Having four faces.
→ Properties of Ionic and: Formula mass, physical appearance, type of bond, covalent
compounds melting point, boiling point, solubility, etc.
→ Configuration: The arrangement of electrons around the nudes in an atom.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 8.CHEMICAL BONDING 15

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

→ Oxidation: The process in which an atom, ion, or molecule loses electrons.

→ Conductivity: Covalent compounds are poor conductors of electricity due to rigid
bonding.
→ Van der Waal forces: Van der Waal forces are purely electrostatic forces operating
between molecules at a short distance.
→ Dipole – dIpole forces: A dipolar molecule attracting another dipolar molecule.
→ Banana bond: Informal name for the type of electron-deficient bond holding the B – H –
B bridges in boranes and similar compounds.
→ Bivalent or divalent: Having a valency of two.
→ Bisulfate: Hydrogen sulfate.
→ Alkali: A base that dissolves in water to give hydroxide ions.
→ Atom: The smallest part of an element that can exist chemically.
Single bond: Covalent bonds in which one pair of electrons is shared are known as covalent
‘single bond’.
→ Double bond: Covalent bonds in which two pairs of electrons are shared are known as
covalent ‘double bonds’.
→ Triple bond: Covalent bonds in which three pairs of electrons are shared are known as
covalent ‘triple bonds’.
→ Compound: A substance formed by the combination of elements in fixed proportions.
→ Dissociation: The breakdown of a molecule, ion, etc. into smaller molecules, ions, etc.
→ Electronegativity: It is the ability of the bonded atom to attract the electron density of the
shared electrons.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 8.CHEMICAL BONDING 16

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

→ Count Alessandro Volta (1745 – 1827):

 Volta was born in Como, Italy to a noble family.
 He made discoveries In electrostatic, meteorology, and pneumatics.
 His most famous invention, however, is the first battery (cell).

To Abu Obaida Khan | 8.CHEMICAL BONDING 17

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

9. ELECTRIC CURRENT
⓿ Conductor : The material which allows the flow of electrons is called a
conductor. Ex: Copper wire.
Ordered motion of electrons:
⓿ Non conductor :The material which does not allow the flow of electrons is called a
nonconductor.
Ex: Nylon wire.
⓿ When the ends of a conductor are connected to the terminals of a battery (source) the
free electrons move in an orderly manner. This ordered motion leads to electric current.
Electric current :
The electric current is defined as the amount of charge crossing any cross-section of the
conductor in one second.
If ‘Q’ coulomb of charge crossing through any cross-section in time ‘t’ then electric current
I= Q/t
⓿ The S.I unit of electric current is Ampere. 1 Ampere= 1coulumb / 1second.
⓿ One coulomb of charge contains 6.25 x1018 electrons.
⓿ The electric current is measured by an ammeter.

Potential difference :
The work done by the electric force on unit positive charge to move it from one point to
another in electric field is called potential difference. It is denoted by 'y'
V= W/ q where W=Work done and q=charge
⓿ The S.I unit of potential difference is ‘Volt’. 1 Volt= 1 joule /1 coulomb

Electromotive force(emf):
⓿ The work done by chemical force to move unit positive charge from negative terminal to
positive terminal of the battery is called emf.
� = Fe d/q
⓿ An electric cell is a device that maintains constant potential difference between its
terminals. The electric cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
⓿ Voltmetre is used to measure potential difference and emf between two terminals of
battery. It is connected parallally in the circuit.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 9. ELECTRIC CURRENT 18
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

OHM'S LAW
Aim :To show that the ratio V/I is constant for a conductor.
Material required: 5 dry-cells of 1.5 V each, conducting wires, an ammeter, a voltmeter,
thin iron spoke of length 10 cm, LED and key.

Precautions:
1. Take care while connecting wires to the source.
2. The readings of voltmeter and ammeter are to be taken without parallax error.
3. The temperature of the iron spoke is constant during the flow of current through it.

Procedure:
a) Let us take a iron spoke and solder it with conducting wires at both ends.
b) These two wires connected to a cell of 1.5 V through an ammeter
and key.
c) Connect a voltmeter across two ends of iron spoke.
d) Close the key and note the readings of current in ammeter and
potential difference in voltmeter.
e) Now connect two cells in series in the circuit and note the
readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
f) Repeat the experiment with 3,4 and 5 cells in series and record the values of current and
potential difference in the given tabular form and calculate V/I value in each
case.

Observations:
As the potential difference increases electric current also increases. And the
ratio between them is constant. i.e.,
V/I = Constant

Result : From the table we can conclude that the potential difference between
the ends of iron spokes is directly proportional to current passing through it.
A graph is drawn with ‘V’ on X-axis and ‘I’ on Y-axis gives a straight line
passing through origin.
That is V I and V/I=constant. Hence 2 iron spoke is a ohmic material

To Abu Obaida Khan | 9. ELECTRIC CURRENT 19

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Ohmic materials: The materials which obey the ohm’s law are called ohmic materials.
Ex.Metals. By using a LED instead of iron spoke and record the values of potential
difference and current and draw a graph between ‘V’ and ‘I’,
the nature of the graph is a nonlinear curve. That is V/I is not constant.
Hence LED is a non ohmic material.

Non ohmic materials :The materials which do not obey the ohm’s law are called non-ohmic
materials . Ex. LED , Thermistors.

OHM’S LAW: "At constant temperature the potential difference between ends of a
conductor is directly proportional to electric current passing through it."
V I and V=IR , R is a constant called resistance.

Limitation of ohm’s law:

1. The ohm’s law can be applied only to metal conductors provided temperature and other
physical conditions remain constant.
2. It is not applicable to gaseous conductors, semiconductors.
Resistance: The property of a material which obstructs the flow of electrons in a conductor
is called resistance.
Resistance R=V/I
The SI unit of resistance is ‘Ohm’ It is denoted by ' '
1 Ohm=1Volt /1Ampere;
1 Ohm: When 1 volt potential difference applied across ends of wire and 1ampere current
flows through it then the resistance is said to be 1ohm.

Electric shock:
⓿ Electric shock can be experienced when a potential difference exists between one part
of the body and another part.
⓿ The electric shock is a combined effect of potential difference, electric current and
resistance.
⓿ When a bird stands on a high voltage wire the potential difference does not exist
between its legs because it stands on a single wire. Hence it does not feel any electric shock.

Factors affecting the resistance of a material:

To Abu Obaida Khan | 9. ELECTRIC CURRENT 20
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

The factors affecting the resistance of a material are,

1) length (l) 2) Area of cross section (A) 3) Temperature and 4) Nature of material.

Length of the conductor and resistance :

Aim: To prove resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length (l)
Materials required: Iron spokes of different lengths with same cross sectional area, Battery,
ammeter, key, wires.

Precautions:
1. Iron spokes must have same area of cross-section.
2. The readings of ammeter is taken as without parallax error.
Procedure:

ected in series.

ammeter.

Observations: We observe that as length of spoke increases the current in ammeter

decreases
when potential difference is constant which implies resistance of circuit increases.

Result: Hence we conclude that resistance of conductor increases with length of the
conductor.
R l

Cross section area and resistance:

Aim: To prove resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to area of cross section of
conductor(A)
Materials required: Iron spokes of different cross sectional area of same length Battery,
ammeter, key, wires etc.

Precautions:
1. Length of the iron spokes must be the same.
2. The readings of ammeter is taken as without parallax error.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 9. ELECTRIC CURRENT 21

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Procedure:
a) Connect the iron spoke across the battery and ammeter using connecting wires.
b) Close the key and measure current (I) in the ammeter.
c) Repeat the experiment with iron spokes of different cross sectional areas and note the
current(I) in ammeter.

Observations: We observe that as area of cross section of spoke increases the current in
ammeter
increases when Potential difference is constant which implies resistance of the circuit
decreases.

Result: Hence we conclude that resistance of conductor decreases with increase in cross
sectional
area of the conductor.
R
“The resistance of a conductor (R) is directly proportional to length (l) and inversely
proportional to area of cross-section (A).”
i.e., R and R ,Therefore R (for a given material)
Specific resistance : The resistance of a conductor of unit length and unit area of cross-
section is called specific resistance.
-metre. ( - m)
⓿ The resistivity depends on temperature and nature of the material. It is independent of
physical
dimensions like length and area of cross section of the conductor.
⓿ Resistance depends on temperature, nature of the material and also Physical
parameters
like length and area of cross section.
Applications of specific resistance (Resistivity):
The value of resistivity determines the conductivity of materials.
1. Metals like copper behave as good conductors used in preparing electric wires due to low
resistivity.
2. The filament of an electric bulb is usually made of tungsten, because of its high resistivity
and high melting point(34220 C).
3. The alloys like nichrome possess larger values of resistivity and this makes them suitable
To Abu Obaida Khan | 9. ELECTRIC CURRENT 22
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

for use of heating elements in electric irons, electric toasters etc.

Electric Circuits:
The closed path created by the connecting wires through a battery along which electrons
flow is called an electric circuit.
Series combination of resistors:
⓿ The number of resistors connected such that same current flows through each resistor
then is said to be a series combination.
⓿ In series combination the potential difference is different across each resistor.
Let us consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series across a battery of
potential
difference’V’ and current through each resistor is “I”
where Req =equivalent resistance

“The equivalent resistance of three resistors connected in series is equal to the sum
of their individual resistances.”

Parallel combination of resistors:

⓿ The number of resistors connected such that the
potential difference across each resistor is the same then
it is said to be a parallel combination.
“The reciprocal of equivalent resistance Req is equal to
the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual resistances.”

⓿ The electrical appliances in house-hold circuit are connected in parallel because if any
appliance is switched off, the other appliances are not affected. If they are connected in
series, if one appliance is switched off all the other appliances will switch off.
⓿ The headlights of a car are connected in parallel, Because in parallel wiring both
headlights get the power. If one light goes off the other will work.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 9. ELECTRIC CURRENT 23
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Kirchoff’s laws:
a) Junction Law:
The sum of the currents entering into the junction is equal to sum of the currents leaving the
junction.
This law is based on the law of conservation of charge.
Let i1 , i4 and i6 are the currents entering the junction whereas i2 , i3, and
i5 are the
currents leaving the junction then In parallel, combination the current
through each resistor is different.
Let us consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel across
a battery of potential difference ’V’ and I1, I2 and I3 are the currents through resistors R1,
R2 and R3 respectively.

b) Loop Law:
The algebraic sum of all the potential differences in a closed
circuit is zero.
This law is based on the law of conservation of energy.

Sign conventions:
a) When we move from negative terminal to positive terminal across a
battery, emf is taken as positive.

b) When we move from positive terminal to negative terminal across

a battery, emf is taken as negative.

c) When we move in the direction of electric current through the resistor,

the potential difference is taken as negative.

d) When we move in the direction opposite to electric current through

the
resistor, the potential difference is taken as positive.

Electric power:
The rate at which electric energy is consumed is termed as electric power.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 9. ELECTRIC CURRENT 24
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Electric power P = Work done x Time of flow of current

P=Wxt
P = I2R
P = V2/R
⓿ S.I unit of electric power is watt (W)
⓿ Generally power consumption expressed in bigger units of power like KiloWatt.
⓿ 1kW=1000W Power also expressed in horsepower 1HP = 746 W
⓿ The consumption of electric energy is expressed in kiloWatt hour.
⓿ 1kiloWatt hour (kWh) = 3.6 × 106 J

Overloading :
If the value of current flow goes above the required value of the circuit then the wire fails to
bear the load of electric current. This is called overloading.
⓿ This leads to fire accidents.
⓿ To protect from overloading we use electric fuses in the household circuits.

Fuse:
The fuse consists a thin wire having low melting point Due to this, if current in a circuit
increase above a particular point the fuse wire gets heated and melts.
⓿ A piece of wire made of lead and tin alloy is used in making a fuse.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 9. ELECTRIC CURRENT 25

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

10 Electromagnetism
→ Magnetic flux density (B) is defined as the ratio of flux passing through a plane
perpendicular to the field and the area of the plane.
→ To find the direction of the magnetic field due to the straight conductor-carrying
conductor, we use the right-hand thumb rule.
→ The current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field.
→ The magnetic induction field of the earth is approximately BH = 0.38 × 10 -4 Tesla.
Here 1 Tesla = 104 Gauss.
→ F = qvB sin θ and F = ILB sin θ.
→ The magnitude of magnetic field induction at the center of the coil is always
B ∝ [Math Processing Error]
Here N = Number of turns ; i = Current; r = Radius of the coil.
→ In an electric motor, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.
→ Electromagnets are used to lift heavy iron pieces. They are fitted on cranes lifting heavy
objects of scrap iron.
→ Faraday’s law: The induced EMF generated in a closed loop is equal to the rate of
change of magnetic flux passing through it.
→ Electromagnets are used in electric bells, electric horns, telephone receivers, electric
relays, microphones, radio sets, television, and loudspeakers, etc.
→ Lenz’s law: The induced current set up in the coil is in such a direction that it opposes
the changes in the flux.
→ Permanent magnets are used in galvanometers, voltmeters, ammeters, speedometers, etc.
→ When a conductor of length ‘V moves perpendicular to field B with a speed v then the
potential difference (voltage) developed between the ends of the conductor is B/v. This EMF
is called motional EMF.
→ The polarity of electromagnets can be reversed by changing the direction of the electric
current.
→ In generators, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 10 Electromagnetism 26

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

→ The polarity of a permanent magnet cannot be reversed.

→ The effect of magnetic field on moving charges has been used to build machines, called
particle accelerators. Ex: Cyclotron.
→ The electric force is collinear, whereas magnetic force is perpendicular to the magnetic
field.
→ The ratio of magnetic force to electric force is very negligible.
→ In domestic circuits, the series arrangement is not used.
→ To protect electric appliances like television sets, computers, which are highly expensive,
cartridge fuses are used.
→ The cost of generation of A.C is less than the cost of generation of D.C.
→ A.C can be transmitted to distant places without much loss of electric power than D.C.
→ A.C can be easily connected to D.C.
→ A.C is more dangerous than D.C.
→ In the process of electrolysis, D.C. is used.
→ If the number of turns, area, speed of the rotation of armature increases induced emf is
increased.
→ An electric fuse is made of a material of low melting point.
→ Magnetic flux: The number of lines passing through the plane of area perpendicular to
the field is called magnetic flux. It is denoted by ‘Φ’. Its SI unit is Weber.
→ Magnetic flux density: Magnetic flux per unit area is known as magnetic flux density.
This is also known as magnetic induction.
∴ B = [Math Processing Error]
Unit → Weber/metre2 or Tesla
→ Electric motor: It ¡sa device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
→ Slip rings: The reverse of current in an AC dynamo occurs because the two ends of the
armature coil are in permanent contact with the same two slip rings and S2
→ Induced current. Whenever there ¡s a continuous change of magnetic flux linked with the
closed coil, the current is generated in the coil. This is known as induced current.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 10 Electromagnetism 27
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

→ Induced EMF: The pushing or pulling of the magnet causes a change in magnetic flux
linked to the coils which cause induced EMF.
→ Electric generator: It is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
→ DC and AC currents: An electric current whose magnitude is either constant or variable
but the direction of flow in a conductor remains the same is called Direct Current. It is
denoted by DC. An electric current whose magnitude changes with the time and direction
reverses periodically is called Alternate Current. It is denoted by AC.
→ rms values : Irms = [Math Processing Error] and Vrms = [Math Processing Error]
Here AC current and AC voltage are expressed in terms of RMS values. Here I and vo are
the peak values of AC current and AC EMF.
→ Magnetic compass: It is a simple device to find directions. It is a small magnet that is
pivoted at its center so that it can rotate in its horizontal plane, and always point towards
the north-south direction of the earth, after coming to rest.
→ Ampere’s swimming rule: Imagine a swimmer along the length of the conductor in which
current flows. Then the left-hand motion of the person gives the direction of deflection of the
north pole of the magnetic needle placed near to it.
→ Electromagnet: An electromagnet is a temporary strong magnet and is just a solenoid
with its winding on a soft iron core.
→ Permanent magnet: A permanent magnet is made from steel. As steel has more retentivity
than iron, it does not lose its magnetism easily.
→ Flemmings left-hand rule: When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, a
force is exerted on the wire. According to Flemming’s rule, hold the forefinger, middle
finger, and thumb of the left hand at right angles to one another, then the forefinger points in
the direction of force due to the magnetic field. Middle finger points in the direction of
current and the thumb points in the direction of motion of the conductor.
→ Flemming’s right-hand rule: Stretch the right hand such that forefinger, middle (Dynamo
Rule) finger, and thumb are mutually perpendicular to each other. Forefinger points the
direction of the field. The middle finger points the direction of the induced current. Thumb
points the direction of motion of the conductor.
→ Energy meter or KWH meter: The cable connected to the energy meter records the
electricity consumption of the house in kilowatt-hour.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 10 Electromagnetism 28
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

→ Main Fuse: The live wire coming out from the output terminals or KWH meter has
another fuse which is called the main fuse.
→ Electric Fuse: It is a device used in series to limit the current in an electric circuit so that
it easily melts due to overheating when excessive current passes through it.
→ Armature: Armature is a coil that consists of a large number of turns of insulated copper
wire wound over a soft iron core. it revolves around an axle between two poles of a strong
magnet.
→ Short-circuiting: When live wire and neutral wire come in direct contact, the resistance
of the wire becomes very small. Then huge current flows through the circuit and produces a
large amount of heat in the circuit and the circuit catches fire. This is known as short-
circuiting.

→(HansChristianOeited(1777–1851):
One of the leading scientists of the f 9th century; played a crucial role In understanding
To Abu Obaida Khan | 10 Electromagnetism 29
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

electromagnetism. He gave lectures which were quite popular among the public and also
learned a lot during the tours. During one such lecture In April 1820, Oersted carried out
an experiment that was never performed before. He placed a Compass needle underneath a
wire and then turned on the electric current. The needle of the magnetized compass showed
movement.
Oersted recognized the significance of what he had ‚ust done. Earlier, It was believed that
electricity and magnetism were two dill event forces. Oersted had demonstrated that they
were. Interconnected. Through this observation, he showed that electricity and magnetism
Were ie1ated phenomena. Some scientists, Influenced by this experiment, continued With the
modern field of “electromagnetism”. Their research resulted In several new scientific
theories and various vital Inventions like the dynamo and the electric motor, Crested
technologies such as the radio, television, and fiber optics. The unit of magnetic field
strength Is named the Oersted In his honor. Oersted was made a foreign Academy of science
in 1822.
11. PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY
⓿ Metals like gold(Au), silver(Ag) and copper(Cu) are available in nature in free state as
they are least reactive. Other metals mostly are found in nature in the combined form due to
their high reactivity.
⓿ The elements or compounds of the metals which occur in nature in the earth crust are
called minerals.
⓿ The minerals from which the metals are extracted without economical loss are called
ores.
⓿ The ores of many metals are oxides sulphides, chlorides and carbonates.

Reactivity of metals
Based on reactivity we can arrange metals in descending order of their reactivity as shown
below:
⓿ High reactivity metals : K, Na, Ca,Mg,Al
To Abu Obaida Khan | 11. PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY 30
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

⓿ Moderate reactivity metals : Zn, Fe,Pb,Cu

⓿ Low reactivity metals : Hg, Ag, Pt, Au

Extraction of metals from the ores:

Extraction of a metal from its ore involves mainly three stages.They are
1. Concentration or dressing of the ore.
2. Extraction of crude metal from the ore.
3. Refining or purification of the metal.

1. Concentration or dressing of the ore:

Ores contain large amount of impurities. The impurities like sand and clay are called
gangue.
Dressing of the ore means removing unwanted material like gangue from the ore.The
physical methods adopted in dressing of the ore are:

Hand picking :This method is used if the ore particles and impurities are different
in one of the properties like colour,size, etc.The ore particles are handpicked and
separated from impurities.

Washing:
This method is used when ore particles are more denser than impurities.Ore particles are
crushed and kept on a slopy surface.They are washed with controlled flow of water. Less
dense impurities are washed away by water flow. Ore particles are left behind on the slope.

Froth flotation:
This method is used for sulphide Ores which have no wetting property whereas the
impurities get wetted. Water containing pine oil is taken in flotation cell.The ore with
impurities is finely powdered and kept in flotation cell. Air under pressure is blown to
produce froth in water. Froth so produced, takes ore particles to the surface whereas
impurities settle at the bottom. Froth is separated and washed to get ore particles.

Magnetic separation:
This method is used if either ore or impurity is a magnetic substance.The impurities are
separated using electromagnetic wheel as shown in figure.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 11. PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY 31

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

2. Extraction of crude metal from the ore:

Extraction of the metal from its Ore depends on the reactivity of the metal.

A) Extraction of metals at the top of the activity series:

• The ores of highly reactive metals like K,Na,Ca,Mg and Al cannot be reduced by simple
chemical methods as they need very high temperatures.
• Again electrolysis of their aqueous solutions also is not feasible because water in the
solution would be discharged at the cathode in preference to the metal ions.
• The only method available is electrolysis of their fused compounds.
• In this method, fused metal compound is used as electrolyte. Graphite rod is used as anode
and steel rod is used as cathode. A large quantity of electricity is passed to keep the ore in
molten state.
• Example: On electrolysis of molten NaCl , sodium metal Is deposited at cathode and
chlorine will be liberated at anode.

B) Extraction of metals in the middle of the activity series:

• The ores of Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb and Cu metals are generally present as sulphides or carbonates
in nature. Sulphide ores are roasted to convert them into oxides before reducing them to
metal.
• The metal oxides can be reduced to the corresponding metal by using reducing agents such
as carbon or carbon monoxide.
• The metals can be obtained by the reaction of metal oxides with highly reactive metals
such sodium, calcium, aluminium etc. These displacement reactions are highly exothermic.
The amount of heat evolved is so large that the metals produced are in molten state.
• The reaction of iron oxide(Fe2O3) with aluminium produces molten iron which is used to
join railings of railway tracks or cracked machine parts.
Fe2O3 + 2 Al ——-> 2Fe + Al2O3 +heat.
This reaction is known as thermite reaction.
C) Extraction of metals at the bottom of the activity series:
• Metals at the bottom of the activity series are often found in free state. Their reactivity with
other atoms is very low. The oxides of these metals can be reduced to metals by heat alone
and sometimes by displacement from their aqueous solutions.

3. Refining or purification of the metal:

To Abu Obaida Khan | 11. PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY 32

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

• The process of obtaining the pure metal from the impure metal is called refining of the
metal.
• Some refining methods are:
a) Distillation:
On distillation, low boiling metals like zinc and mercury can be separated from high boiling
impurities. The pure metal is obtained as distillate.
b) Poling:
• The molten metal is stirred with logs(poles) of green wood. The impurities are removed
either as gases or they get oxidized and form scum over the surface of the molten metal.
Blister copper is purified by this method.
c) Liquation:
• In this method a low melting metal like tin can be made to flow on a slopy surface to
separate it from high melting impurities.
d) Electrolytic refining:
• In this method, the impure metal is used as anode,pure metal is used as cathode and
soluble salt of the same metal is used as electrolyte.
• On electrolysis,the required metal gets deposited on the cathode in the pure form. Using
this method, pure copper can be obtained from blister copper.
Corrosion:
• The rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver, development of green coating on copper and
bronze are some of the examples of corrosion.
To investigate the conditions under which Iron rusts.
Aim: To investigate the conditions under which Iron rusts.
Material required:
Test tubes, clean Iron nails, distilled water, oil, anhydrous calcium chloride.
Procedure:
• Take three test tubes and place clean Iron nails in each of them.
• Label these test tubes as A, B and C.
• Pour some water in test tube A and cork it.
• Pour boiled distilled water in test tube B, add about 1 ml of oil and cork it.The oil will float
on water and prevent the air from dissolving in the water.
• Put some anhydrous calcium chloride in test tube C and cork it. Anhydrous calcium
chloride will absorb the moisture, if any,from the air.
• Leave these test tubes for a few days and then observe.
Observations:
To Abu Obaida Khan | 11. PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY 33
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

• Iron nails rust in test tube A.

• Iron nails do not rust in test tubes B and C
Analysis:
• In test tube A, the nails are exposed to both air and water.
• In test tube B, the nails are exposed to only water.
• In test tube C, the nails are exposed to dry air .
Result : Corrosion of iron (commonly known as rusting) occurs in the presence of water and
air.
Precautions:
Clean Iron nails without any rust should be taken.
Methods to prevent Corrosion:
Corrosion can be prevented by
• Painting the surface of metals
• Oiling or greasing the surface.
• Galvanization.
• Electroplating
• Alloying
A few important processes used in Metallurgy:
Smelting: Smelting is a pyrochemical process, in which the ore mixed with flux and fuel is
strongly heated. The product obtained is a molten metal.The smelting is carried out in blast
furnace.
Flux: Flux is a substance added to the ore to remove the gangue from it .The
impurities(gangue)
in the ore react with flux and form slag which is removed.If the gangue is acidic
substance,flux
used will be basic substance.
Roasting: Roasting is a process of heating the ore strongly in free supply of air or oxygen.
Calcination: Calcination is a process of heating the ore strongly in the absence of air or
oxygen.
FURNACE:
Furnace is the one which is used to carry out pyrochemical processes in metallurgy. We
have mainly three parts in a furnace known as hearth, chimney and fire box

To Abu Obaida Khan | 11. PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY 34

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

12 Carbon and its Compounds1

→ Carbon always forms covalent bonds.
→ Carbon is present in all substances of animal and vegetable origin.
→ The ability of carbon to unite with an indefinite number of carbon atoms in straight
branched or cyclic chains is known as catenation.
→ Carbon and hydrogen combine together in different proportions to form a large number
of compounds called hydrocarbons.
→ There are two types of hydrocarbons – saturated and unsaturated.
→ Alkanes are represented by the general formula CnH2n+2.
→ Alkenes are represented by the general formula CnH2n.
→ Alkynes are represented by the general formula CnH2n-2.
→ Organic compounds having the same functional group and common properties but
differing in the molecular formula from the next member by one CH 2 group, form a
homologous series and such compounds are called homologs.
→ Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas are known
as isomers.
→ The decomposition of alkanes on heating in the absence of oxygen is known as cracking.
→ Methane is prepared by heating a mixture of sodium acetate and soda-lime.
→ When ethanol is heated with an excess of concentrated H 2SO4 at 160° C ethane gas is
produced.
→ Natural gas is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons mainly methane, ethane, propane, and
butane.
→ Natural gas is used as a fuel.
→ Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is used as an alternative to petrol as automobile fuel.
→ Ethanol and Ethanoic acid are important carbon compounds in our daily life.
→ The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 12 Carbon and its Compounds 35

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

→ Detergents are ammonium or sulfate salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.

→ The action of soaps and detergents is based on the presence of both hydrophobic and
hydrophilic groups in the molecule and this helps to emulsify the oily dirt and hence its
removal.
→ Alcohols are organic compounds that contain hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to a carbon
atom.
→ Alcohols are neutral to litmus.
→ Alcohols are poor conductors of electricity.
→ Alcohols react with sodium to liberate hydrogen gas.
→ Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains of rings.
→ Saturated hydrocarbons on combustion give carbon dioxide and water with the liberation
of heat.
→ Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions while saturated hydrocarbons
undergo substitution reactions.
→ The occurrence of the same element in two or more different forms is known as allotropy.
→ Hybridization: The redistribution of orbitals of almost equal energy in individual atoms
to give an equal number of new orbitals of equivalent energy is called hybridization.
→ Allotropy: The property of an element to exist in two or more physical forms having more
or less similar chemical properties but different physical properties is called allotropy.
→ Diamond: A transparent form of carbon that is the hardest known material
→ Graphite: A soft dark grey or black form of carbon that occurs naturally as a mineral.
→ Buck minster fullerene: A hollow molecule, spherical like a football, has 20 hexagons
and 12 pentagons, having 60 vertices on its surface and made from 60 atoms of carbon.
→ Nanotubes: Nanotubes are another allotropic form of carbon.
→ Catenation: Any element forms bands among its own atoms to give big molecules. This
property is called catenation.
→ Tetravalency: The valency of a carbon atom is four. This valency of carbon otherwise is
called tetravalency.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 12 Carbon and its Compounds 36

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

→ Hydrocarbons: The compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen in their molecules
are called hydrocarbons.
→ Alkanes: Hydrocarbons containing only single bonds between carbon atoms are called
alkanes.
→ Alkenes: Hydrocarbons containing at least one double bond between carbon atoms are
called alkenes.
→ Alkynes: Hydrocarbons containing at least one triple bond between carbon atoms are
called alkynes.
→ Saturated hydrocarbons: The hydrocarbons containing C – C single bonds are known as
saturated hydrocarbons.
→ Unsaturated hydrocarbons: The hydrocarbons containing at least one double bond (C =
C) or containing at least one triple bond (C C) between the two carbon atoms are called
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
→ Functional group: An atom or a group of atoms in an organic molecule, which is
responsible for the compound’s characteristic reactions and determines its properties is
known as a functional group.
→ Isomerism: The phenomenon of possessing the same molecular formula but different
properties by the compounds is known as isomerism.
→ Homologous series: The series of carbon compounds in which two successive compounds
differ by – CH2 unit is called homologous series.
→ Nomenclature: The naming of organic compounds is known as nomenclature.
→ Combustion: The process of burning carbon or carbon compound in excess of oxygen to
give heat and light is called combustion.
→ Oxidation: The addition of oxygen to a given compound or removal of hydrogen from the
compound is called oxidation.
→ Addition reaction: The reaction in which an unsaturated hydrocarbon combines with
another substance to give a single product is called an addition reaction.
→ Substitution reaction: The reaction in which one or more hydrogen atoms of a
hydrocarbon are replaced by some
other atoms (like chlorine) is called a substitution reaction.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 12 Carbon and its Compounds 37
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

→ Ethanol: Ethanol is the second member of the homologous alcoholic series. Its formula is
C2H5OH.
→ Ethanoic adds: It is the second member of the homologous series of carboxylic acids. Its
formula is CH3COOH.
→ Ester: Esters are organic compounds that contain the functional group – COO– and

whose general structural formula is

where R = H or an alkyl group and R’ is an alkyl group. R and R’ may be the same or
different.
→ Esterification: The reaction in which a carboxylic acid combines with an alcohol to form
an ester is called esterification.
→ SaponIfication: The process of making soap by the hydrolysis of fats and oils with
alkalies is called saponification.
→ Micelle: A spherical aggregate of soap molecules in the soap solution in water is called a
micelle.
→ Enrico Fermi (1901 – 1954)
 Enrico Fermi was born in Rome on September 29, 1901.
 He became a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Rome in 1927.
 Fermi received the Nobel Prize in 1938 for his “discovery of new radioactive elements
produced by a neutron in radiation, and for the discovery of nuclear reactions brought
about by slow neutrons”.
 Fermi’s momentous accomplishment caused him to be recognized as one of the great
scientists of the 20th century.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 12 Carbon and its Compounds 38

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

2. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
I) Chemical Equations :
⓿ A chemical reaction expressed in terms of formulae and symbols is called chemical
equation.
A chemical equation of a reaction is written in the form to show the change of reactants in
to products by an arrow placed between them.
Example: The reaction between calcium oxide and water can be written as:
Word equation: Calcium oxide + water � Calcium hydroxide
Chemical equation: CaO + H2O �� Ca (OH)2
The substances which undergo chemical change in the reaction are called reactants and the
new substances formed are called products.
⓿ In the above equation calcium oxide and water are reactants and calcium hydroxide is
product.
⓿ Change of reactants to products is shown by an arrow placed between them.
⓿ The arrow head point faces the products showing the direction of reaction.
⓿ The reactants are written on the left side of the arrow and products are on right side
(head) of it Some more chemical equations:
⓿ Zn + 2HCl � ZnCl2 + H2
⓿ 2H2 + O2 �� 2H2O
⓿ Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) � 2Fe (s) + Al2O3 (s)
II) Balanced Chemical Equation : “According to the law of conservation of mass, in a
chemical reaction, mass is neither created nor destroyed.” In other words in a chemical
reaction, the total mass of the products formed must be equal to the total mass of reactants
consumed. .
⓿ An atom is a smallest particle of an element that takes part in a chemical reaction. It is
the atom which accounts for the mass of any substance.
⓿ The number of atoms of each element before and after the reaction must be the same.
⓿ A chemical equation in which the number of atoms of different elements on the reactant
side is as same as those on product side is called a balanced chemical equation.
⓿ Balancing a chemical equation involves finding out how many formula units of each
substance take part in the reaction.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 2. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 39
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Formula unit is one unit of atom or ion or molecule corresponding to a given formula.
Ex. a) Formula unit of sodium chloride (NaCl) is one Na+ ion and one Cl- ion.
b) Formula unit of magnesium bromide (MgBr2) is one Mg+2 ion and two Br- ions.
Steps to write Balanced Chemical Equations:
Ex: Let us consider chemical reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to form water
Step 1: Write the equation with the correct formula for each reactant and product.
Primary Equation: Chemical equation which has only molecular formulae of the substance
and not got balanced is called “Primary Equation”. Write primary equation.
H2 + O2 � H2O
Step 2: Identify the suitable coefficient:
“Whole number written before formula for balancing chemical equation is called
coefficient”
⓿ Coefficient indicates number of formula units required to balance the equation.
⓿ During balancing a chemical equation, only coefficients should be changed but not the
formulae.
⓿ To balance this equation coefficient 2 is written before H2O and H2
2H2 + O2 � 2H2O
Step 3: Coefficients should be the smallest possible whole numbers.
⓿ If necessary divide all the coefficients with same number to get the smallest number
possible.
⓿ In the above equation, coefficients of reactants and products are the smallest whole
numbers.
Therefore it does not require any division.
2H2 + O2 � 2H2O
Step 4: Verify the equation for balancing of atoms on both sides of the equation.
11
⓿ In the equation 4 atoms of hydrogen and 2 atoms of oxygen are same on both sides of
arrow
mark.
2H2 + O2 � 2H2O
Hence chemical equation is balanced.
III) Making Chemical Equations more informative : Chemical equations can be made
more informative by expressing physical state, heat evolved, pressure etc.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 2. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 40
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Physical State : The physical states of the substances must be mentioned along with their
physical formulae.
Ex: (a) Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) � 2Fe (s) + Al2O3 (s)
(b) Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) � BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl (aq)
(c) Zn(s) + H2SO4 (l) � ZnSO4 (l) + H2 (g) (s-solid, l-liquid, g-gas, aq(aqueous)-
substance is present as a solution in water)
Heat changes : Heat is liberated in a exothermic reactions and heat is absorbed in
endothermic reactions.
Ex. (a) C(s) + O2 (g) � CO2 (g) + Q (Exothermic)
(b) N2 (g) + O2 (g) � 2NO (g) - Q (Endothermic); ‘Q’ is heat energy which is shown with
(+) sign on product side for exothermic reactions and minus (-) sign on product side for
endothermic reactions.
Gas evolved if any : If a gas is evolved in a reaction, it is denoted by an upward arrow
Ex. (a) Zn(s) + H2SO4(l) � ZnSO4(l)+ H2(g) � + Q
(b) C(s) + O2 (g) � CO2(g) � + Q
Precipitate formed if any : If a precipitate is formed in the reaction it is denoted by
downward arrow
Ex. (a) AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) �� AgCl (s) � + NaNO3 (aq)
(b) Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) � BaSO4 (s ) � + 2NaCl (aq)
Temperature, pressure or catalyst etc is usually written over or below the arrow in the
equation.
Ex: 2AgCl �s�unlig�ht� �2Ag + Cl2
Interpreting a balanced chemical equation: Chemical equations give information about
1. Reactants and products in the reaction,
2. Ratio of molecules of reactants and products,
3. Atomic masses of reactants and products,
4. Molar mass of reactants and products,
5. Relative masses and mole number of the reactants and products,
Ex: Consider the following chemical equation
C(s) +O2(g) ��� CO2 (g)
⓿ In this equation reactants are C, O2 and product is CO2; ratio of moles of C, O2 and
CO2 is 1:1:1

To Abu Obaida Khan | 2. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 41

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

⓿ Atomic mass of C-12U, O2-32 (2x16=32) U; CO2 – 44 (12+2x16=44) U.

⓿ Molar mass of C-12g, O2-32 (2x16=32) g; CO2 – 44 (12+2x16=44) g
⓿ Here to burn 12g of carbon 32g of oxygen is required and it gives 44g of carbon
dioxide.
⓿ 32g of oxygen gas and 44g of carbon dioxide gas occupy 22.4litre volume at STP
⓿ 12g of carbon 32g of oxygen and 44g of carbon dioxide have same number of molecules
or atoms that is equal to Avogadro’s number (6.023x1023)
Limiting reagent: In a reaction, the reactant available less in amount is called limiting
reagent. It limits the amount of product formed.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 2. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 42

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acids are sour to taste and turn blue litmus to red, bases are soapy to touch and turn red
litmus to blue.
Reactions of acids and bases with different indicators :

Chemical Properties of acids and bases

� Acids and bases react with metals and release Hydrogen gas.

� Acids reacts with carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates and produce carbon dioxide
gas.

� Metal oxides react with Acids to give salt and water.

� Non-metal oxides react with bases to give salt and water.

� The reaction of acid with a base to give a salt and water is known as a neutralization
reaction.

� Acids have H+ ions in them and Bases have OH- ions in them.
� Acids produce H+ ions only in aqueous solutions.
Making dilute acids
The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is an exothermic process. The acid must
always be added slowly to water with constant stirring. If water is added to a concentrated
acid, the heat generated may cause the mixture to splash out and cause burns.
Strength of Acids and Bases
The strength of acids or bases depends on the concentration of H3O+ ions or OH- ions
produced in solution. This can be measured by pH value.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 43
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

pH Scale
� A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution is called pH scale. This is
simply a number which indicates the acidic or basic nature of a solution.
� pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
� If pH <7, then the solution is acidic
� If pH >7, then the solution is basic
� If pH = 7, then the solution is neutral.
� As pH value increases from 0 to 7, the strength
of acid decreases.
� As pH value increases from 7 to 14, the
strength of base increases.
Plants and animals are pH sensitive
Living organisms can survive only in a narrow
range of pH changes. When pH of rain water is
less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid rain flows in to the rivers the pH of the river
water is lowered. The survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes difficult.
pH in stopping tooth decay
The tooth decay starts when the pH of mouth is lower than 5.5. We use toothpaste, which is a
base to neutralize the excess acid to prevent tooth decay.
pH in digestive system
Our stomach produces HCl, which helps in digestion of food without harming the stomach.
During indigestion, we use bases called antacids. These antacids neutralize the excess acid
in the stomach.
pH of the soil
Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. It is necessary to find out the pH
of the soil to use required fertilizers for the healthy growth of the plants.
Salts
Salts of strong acid and strong base are neutral. The salts of a strong acid and weak base
are acidic. The salts of a strong base and weak acid are basic in nature.
� Salts extracted from common salt are Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Baking soda
(NaHCO3),

Washing soda (Na2CO3).

To Abu Obaida Khan | 3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 44

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

1. Common salt (or) Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the chemical name of common salt or table salt. It can be
extracted from sea water. These crystals are often brown due to impurities. This is called
rock salt.
2. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride, it decomposes to
form sodium hydroxide. This process is called chloro-alkali process.

3. Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2)

Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime.

Uses of Bleaching powder:

� It is used for bleaching cotton and linen in textile industry.
� It is used for bleaching wood pulp in paper industry.
� It is used for bleaching washed clothes in laundry.
� It is used as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries.
� It is used for disinfecting drinking water to make it free of germs.
� It is used as a reagent in the preparation of chloroform.

4. Baking soda (NaHCO3)

Baking soda is added for faster cooking. Its chemical name is Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate.
It is prepared as follows

Uses of Baking soda (Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate):

� Baking soda produces CO2 which rises through bubbling dough into cake or bread. This
results cake and bread are smooth and spongy.
� Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also an ingredient in antacids.
� It is also used as soda-acid in fire extinguishers.
� It acts as mild antiseptic.

5. Washing Soda (or) Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)

To Abu Obaida Khan | 3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 45
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating baking soda. Recrystallisaion of sodium

carbonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic salt.

Uses of washing soda:

� Sodium carbonate is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
� It is used in the manufacture of Sodium compounds such as borax.
� Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
� It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
Water of crystallization
Water of crystallization is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit
of a salt.

Plaster of Paris
On careful heating of gypsum at 373K, it loses water molecules partially to become calcium
sulphate hemihydrates This is called plaster of paris. It is a white powder and on mixing
with water, it sets into hard solid mass due to the formation of gypsum.

Uses of Plaster of paris

� It is used by doctors for supporting fractured bones in the right position.
� It is used for making toys.
� It is used for making materials for decoration and for making surfaces smooth.
Reaction of acids and bases with metals
Aim: To observe the reaction of acids and bases with metals.
Materials required
Test tube, Delivery tube, glass trough, candle, soap
water, dil.HCl, and zinc granules, cork etc.
Precautions
1. Care must be taken while handling with glass items.
2. Always wear hand gloves and laboratory spectacles.
3. Always use diluted acid only
4. Keep a bucket of soap water or ordinary water at the working place.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 46

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Procedure
� Setup the apparatus as shown in the figure.
� Take about 10ml of dilute HCl in a test tube and add a few zinc granules to it.
� A gas is evolved from the top of the test tube.
� Pass the gas being evolved through the soap water.
� Bring a burning candle near the gas filled bubbles.
Observations
� We observe a gas is evolved from the top of the test tube.
� If we pass this gas through the soap water, bubbles are formed.
� Wen we bring a burning candle near the gas bubbles, we hear a ‘POP’ sound.
� This ‘POP’ sound indicates that the gas evolved is hydrogen.
Conclusion
� When acids react with metals hydrogen gas is evolved.

Reaction of acids with carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates

Aim: To observe the reaction of acids with carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates
Materials required
Two test tubes, Sodium carbonate , Sodium
hydrogen carbonate dil HCl, lime water, delivery
tube, thissel funnel, Stand etc.
Precautions
1. Care must be taken while handling with glass items.
2. Always wear hand gloves and laboratory spectacles.
3. Always use diluted acid only
4. Keep a bucket of soap water or ordinary water at the
working place.
Procedure
• Take two test tubes and label them as A and B.
• Take about 0.5gm of sodium carbonateand 0.5gm of sodium hydrogen carbonatein test
tube B.
• Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure.
• Add about 2ml of dilute HCl to both the test tubes.
• Pass the gas produced in each case through lime water and record your observations.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 47
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Observations
• We observe that the lime water turns into milky white after passing the gas evolved during
the
reaction.
• This indicates that the gas evolved during reaction is Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Conclusion
• When acids react with carbonates and metal carbonates, carbon dioxide (CO2) gas is
evolved.

• When the evolved gas is passed through lime water, the reaction taken place is

Acids show electrical conductivity

Aim: To show that acids show electrical conductivity
Materials required
Different aqueous solutions of glucose, alcohol, hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid etc,
beaker, two different coloured wires, bulb, switch, 230V AC power supply socket, graphite
rods.
Precautions
1. Care must be taken while handling with glass items.
2. Always wear hand gloves and laboratory spectacles.
3. Always use diluted acid only
4. Keep a bucket of soap water or ordinary water at the
working place.
5. Make sure that the electrical switch is in off position while
setting up of experiment.
Procedure
� Connect two different coloured electrical wires to graphite rods separately in a 100ml
beaker as shown in the figure.
� Connect free ends of the wire to a 230V AC plug and complete the circuit as shown in the
figure by connecting a bulb to one of the wires.
� Now pour some dilute HCl in the beaker and switch on the current. Record your
observations.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 48

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

� Repeat this activity with dilute sulphuric acid, and glucose and alcohol solutions
separately
and record your observations.
Observations
� We observe that the bulb glows in acid solutions but not in glucose or alcohol solutions.
� Glowing of bulb indicates that there is flow of electric current through the solution.
Conclusion
� Acids have H+ ions and the moment of these ions in solution helps for flow of electric
current.
� The positive ion present in all acid solutions is H+ ions in the form of H3O+ ions.
Removing water of crystallization
Aim : To observe water of crystallization and to remove the water of crystallization.
Materials required
Copper sulphate crystals, test tube, test tube holder, Bunsen burner,
white paper, water etc.
Precautions
1. Care must be taken while handling with glass items.
2. Always wear hand gloves and laboratory spectacles.
3. Keep away from fire to avoid fire accidents.
4. Keep a bucket full of water at the working place.
Procedure
� Take a few crystals of copper sulphate in a dry test tube.
� Heat the test tube on the Bunsen burner or spirit lamp
Observations
� We observe that the blue colour of copper sulphate crystals will change into white.
� We hear a crackling sound while heating.
� We also observe small water droplets on the sides of the test tube.
Conclusion
� Copper sulphate crystals contain water of crystallization, when these crystals are heated,
water present in crystals is evaporated and the salt turns white.
� When the crystals are moistened with water, the blue colour re-appears.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 49

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES

• When a light ray travels from optically rarer medium to optically denser medium, it bends
towards normal.
• When a light ray travels from denser to rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.
• The light ray which travels along the normal drawn to the surface does not deviate from its
path.

• Curved surface formula

• This formula can also use for plane surfaces, radius of curvature (R) approaches to
infinity.
Hence becomes zero

To Abu Obaida Khan | 4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES 50

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

• Each curved surface of a lens is part of sphere. The centre of the sphere which contains the
part of curved surface is called centre of curvature. If a lens contains two curved surfaces
then their centres of curvature are C1 and C2 respectively.
• The distance between centre of curvature and surface is called radius of curvature, in the
diagram R1 and R2 are radii of curvature for surface-1 and surface -2 respectively.
• The line joining the points C1 andC2 is called Principal Axis.
• The midpoint of a thin lens is called Optic centre, and it is denoted by ‘P’.

Focus(F) or Focal Point of Convex lens:

A Parallel beam of light incident on a convex lens
converges at a point on the principal axis. The point of
convergence is called Focus or focal point(F).
Focus(F) or Focal Point of Concave lens:
A Parallel beam of light incident on a concave lens seems to be
emanate from a point on the principal axis. The point from which
rays seem to be emanate is called Focus or Focal Point (F).

Focal length(f)
The distance between optic centre (P) and focus (F1 or F2) is called Focal length (f), these
are denoted by f1 and f2 respectively.

Behaviour of Certain light rays when they are incident on a lens:

To Abu Obaida Khan | 4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES 51

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Focal Plane: A Parallel beam of light making an angle with principal axis falls on a lens,
the rays
converage to a point lying on the focal plane.

Rules to draw Ray diagrams for image formation by lenses:

To Abu Obaida Khan | 4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES 52
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

1. Select a point on the object placed at a point on the principal axis.

2. Draw two rays that were chosen by you from rays mentioned in above situations.
3. Extend both rays to intersect at a point. The point gives position of the image.
4. Draw a normal from point of intersection to the principal axis.
5. Normal represents size of the image.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES 53

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

To Abu Obaida Khan | 4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES 54

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

OBSERVING THE TYPES OF IMAGES AND MEASURING THE OBJECT

DISTANCE AND IMAGE DISTANCE.
• Aim : Observing the types of images and measuring the object distance and image
distance.
• Material required: A candle, Paper, Convex lens of known focal length, V-stand, Scale.
• Precautions:
i. Aline the lens and flame of the candle at same height
ii. Ensure that you get a sharp image on the paper (Screen) before measuring the object
distance.
• Procedure:
Take a V-Stand and place it on a long table (nearly 2 meter) at the middle. Place a convex
lens of known focal length on the V-stand. Imagine the principal axis of the lens. Identify
F,C on both sides of the lens. Light a candle and put it far away from the lens along the
principal axis. Adjust the screen (a white paper placed perpendicular to the axis) which is
on other side of the lens until get an image on it. Measure the object distance(u) and image
distance(v) from the lens. Record the values. Repeat the experiment with different object
distances and measure the image distances. When you do not get an image on the screen, try
to see the image with your eye in the lens from the place of the screen.
• Observations:

Result:
i. In most of the conditions convex lens forms real and inverted image.
ii. While we move the object towards the lens image moves away from the lens generally

To Abu Obaida Khan | 4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES 55

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

iii. In every situation is constant.

Lens Formula:

Where f – Focal length

v-image distance
u-object distance.
Magnification:The ratio of height of image to the height of the object is known as
magnification.
In the case of lens, it is equal to ratio of image distance to the object distance.

TO CHECK WHETHER THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A LENS DEPENDS ON THE

SURROUNDING MEDIUM OR NOT.
• Aim:To check whether the focal length of a lens depends on the surrounding medium or
not.
• Material required: Convex lens of known focal length, cylindrical vessel having much
greater than the focal length of the lens, black stone, water, circular lens holder.
• Precautions:
i. Move the lens upward slowly.
ii. Observe carefully that at what distance the clarity of vision is missing through the lens.
• Procedure:
Take a cylindrical vessel having height/depth much greater than the focal length of the lens
taken. Place a black stone inside the vessel at the bottom. Pour water into the vessel up to
the height such that the height of the water level from the top of the stone is four times more
than the focal length of the lens. Take the lens and fix it in circular lens holder. Now dip the
lens horizontally in water using holder. Set the distance between stone and the lens that it is
less than the focal length of the lens. Look at the stone through the lens. Increase the
distance between lens and stone until you can’t see the
stone through the lens.
• Observations: You can see the stone through the lens place in water even the distance
between the lens and stone is more than the focal length of the lens measured in air.
• Result:

To Abu Obaida Khan | 4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES 56

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

i. Focal length of the lens is more, when it is measured in water than that of when it is
measured in air.
ii. Focal length of the lens depends on surrounding medium.
-> Convex lens behaves like a diverging lens when it is kept in a transparent medium with
greater refractive index than that of the lens.
-> Concave lens behaves like a converging lens when it is kept in a transparent medium with
greater refractive index than that of the lens.
-> Lens Makers formula:

Where f – Focal length.

n- Relative refractive index of lens and surrounding medium.
R1- Radius of curvature of first surface of the lens.
R2- Radius of curvature of second surface of the lens.

Sign convention for the problems related to all the formulae of lenses:
1. All the distances should be measured from the optic centre.
2. The distances measured in the direction of incident light to be taken positive and those
measured in the direction opposite to incident ray to be taken negative.
3. Height of the object (ho) and height of the image (hi) are positive if measured upwards
from the principal axis and negative if measured downwards.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES 57

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

5. HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD

Chapter at glance :
The human eye, it is the most valuable and sensitive
sense organ which help us to see the beauty and the colorful
world around us. It is similar to a camera. We all have been
gifted with two eyes which give a wider field of view.
The least distance up to which we can see the objects
clearly without any strain is called
least distance of distinct vision. Least distance of distinct
vision for a normal human being is 25cm.
The various parts of the human eye and their respective
functions include

The numerous light-sensitive cells contained (125 millions) in the retina of the eye are
of two types:
-> Rod-shaped cells which respond to the brightness or
intensity of light.
-> Cone-shaped cells which respond to the colour of
light.
Power of Accommodation of the Human Eye
The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length
by the action of the ciliary muscles holding the lens
accordingly as the distances is called power of
accommodation.
The farthest point up to which the eye can see
objects clearly is called the far point (F) of the eye. It is
ideally infinity for a normal eye.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 5. HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD 58
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

The point of closest distance at which an object can be seen clearly by the eye is called
the near point (N) of the eye. For a normal eye, the near point is 25 cm, which is called the
least distance of distinct vision (d) of a normal eye.
The distance between the far point (F) and near point (N) is called the range of vision
of the eye.
Maximum focal length of human eye lens is 2.5 cm.
Minimum focal length of human eye lens is 2.27 cm.
Defects of Vision
Myopia or Short-Sightedness
A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects
distinctly, as if the far point of the eye has shifted from infinity to some particular distance
from the eye.

This defect may arise due to

(i) Less focal length of the eye lens (ii) elongation of the eyeball.
To correct myopia, the person has to wear spectacles with a concave lens of focal length
equal to the distance of far point of the myopic eye.
(ii) The lens used to correct myopia has a negative focal length and the power of lens is also
negative.

Hypermetropia or Long-Sightedness
A person with hypermetropia can see objects lying at large distances clearly but cannot see
nearby objects clearly, as if the near point of the eye has shifted away from the eye.

This defect may arise due to

(i) More in the focal length of the eye lens
(ii) Short of the eyeball.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 5. HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD 59

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

To correct hypermetropia, the person has to wear spectacles with a convex lens of focal
length f, given by

• The lens used to correct hypermetropia has a possitive focal length and the power of lens is
also positive.

Presbyopia
• Presbyopia is a human eye defect because of which an old person cannot read and write
comfortably.
• It occurs in old age when the ciliary muscles holding the eye lens weaken and the eye lens
loses some of its flexibility.
• To correct this type of defect of vision we need bi-focal lenses which are formed using both
concave and convex lenses.The upper part of a bi-focal lens consists of concave lens
facilitating distant vision, and the lower part consists of convex lens facilitating nearby
vision.
Power of lens:
The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays that can be achieved by a lens is
expressed in terms of its power. The reciprocal of focal length is called power of lens.
Let ‘f’ be the focal length of lens.
Power of lens P = 1 / f(in m); P = 100 / f (in cm)
The unit of power is dioptre. It is denoted by the letter ‘D’.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 5. HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD 60

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

6. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom and its limitations
� Electrons in an atom occupy ‘stationary orbits’ of fixed energy at different distances from
the nucleus. They are indicated by K, L, M, N....
� The electrons which are revolving in the orbits will neither loose nor gain energy. These
are known as stationary orbits.
� When an electron jumps from a lower energy state to higher energy state, it absorbs
energy.
� Similarly, when the electron jumps from a higher energy level to lower energy level, it
emits energy.
� The energies in an atom can have only certain values.
� The states corresponding to these energies are called stationary states and the possible
values of the energy are called energy levels.
� The electron cannot stay for a long time in excited state. It loses its energy and come back
to its ground state. The energy emitted by the electron is seen in the form of electromagnetic
energy and when the wavelength is in the visible region, it is visible as an emission line.
Limitations:
� Bohr’s model failed to account for splitting of line spectra.
� It could not explain the spectrum of atoms with more than one electron. Quantum
numbers are useful to explain the structure of atom
� These numbers indicates the probability of finding electron in the space around the
nucleus.
� Principal Quantum number: It gives the information about the size and energy of an
orbit.
� The angular momentum Quantum number: It gives the information about the shapes of
sub
energy levels.
� The magnetic Quantum number: These values describe the orientation of the orbital in
space relative to the other orbitals in the atom.
� Spin Quantum number: This quantum number refers to the spin of an electron.
Quantum numbers are useful to interpret the electronic configuration of atoms
To Abu Obaida Khan | 6. ATOMIC STRUCTURE 61
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

� Principal quantum number indicates the orbit (main energy level) in which the electron is
present.
Ex: In the orbits 1s, 2s, 3s, 3p etc, the numbers 1,2,3… indicate the Principal quantum
numbers.
� The angular momentum quantum number (l) gives the information about the orbital into
which the electron enters.

� The magnetic quantum number (ml) indicates the degenerate orbital into which the
electron
enters.

� The spin quantum number gives the information about the direction of spin of the electron
Shapes of orbitals
� The shape of the orbital whose n=0, l=0, and ml = 0 is spherical. It is ‘1s’ orbital.

� Shape of ‘p’ orbital is dumbbell.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 6. ATOMIC STRUCTURE 62

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

� Shape of ‘d’ orbital is double dumbbell.

The filling of order of atomic orbitals (Moeller chart)

Rules useful to fill up of electron in the orbitals

� Pauli’s exclusion principle:No two electrons of the same atom can have all four quantum
numbers the same.
� Aufbau Principle:Electron enters first into the orbital whose (n+l) value is less. If (n+l)
values are same, then electron enters into the orbital whose ‘n’ value is less.
Ex: After filling up of 3p, electron enters into 4s, but not 3d. why?

According to this the (n+l) value of 4s is less than 3d. Hence the electron first enters into
4s orbital.
� Hund’s rule:Electron pairing in orbitals starts only when all available empty orbitals of
To Abu Obaida Khan | 6. ATOMIC STRUCTURE 63
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

the same energy are singly occupied.

Ex: The electronic configuration of Carbon (6C) is 1s22s22p2. In this the first 4 electrons
enter
into 1s and 2s orbitals. The next two electrons go into separate 2p orbitals, with both
electrons having the same spin.
� Electronic configuration of Chlorine is – 1s22s22p63s23p5
� Electronic configuration of Copper is – 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10
� Write the four quantum numbers of first electron in L shell of Sodium.
Sodium electronic configuration is 1s22s22p63s1
The first electron of L shell is 2s1
The four quantum numbers are: n= 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = + ½ or – ½

To Abu Obaida Khan | 6. ATOMIC STRUCTURE 64

 PHYSICS CLASS 10

1. REFLECTION
Reflection of Light: The phenomenon of bouncing back of light into the same medium by the
smooth surface is called reflection.
Incident light: Light which falls on the surface is called incident light.
Reflected light: Light which goes back after reflection is called reflected light.
The angle of incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal.
An angle of reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
Mirror: The surface which can reflect the light is a mirror.
pherical Mirror: If the reflecting surface is part of the hollow sphere then the mirror is a
spherical mirror.
The spherical mirror is of two types:
 Convex mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is convex. It diverges the light so it is
also called a diverging mirror.
 Concave mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is concave. It converges the light so it
is also called converging mirror.
Parameters of Mirror:
 Center of Curvature: The centre of hollow sphere of which mirror is a part.
 The radius of curvature: The radius of hollow sphere of which mirror is a part.
 Pole: The centre of mirror (middle point) is pole.
 Principal axis: The line joining the pole and center of curvature is called principal axis.
 Aperture: Size of mirror is called aperture of mirror.
 Principal Focus: The point on the principal axis, where all the incident rays parallel to
principal axis converge or diverge after reflection through mirror.
 Focal Length: The distance between pole and focus point is focal length.
Special Rays for Formation of Image:
 A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a spherical mirror, after
reflection converges or diverges from focus.
 A ray of light passing through or appearing from the center of curvature of spherical
mirror is reflected back along the same path.
 A ray of light passing through or appearing from the focus of spherical mirror becomes
parallel to the principal axis.
 A ray of light which is incident at the pole of a spherical mirror is reflected back making
same angle with principal axis.
To Abu Obaida Khan | 6. ATOMIC STRUCTURE 65
 PHYSICS CLASS 10

Use of Concave Mirror: It is used as a makeup mirror, the reflector in torches, in headlights
of cars and searchlights, doctor’s head-mirrors, solar furnace, etc.
Sign Conventions of Spherical Mirror
 All the distances are measured from the pole of the mirror as the origin.
 Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive.
 Distances measured opposite to the direction of incident rays are taken as negative.
 Distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as
positive.
 Distances measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as
negative.
1/f=1/v+1/u …where f, v and u are focal length, image distance, object distance
Linear Magnification: This is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.

…where m = magnification, h = height of image, h’ = height of object

Use of Convex Mirror: Convex mirror used as rear view mirror in vehicles, as shop security
mirrors, etc.

To Abu Obaida Khan | 6. ATOMIC STRUCTURE 66