6,11 NUCLEAR HAZARDS (RADIATION POLLUTION)

Radiation is a torm oft energy that can travel through any medium including vacuum.
It is of two types:
lonising radiation carries greater energy and can ionise atoms and molecules to
create ions. It can travel both as
particles like O and ß rays, or as a waves like X-rays,
gamma rays, etc.

Non-ionising radiation carries lower energy than ionising radiation and so it

cannot ionise atoms and molecules. Radio waves, heat and light are examples of
non-ionising radiation.
Nuclear hazard, or radiation polution, is the danger or risk to human health or
the environment posed by radiation emanaing from the atomic nuclei of a radioaczive
Substance or the possibility of an uncontrolled explosion originating from a fission or
jusion reaction of atomic nuclei.
Nuclear hazards following an accidental release of radioactivity from a nuclear
reactor are illustrated in Fig. 5.27.
Nuclear hazards are caused by the addition of more ionising radiation to tke
environment and people are exposed to more radiation than they normally

experience.
and gases in the
Huge clouds of fine radioactive particles are
thrown up
ot radioactive
cnvironment, due to testing of nuclear weapons disposal or wastes.

These clouds of fine radioactive particles are carried away to distant areas by Winds.
 5.42 Environmental Studies

Clouds
Wind direction

Testing of Rainfal
nuclear
-1 -1-34
Weapons

Nuclear
Water
reactor Humans
courses
Crops

Soil LAnimals
1. Direct radiation from reactor containment to soil
2. Accidental release of radioactivity from reactor

3.4. Inereased deposition of radioactivity due to rainfall

rate
Direct iradiation from the plume
5. Inhalation of radioactivity
6. Irradiation from depositcd radioactivity
7. Deposition on water courses
8. Deposition on erops

9. Uptake by grazing animals and concentration in milk

Fig.5.27 Nuclear (or radiological) hazards following an

accidental release of
radioactivity
Gradually, they settle down on the earth as fall-out or are
brought down by rainwater
When raindrops containing these radioactive
particles fall on the earth, radioactivisy
is transferred
soil, water, etc.,
to
causing soil
the soil and water, radiation reaches pollution, water pollution, etc. rt
crops, animals and aquatic organisms wn
absotb and accumulate them
through food chains and
may pass them to
nu
an

beings.
5.11.1 Sources/Causes of Nuclear
Hazards:
Natural and man-made sources of nuclear hazards are
briefly described below:
(A) Natural Radioactive Sources
() Cosmic Radiation It is stream of a

atmosphere from outer space. It consists ionising

carths

radiation that enters the and

other atomic nuclei including some

nmainly of protons, alpha particie
rays in the biosphere is low.
high-energy electrons. The intensity ot cosmie

Therefore,
hazard in
they are not a health hazard. o
o w e v e r ,

cosmic rays are a major space.

(i) Terrestr Radiation lt is
long-wave electromagnetic radiation em d by

naturally radioactive materials on

the carth including radon, uranium and

mA
 Environmental Pollution and its Efects 543

have been
have
exposed
been c x to low levels of radiation from these natural sources
Humans
But it is the man-made sources which are
posing a thrcat to
Snds of years.
for thousands

mankind.

Artificial (or Man-Made) Radioactive

Sources
R)
materials that contain radioactive nuclei
sources of radioactivity
are waste
rese
Ihe
produced during the

and processing of radioactive ores,

() mining in nuclear
use of radioactive materials weapons,
() and
usc of radioactive isotopes in medical, rescarch and industrial applications,
(ii)
of
radioactive materials in nuclear power plants.
(iv) use of unstable atoms. Radioactivity is a
process
Radioactive materials are composcd
radiation until it becomes stable. Radiation
cannot
unstable atom emits
by which an
eftects humans. The longer a
smell, ctc., but it has harmful
on
be detected by sight,
is to radiation, the greater the risk.
person exposed

5.11.2 Effects of Nuclear Hazards

The effects of nuclear hazards may
be somatic or genetic.
radiation appear in the exposed
(i) Somatic Effects Somatic Effects of nuclear
of radiation that leads to
the absorption of 100 erg per gramn
person. The quantity Absorbed Dose (RAD).
known as Radiation
of the absorbing material is 210 RAD) in a short period
an a c u t e dose (typically
When an individual receives
occurs.
somatic eftects loss which
results in temporary hair
of time, prompt
RAD to the scalp
For example, a dose of 400 New hair Is expected to grow
within two

Occurs about three weeks after exposure. different.

the colour and
texture may be
months after the dose although somaiC
cffects are observed
When individual receives
a small dose, aelayea
an
of cataracts and cancer.

ycars after irradiation,

for exanmple, devclopment
abnormalities in the
cttects appear
as
Effects These
(i) Genetic (or Heritable) as a result radiation
of damage to the
u t u r e generations of
the exposed person

reproductive cells.

Doses
Types of Radiation how fast radiation
how much and
a
on

P'otential biological effects ofradiation depend

be grouped
into the following two types:
Radiation doses can
IS reccived.
RAD) to the complete body delivered during
A large dose (210
) Acute Dose
"cure
radlation dosc. It may resule
a short period of time (-few days) 1s KOwnas
period a weeks.
of days to
observable within
In effects which a r e caused by acute dose.
identiable syiptons syndromes) are
A p a t t e r n of clearly causcd by a c u t e doses
These are known as acute radiaron yndromes. I hc etfects
level below which the el
deterministic. It means
the
dose
nassome threshold When the dose is above
occur, but above which the ettect is expected.
of theettect increases as the dose increases.
probably noto
the threshold level,
the severity
5.44 Environmental Studies
an acute dose include the following:
ifects from
(a) 50 RAD to the thyroid gland can result in benign (noncancerous) tumors
(6) At> 100 RAD, damage to cells that divide at a fast rate (such as bone martos
the spleen and lymphatic tissuc) happens. lt results in internal bleedin

fatigue, bacterial infections and fever.

(c) At 200 to 300 RAD, irradiation to the skin can rcsult in the reddening of
ning of
skin, damage hair folicles and hair loss.
to

(d) At 125 to 200 RAD, the ovaries can result in prolonged or permanent

suppression of menstruation in about 50% of womcn.

(e) At 600 RAD, the ovaries or testicles can result in permanent sterilisation.
( At> 1000 RAD, clls that divide less rapidly are damaged. These are cells
in the linings of the stomach and intestines. t causes nausea,
vomiting,
diarthoca, dehydration, clectrolytic imbalance, loss of digestion ability,
bleeding ulcers, etc.
A t 5000 RAD, nerve cells (and other cells that do not reproduce) are
damaged. lt results in loss of coordination, contusion, coma, shock, etc. As
a
consequence, complications caused by internal bleeding, and Huid and
pressure build-up on the brain result in death.
(i) Chronic Dose It is a
relatively small amount of radiation received
period of time. As smaller
overa long
percentage of the cells need
repair at any given time, the
body has time to repair damage. Thus, the body is better
chronic dose than an acute dose.
equipped to tolerate a

5.11.3 Control Measures of Nuclear Hazards

Nuclear hazards can be controlled by
practicising the following measures:
i) Nuclear power plants should be located far
from
be provided
with a suitable
arcas and should populated
minimise the escape of radiation. radiation-absorption zone around them to

(ii) Safety measures should be enforced

occupational exposure.
strictly to avoid nuclear accidents and
(ii) Waste disposal must be etfective, carcful and efficient,
(iv) The following s ould bé
totally stopped:
Leakages from nuclear reactors,
carcless
radioactive fuels andl or radioactive handling, transport and use 0
(v) Nuclear wastes have be to
isotopes.
properly disposed off.
High-Level Wastes (HLW)like spent nuclear fuel have
per unit volume. These are very high radioactiv a
very dangerous. These
either by converting them into inert wastes must be containe
into earth or storing solids (ceramics) and
deep salt mines.
in then burying dec
Filters, reactor components, etc.,
with concrete Medium-Level Wastes (MLW). Thes
are
are solidified and mixcd
in steel drums before
deep mines or below the sea bed in being buriea
Solids or liquids contaminated concentrate chambers.
with
Wastes (LLW). They are disposed of in traces of radioactivity are
steel drums in Low-Le
in designated sites. concrete-lined trenc
 Environmental Pollution and its Effects 5-45

iet the disposal of nuclear waste, drilling activity must be prevented in and
(vi) At
aund
aroul
the disposal site, and radioactivity must be monitored periodically
sites.
around the disposal

SOLID WASTE AND ITS MANAGEMENT

S.12
5.12.1 Solid Waste
which neither
rejected for further use and
can
materials uhich have been
The s t e
nor can be transported by water
into streams are called
into the atmosphere
radily escape
solid waste. and industrial
discarded solid materials
from municipal, agricultural
All the
included in solid wastes.
are
activities
Sources of Solid Wastes
5.12.2 Types and below:
of solid wastes are briefly described
The various types food waste),
biodegradable
Wastes These include garbage (i.e. markets, hotels, etc.).
(A) Municipal solid waste from homes, offices,
nonbiodegradable conduits pipes;
rubbish (i.e. from septic tanks; wires;
Wastes: Sludges
Construction and Demmolition
vehicles, etc.
ashes; abandoned
wastes like toxic
substances (pes-
include hazardous inflam-
Wastes These waste; explosives,
biological
(B) Special radioactive
wastes;

sludges);
ticides, heavy metal materials, etc.
corrosive
mable substances, from
domestic cooking
include wastes generated
These
Wastes
() D o m e s t i c
of food. cloth, etc.

and serving plastic,

feed lots and live-
waste paper,
Garbage, farms,
Examples wastes
result from
These
Wastes
(D) Agricultural sugarcane
manures, paddy husk,
etc.

fronm
stock yards. residues,
baggasse
Corn
Examples include the following:
These manufactured.

Industrial
Wastes
depends on
the products being ctc.
(E) Here,
waste food-processing
wastes, ete.

Wastes metal scraps,

Wastes,
i) P r o c e s s wastes,
rubber
all industries.
Plastic to
Examples common
Wastes
Here,
waste
Is wastes, ctc.
wastes,
packing
Non-process
(i) Office
and
cafeteria

mobile phones, obile

discardecd
from
Examples form of
waste
monitors. printers,
new
batterics, conmputers/TVs,
c o m p u t e r s / T V s .

Ir is a
hones, Dlltcrics,
(F) E-Waste headpnoncs, clectronic was
CDs, Known as
(Hindustan
chargers,
remotes,

TVs,
etC.
1E s also in Delhi annually
LCD/Plasma

Or
-wustc

is geneatcd India the second biggest

metric tonnes
as
CPUs, has labelled
11.000 A recent report
2010).
12,
March ASia.
Times, in
c o n t r i b u t o r

E-waste