PROJECT REPORT ON

SENSOR BASED AUTOMATIC STEERING

CONTROL SYSTEM FOR AUTOMOBILE

SUBMITTED BY

BATCH MEMBERS REGISTER NUMBER

P.BALAJI 20205478
V.BALAKRISHNAN 20205479
D.JEYPAL 20205485
M.KAVIBHARATHI 20205488
P.MANIKANDAN 20205493
K.NANDHA KUMAR 20205484

Guided by:
SRI.T.K.RAJENDRAN M.TECH.,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SHANMUGHA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
TIRUMALAISAMUDRAM
THANJAVUR - 613 401
2021-2022
 SHANMUGHA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
TIRUMALAISAMUDRAM
THANJAVUR-613 401
2021 -2022

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project titled “SENSOR BASED AUTOMATIC STEERING
CONTROL” is the bonafide record of work done by Sri _______________________
Reg. No. _______________ in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of Diploma in Mechanical Engineering during the year 2021 – 2022.

STAFF GUIDE. HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

SUBMITTED FOR THE BOARD EXAMINATION ON :

INTERNAL EXAMINEREXTERNAL EXAMINER

DEDICATED TO OUR BELOVED
PARENTS
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to place on record my deep of gratitude to our Chairman and

Correspondent "JEEVAN RAKSHA Prof. R. SETHURAMAN".
Shanmugha Polytechnic College Tirumalaisamudram, who has been perennial
source of inspiration and encouragement for the successful completion of our
project.

We would like to express our thanks to Principal Mr.R.CHANDRAMOULI

M.TECH., MISTE, for giving permission, constant support and guidance to
enable us to complete our project.

We would like to convey our thanks to

Mr.V.MANIKANTANM.TECH.,Section in charge, Department of
Mechanical Engineering. Shanmugha Polytechnic college Tirumalaisamudram,
who inspired us with his lectures.

We thank our guide Mr.T.K.RAJENDRAN M.TECH., Lecturer. Department

of Mechanical Engineering, Shanmugha Polytechnic College
Tirumalaisamudram, for his whole hearted support to complete our project in
time.

We also indebted to all faculty members and non-teaching staff of our

department and also other departments of Shanmugha Polytechnic college
Tirumalaisamudram, for their whole hearted support to complete our project in
time.

I owe much to my beloved parents for their unfailing encouragement and faith
in us.
My boundless gratitude to god for his grace and blessing in all undertakings.

FABRICATION OF AUTOMATIC

STEERING MECHANISM
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

SYNOPSIS

LIST OF FIGURES

1 Introduction 1

2 Literature Review 5

3 Components and Description 14

4 Drawing 36

5 Working principle 38

7 Merits and Demerits 39

8 Application 40

9 List of materials 41

10 Cost Estimation 44

11 Conclusion 45

BIBLIOGRAPHY 46

PHOTOGRAPHY 47
 SYNOPSIS

This project proposes an automated steering control

system for automobiles. Feasibility of a control strategy
based on a front sensor. The sensor is used to find the
object in path and the steering control is controlled by the
control unit using motors. The automated steering control
system achieves good and it used to perform various
applications in industries
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO: NAME

1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

2 OVERALL DIAGRAM
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION FOR STEERING

Steering is the term applied to the collection of components,
linkages, etc. which will allow a vessel (ship, boat) or vehicle (car, motorcycle,

bicycle) to follow the desired course. An exception is the case of rail transport

by which rail tracks combined together with railroad switches (and also known
as 'points' in British English) provide the steering function.

Caster angle θ indicates kingpin pivot line and gray area indicates
vehicle's tire with the wheel moving from right to left. A positive caster
angle aids in directional stability, as the wheel tends to trail, but a large
angle makes steering more difficult.

The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing
in the desired directions. This is typically achieved by a series of
linkages, rods, pivots and gears. One of the fundamental concepts is that
of caster angle - each wheel is steered with a pivot point ahead of the wheel;
this makes the steering tend to be self-centering towards the direction
travel.

The steering linkages connecting the steering box and the wheels
usually conforms to a variation of Ackermann steering geometry, to account for
the fact that in a turn, the inner wheel is actually travelling a path of
smaller radius than the outer wheel, so that the degree of toe suitable for
driving in a straight path is not suitable for turns. The angle the wheels
make with the vertical plane also influences steering dynamics (see camber

angle) as do the tires.

1
Rack and pinion, Recalculating ball, worm and sector

Rack and pinion unit mounted in the cockpit of an Ariel Atom sports
car chassis. For most high volume production, this is usually mounted on
the other side of this panel

Many modern cars use rack and pinion steering mechanisms, where
the steering wheel turns the pinion gear; the pinion moves the rack, which
is a linear gear that meshes with the pinion, converting circular motion
into linear motion along the transverse axis of the car (side to side
motion). This motion applies steering torque to the swivel pin ball joints
that replaced previously used kingpins of the stub axle of the steered
wheels via tie rods and a short lever arm called the steering arm.

The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a large degree of
feedback and direct steering "feel". A disadvantage is that it is not
adjustable, so that when it does wear and develop lash, the only cure is
replacement.

Older designs often use the recirculating ball mechanism, which is still
found on trucks and utility vehicles. This is a variation on the older worm

and sector design; the steering column turns a large screw (the "worm gear")
which meshes with a sector of a gear, causing it to rotate about its axis as
the worm gear is turned; an arm attached to the axis of the sector moves

2
the Pitman arm, which is connected to the steering linkage and thus steers the
wheels. The recirculating ball version of this apparatus reduces the
considerable friction by placing large ball bearings between the teeth of
the worm and those of the screw; at either end of the apparatus the balls
exit from between the two pieces into a channel internal to the box which
connects them with the other end of the apparatus, thus they are
"recirculated".

The recirculating ball mechanism has the advantage of a much

greater mechanical advantage, so that it was found on larger, heavier vehicles
while the rack and pinion was originally limited to smaller and lighter
ones; due to the almost universal adoption of power steering, however, this
is no longer an important advantage, leading to the increasing use of rack
and pinion on newer cars. The recirculating ball design also has a
perceptible lash, or "dead spot" on center, where a minute turn of the
steering wheel in either direction does not move the steering apparatus;
this is easily adjustable via a screw on the end of the steering box to account
for wear, but it cannot be entirely eliminated because it will create
excessive internal forces at other positions and the mechanism will wear
very rapidly. This design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles,
where rapidity of steering and direct feel are less important than
robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage. The much smaller
degree of feedback with this design can also sometimes be an advantage;
drivers of vehicles with rack and pinion steering can have their thumbs
broken when a front wheel hits a bump, causing the steering wheel to
kick to one side suddenly (leading to driving instructors telling students
to keep their thumbs on the front of the steering wheel, rather than
wrapping around the inside of the rim) . This effect is even stronger with a
heavy vehicle like a truck; recirculating ball steering prevents this degree

3
of feedback, just as it prevents desirable feedback under normal
circumstances.

The worm and sector was an older design, used for example in Willys and
Chrysler vehicles, and the Ford Falcon (1960s).

Other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles.
Children's toys and go-karts often use a very direct linkage in the form of a
bellcrank (also commonly known as a Pitman arm) attached directly between
the steering column and the steering arms, and the use of cable-operated
steering linkages (e.g. the Capstan and Bowstring mechanism) is also found on
some home-built vehicles such as soapbox cars and recumbent tricycles.

4
 CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

POWER STEERING
Power steering helps drivers steer vehicles by augmenting steering
effort of the steering wheel. Hydraulic or electric actuators add controlled
energy to the steering mechanism, so the driver needs to provide only
modest effort regardless of conditions. Power steering helps considerably
when a vehicle is stopped or moving slowly. Also, power steering
provides some feedback of forces acting on the front wheels to give an
ongoing sense of how the wheels are interacting with the road; this is
typically called "rοad feel".

Representative power steering systems for cars augment steering

effort via an actuator, a hydraulic cylinder, which is part of a servo
system. These systems have a direct mechanical connection between the
steering wheel and the linkage that steers the wheels. This means that
power-steering system failure (to augment effort) still permits the vehicle
to be steered using manual effort alone.

Other power steering systems (such as those in the largest off-road

construction vehicles) have no direct mechanical connection to the
steering linkage; they require power. Systems of this kind, with no
mechanical connection, are sometimes called "drive by wire" or "steer by
wire", by analogy with aviation's " fly-by-wire". In this context, "wire"
refers to electrical cables that carry power and data, not thin-wire-rope
mechanical control cables.

5
 In other power steering systems, electric motors provide the
assistance instead of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power
to the actuator (motor, in this case) is controlled by the rest of the power-
steering system.

Some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged

hinge in the middle; this hinge allows the front and rear axles to become
non-parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders move the
halves of the frame relative to each other to steer.

The first power steering system on an automobile was apparently

installed in 1876 by a man with the surname of Fitts. Little else is known
about him. The next power steering system was put on a Columbia 5-ton
truck in 1903.

Robert E. Twyford, a resident of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA,

included a mechanical power steering mechanism as part of his patent
(U.S. Patent 646,477) issued on April 3, 1900 for the first four wheel
drive system.

Francis W. Davis, an engineer of the truck division of Pierce Arrow

began exploring how steering could be made easier, and in 1926 invented
and demonstrated the first practical power steering system. Davis moved
to General Motors and refined the hydraulic-assisted power steering system,
but the automaker calculated it would be too expensive to produce. [6]
Davis then signed up with Bendix, a parts manufacturer for automakers.
Military needs during World War II for easier steering on heavy vehicles
boosted the need for power assistance on armored cars and tank-recovery
vehicles for the British and American armies.

6
 Chrysler Corporation introduced the first commercially available

passenger car power steering system on the 1951 Chrysler Imperial under
the name "Hydraguide". The Chrysler system was based on some of
Davis' expired patents. General Motors introduced the 1952 Cadillac with a
power steering system using the work Davis had done for the company
almost twenty years earlier.

Charles F. Hammond, an American, born in Detroit, filed several

patents for improvements of power steering with the Canadian
Intellectual Property Office in 1958.

Most new vehicles now have power steering, owing to the trends
toward front wheel drive, greater vehicle mass, and wider tires, which all
increase the required steering effort. Heavier vehicles as common in some
countries would be extremely difficult to maneuver at low speeds, while
vehicles of lighter weight may not need power assisted steering at all.

Hydraulic systems

Most power steering systems work by using a hydraulic system to

steer the vehicle's wheels. The hydraulic pressure typically comes from a
gerotor or rotary vane pump driven by the vehicle's engine. A double-acting

hydraulic cylinder applies a force to the steering gear, which in turn steers

the roadwheels. The steering wheel operates valves to control flow to the
cylinder. The more torque the driver applies to the steering wheel and
column, the more fluid the valves allow through to the cylinder, and so
the more force is applied to steer the wheels.

One design for measuring the torque applied to the steering wheel
has a torque sensor – a torsion bar at the lower end of the steering column.
As the steering wheel rotates, so does the steering column, as well as the

7
upper end of the torsion bar. Since the torsion bar is relatively thin and
flexible, and the bottom end usually resists being rotated, the bar will
twist by an amount proportional to the applied torque. The difference in
position between the opposite ends of the torsion bar controls a valve.
The valve allows fluid to flow to the cylinder which provides steering
assistance; the greater the "twist" of the torsion bar, the greater the force.

Since the hydraulic pumps are positive-displacement type, the flow

rate they deliver is directly proportional to the speed of the engine. This
means that at high engine speeds the steering would naturally operate
faster than at low engine speeds. Because this would be undesirable, a
restricting orifice and flow-control valve direct some of the pump's output
back to the hydraulic reservoir at high engine speeds. A pressure relief
valve prevents a dangerous build-up of pressure when the hydraulic
cylinder's piston reaches the end of its stroke.

Some modern systems also include an electronic control valve to

reduce the hydraulic supply pressure as the vehicle's speed increases; this
is variable-assist power steering.

The steering booster is arranged so that should the booster fail, the
steering will continue to work (although the wheel will feel heavier). Loss
of power steering can significantly affect the handling of a vehicle. Each
vehicle owner's manual gives instructions for inspection of fluid levels
and regular maintenance of the power steering system.

The working liquid, also called "hydraulic fluid" or "oil", is the

medium by which pressure is transmitted. Common working liquids are
based on mineral oil.

8
DIRAVI

In the DIRAVI system invented by Citroën, the force steering the

wheels comes from the car's high pressure hydraulic system and is always
the same no matter what the road speed is. Turning the steering wheel
moves the wheels simultaneously to a corresponding angle via a
hydraulic cylinder. In order to give some artificial steering feel, there is a
separate hydraulically operated system that tries to turn the steering wheel
back to centre position. The amount of pressure applied is proportional to
road speed, so that at low speeds the steering is very light, and at high
speeds it is very difficult to move more than a small amount off centre.

As long as there is pressure in the car's hydraulic system, there is

no mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the
roadwheels. This system was first introduced in the Citroën SM in 1970,
and was known as 'VariPower' in the UK and 'SpeedFeel' in the U.S.

While DIRAVI is not the mechanical template for all modern

power steering arrangements, it did innovate the now common benefit of
speed sensitive steering.

In the late 1960s, General Motors offered a variable-ratio power

steering system as an option on Pontiac and other vehicles.

Electro-hydraulic systems

Electro-hydraulic power steering systems, sometimes abbreviated

EHPS, and also sometimes called "hybrid" systems, use the same
hydraulic assist technology as standard systems, but the hydraulic
pressure comes from a pump driven by an electric motor instead of a drive
belt at the engine.

9
 In 1965, Ford experimented with a fleet of "wrist-twist instant
steering" equipped Mercury Park Lanes that replaced the conventional large
steering wheel with two 5-inch (127 mm) rings, a fast 15:1 gear ratio, and
an electric hydraulic pump in case the engine stalled.

In 1990, Toyota introduced its second-generation MR2 with electro-

hydraulic power steering. This avoided running hydraulic lines from the
engine (which was behind the driver in the MR2) up to the steering rack.
In 1994 Volkswagen produced the Mark 3 Golf Ecomatic, with an
electric pump. This meant that the power steering would still operate
while the engine was stopped by the computer to save fuel. Electro-
hydraulic systems can be found in some cars by Ford, Volkswagen, Audi,
Peugeot, Citroen, SEAT, Skoda, Suzuki, Opel, MINI, Toyota, Honda, and Mazda.

Servotronic

Servotronic offers true speed-dependent power steering, in which

the amount of servo assist depends on road speed, and thus provides even
more comfort for the driver. The amount of power assist is greatest at low
speeds, for example when parking the car. At higher speeds, an electronic
sensing system gradually reduces the level of power assist. In this way,
the driver can control the car even more precisely than with conventional
power steering. A number of automakers use Servotronic, including Audi,
Fiat,General Motors, BMW, Volkswagen, Volvo, SEAT, Lancia and Porsche.

Electric systems

Electric power steering (EPS or EPAS) uses an electric motor to

assist the driver of a vehicle. Sensors detect the position and torque of the
steering column, and a computer module applies assistive torque via the
motor, which connects to either the steering gear or steering column. This

10
allows varying amounts of assistance to be applied depending on driving
conditions. Engineers can therefore tailor steering-gear response to
variable-rate and variable-damping suspension systems, optimizing ride,
handling, and steering for each vehicle. On Fiat group cars the amount of
assistance can be regulated using a button named "CITY" that switches
between two different assist curves, while most other EPS systems have
variable assist. These give more assistance as the vehicle slows down,
and less at faster speeds. In the event of component failure that fails to
provide assistance, a mechanical linkage such as a rack and pinion serves as
a back-up in a manner similar to that of hydraulic systems.

Electric systems have an advantage in fuel efficiency because there is

no belt-driven hydraulic pump constantly running, whether assistance is
required or not, and this is a major reason for their introduction. Another
major advantage is the elimination of a belt-driven engine accessory, and
several high-pressure hydraulic hoses between the hydraulic pump,
mounted on the engine, and the steering gear, mounted on the chassis.
This greatly simplifies manufacturing and maintenance. By incorporating
electronic stability control electric power steering systems can instantly vary

torque assist levels to aid the driver in corrective maneuvers.

The first electric power steering system appeared on the Suzuki

Cervo in 1988. Today a number of manufacturers use electric power
steering.

Electrically variable gear ratio systems

In 2000, Honda launched the S2000 Type V equipped with the

world's first electric power variable gear ratio steering (VGS) system. In
2003, Toyota introduced their own "Variable Gear Ratio Steering

11
(VGRS)" system introduced on the Lexus LX 470 and Landcruiser Cygnus,
and also incorporated the electronic stability control system to alter steering
gear ratios and steering assist levels. In 2003, BMW introduced their
"Active Steering" system on the 5-series.

This system should not be confused with variable assist power

steering, which varies steering assist torque, not steering ratios, nor with
systems where the gear ratio is only varied as a function of steering angle.
These last are more accurately called non-linear types; a plot of steering-
wheel position versus axle steering angle is progressively curved (and
symmetrical).

12
 CHAPTER III
COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTIONS

3.1. SERVO MOTOR:

A Servo is a small device that has an output shaft. This shaft can be
positioned to specific angular positions by sending the servo a coded
signal. As long as the coded signal exists on the input line, the servo will
maintain the angular position of the shaft. As the coded signal changes,
the angular position of the shaft changes. In practice, servos are used in
radio controlled airplanes to position control surfaces like the elevators
and rudders. They are also used in radio controlled cars, puppets, and of
course, robots.Servos are extremely useful in robotics. The motors are
small.proportional to the mechanical load. A lightly loaded servo,
therefore, doesn't consume much energy. The motor, a set of gears, and
the case.

The servo motor has some control circuits and a potentiometer that
is connected to the output shaft. The right side of the circuit board. A
normal servo is used to control an angular motion of between 0 and 180
degrees. A normal servo is mechanically not capable of turning any
farther due to a mechanical stop built on to the main output gear. The
amount of power applied to the motor is proportional to the distance it
needs to travel. So, if the shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor
will run at full speed. If it needs to turn only a small amount, the motor
will run at a slower speed. This is called proportional control.

13
3.2STEERING SYSTEM:

The steering system is to achieve angular motion of the front

wheels to negotiate a turn. This is done through linkage and steering gear
which convert the rotary motion of the steering wheel into angular motion
of the front road wheels.

Secondary functions of the steering system are:

1. To provide directional stability of the vehicle when going

straight ahead.
2. To provide perfect steering condition, perfect rolling
motion of the road wheels at all time.
3. To facilitate straight a head recovery after completing a
turn. To minimize tyre wear.
Till recently all vehicles were steered by turning the front wheels in the
desired direction, with the rear wheels following. However, lately all-
wheel-steering has been designed and employed in some selected
vehicles. Here only front wheel steering would be discussed which is
being used universally till today.

The requirements of good steering system are:

1. The steering mechanism should be very accurate and easy

to handle.
2. The effort required to steer should be minimal and must
not be tiresome to the driver.
3. The steering mechanism should also provide directional
stability. This implies that the vehicle should have a
tendency to return to straight ahead position after turning.

14
3.3 MOTOR

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

In any electric motor, operation is based on simple

electromagnetism. A current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic
field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will
experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the

15
strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from
playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities
attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and South) repel.
The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the
magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an
external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.

Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here

red represents a magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while
green represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (armature), stator,
commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors,
the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent
magnets. The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the
motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The
rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotates with
respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core),
the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above
diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator
(field) magnets.

16
 The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor
windings are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the
energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor
will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the
rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator
contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole
motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor
winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field, driving it to
continue rotating.

In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two
poles (three is a very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead
spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how with our example two-
pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly
aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with
a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the
power supply. This would be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and
damage motor components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a
simple motor is that it would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the
amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with the position of the rotor).

A few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a

time (but two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions
from one commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will rapidly
collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within
a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this later, but in
the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil windings'
series wiring:

17
 There's probably no better way to see how an average DC motor is
put together, than by just opening one up. Unfortunately this is tedious
work, as well as requiring the destruction of a perfectly good motor.

The guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030-PN motor (the same

model that Solarbotics sells) are available for (on 10 lines / cm graph
paper). This is a basic 3-pole DC motor, with 2 brushes and three
commutator contacts.

The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is

quite common, and has a number of advantages. First off, the iron core
provides a strong, rigid support for the windings -- a particularly
important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also conducts
heat away from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be driven
harder than might otherwise be the case. Iron core construction is also
relatively inexpensive compared with other construction types.

But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron
armature has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration.

18
This construction also results in high winding inductances which limit
brush and commutator life.

In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features

a 'coreless' armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire
itself for structural integrity. As a result, the armature is hollow, and the
permanent magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil. Coreless DC
motors have much lower armature inductance than iron-core motors of
comparable size, extending brush and commutator life.

The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller

motors; meanwhile, due to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless motors
are somewhat prone to overheating. As a result, this design is generally
used just in small, low-power motors. Beamers will most often see
coreless DC motors in the form of pager motors.

Again, disassembling a coreless motor can be instructive -- in this case,

my hapless victim was a cheap pager vibrator motor. The guts of this
disassembled motor are available (on 10 lines / cm graph paper). This is
(or more accurately, was) a 3-pole coreless DC motor.

3.5 WHEEL

19
 A wheel is a circular device that is capable of rotating on its axis,
facilitating movement or transportation or performing labor in machines.
A wheel together with an axle overcomes friction by facilitating motion by
rolling. In order for wheels to rotate a moment needs to be applied to the

wheel about its axis, either by way of gravity or by application of another

external force. Common examples are found in transport applications.
More generally the term is also used for other circular objects that rotate
or turn, such as a Ship's wheel and flywheel. The wheel most likely
originated in ancient.

The wheel is a device that enables efficient movement of an object

across a surface where there is a force pressing the object to the surface.
Common examples are a cart drawn by a horse, and the rollers on an
aircraft flap mechanism.

The wheel is not a machine, and should not be confused with the
wheel and axle, one of the simple machines. A driven wheel is a special case

that is a wheel and axle. Wheels are used in conjunction with axles, either
the wheel turns on the axle or the axle turns in the object body. The
mechanics are the same in either case. The normal force at the sliding
interface is the same. The sliding distance is reduced for a given distance
of travel. The coefficient of friction at the interface is usually lower.

3.6 IR TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

Infrared transmitter is one type of LED which emits infrared rays

generally called as IR Transmitter. Similarly IR Receiver is used to
receive the IR rays transmitted by the IR transmitter. One important point
is both IR transmitter and receiver should be placed straight line to each
other.

20
 The transmitted signal is given to IR transmitter whenever the
signal is high, the IR transmitter LED is conducting it passes the IR rays
to the receiver. The IR receiver is connected with comparator. The
comparator is constructed with LM 741 operational amplifier. In the
comparator circuit the reference voltage is given to inverting input
terminal. The non inverting input terminal is connected IR receiver.
When interrupt the IR rays between the IR transmitter and receiver, the
IR receiver is not conducting. So the comparator non inverting input
terminal voltage is higher then inverting input. Now the comparator
output is in the range of +12V. This voltage is given to base of the
transistor Q1. Hence the transistor is conducting. Here the transistor is
act as switch so the collector and emitter will be closed. The output is
taken from collector terminal. Now the output is zero.

When IR transmitter passes the rays to receiver, the IR receiver is

conducting due to that non inverting input voltage is lower than inverting
input. Now the comparator output is -12V so the transistor is cutoff
region. The 5v is given to 40106 IC which is the inverter with buffer. The
inverter output is given to microcontroller or PC. This circuit is mainly
used to for counting application, intruder detector etc.

3.4 CONTROL UNIT:

CONCEPTS OF MICRO CONTROLLER:

Microcontroller is a general purpose device, which integrates a

number of the components of a microprocessor system on to single chip.
It has inbuilt CPU, memory and peripherals to make it as a mini
computer. A microcontroller combines on to the same microchip:

⮚ The CPU core

⮚ Memory(both ROM and RAM)
21
 ⮚ Some parallel digital i/o
Microcontrollers will combine other devices such as:

⮚ A timer module to allow the microcontroller to perform tasks

for certain time periods.
⮚ A serial i/o port to allow data to flow between the controller and
other devices such as a PIC or another microcontroller.
⮚ An ADC to allow the microcontroller to accept analogue input
data for processing.
Microcontrollers are :

⮚ Smaller in size
⮚ Consumes less power
⮚ Inexpensive
Micro controller is a standalone unit ,which can perform
functions on its own without any requirement for additional hardware like
i/o ports and external memory.

The heart of the microcontroller is the CPU core. In the past, this
has traditionally been based on a 8-bit microprocessor unit. For example
Motorola uses a basic 6800 microprocessor core in their 6805/6808
microcontroller devices.

In the recent years, microcontrollers have been developed around

specifically designed CPU cores, for example the microchip PIC range of
microcontrollers.

INTRODUCTION TO PIC :

The microcontroller that has been used for this project is from PIC
series. PIC microcontroller is the first RISC based microcontroller

22
fabricated in CMOS (complimentary metal oxide semiconductor) that
uses separate bus for instruction and data allowing simultaneous access of
program and data memory.

The main advantage of CMOS and RISC combination is low

power consumption resulting in a very small chip size with a small pin
count. The main advantage of CMOS is that it has immunity to noise than
other fabrication techniques.

Various microcontrollers offer different kinds of memories.

EEPROM, EPROM, FLASH etc. are some of the memories of which
FLASH is the most recently developed. Technology that is used in
pic16F877 is flash technology, so that data is retained even when the
power is switched off. Easy Programming and Erasing are other features
of PIC 16F877.

PIC START PLUS PROGRAMMER:

The PIC start plus development system from microchip technology

provides the product development engineer with a highly flexible low
cost microcontroller design tool set for all microchip PIC micro devices.
The picstart plus development system includes PIC start plus
development programmer and mplab ide.

The PIC start plus programmer gives the product developer ability
to program user software in to any of the supported microcontrollers. The
PIC start plus software running under mplab provides for full interactive
control over the programmer.

2.3 SPECIAL FEATURES OF PIC MICRO CONTROLLER :

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CORE FEATURES:

• High-performance RISC CPU

• Only 35 single word instructions to learn

• All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are
two cycle

• Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input

DC - 200 ns instruction cycle

• Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory,

Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM)

Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory

• Pin out compatible to the PIC16C73/74/76/77

• Interrupt capability (up to 14 internal/external

• Eight level deep hardware stack

• Direct, indirect, and relative addressing modes

• Power-on Reset (POR)

• Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)

• Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC Oscillator for

reliable operation

• Programmable code-protection

• Power saving SLEEP mode

• Selectable oscillator options

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 • Low-power, high-speed CMOS EPROM/EEPROM technology

• Fully static design

• In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via two pins

• Only single 5V source needed for programming capability

• In-Circuit Debugging via two pins

• Processor read/write access to program memory

• Wide operating voltage range: 2.5V to 5.5V

• High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA

• Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges

• Low-power consumption:

< 2mA typical @ 5V, 4 MHz

20mA typical @ 3V, 32 kHz

< 1mA typical standby current

PERIPHERAL FEATURES:

• Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler

• Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented

during sleep via external crystal/clock

• Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and

postscaler

• Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules

Capture is 16-bit, max resolution is 12.5 ns,

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 Compare is 16-bit, max resolution is 200 ns,

PWM max. resolution is 10-bit

• 10-bit multi-channel Analog-to-Digital converter

• Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI. (Master Mode) and I2C.
(Master/Slave)

• Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter

(USART/SCI) with

9- bit address detection.

• Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)

ARCHITECTURE OF PIC 16F877 :

The complete architecture of PIC 16F877 is shown in the fig 2.1.

Table 2.1 gives details about the specifications of PIC 16F877. Fig 2.2
shows the complete pin diagram of the IC PIC 16F877.

I/O PORTS :

Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate
function for the peripheral features on the device. In general, when a
peripheral is enabled, that pin may not be used as a general purpose I/O
pin.

Additional Information on I/O ports may be found in the IC

micro™ Mid-Range Reference Manual,

PORTA AND THE TRISA REGISTER :

26
 PORTA is a 6-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data
direction register is TRISA. Setting a TRISA bit (=1) will make the
corresponding PORTA pin an input, i.e., put the corresponding output
driver in a Hi-impedance mode. Clearing a TRISA bit (=0) will make the
corresponding PORTA pin an output, i.e., put the contents of the output
latch on the selected pin. Reading the PORTA register reads the status of
the pins whereas writing to it will write to the port latch. All write
operations are read-modify-write operations. Therefore a write to a port
implies that the port pins are read; this value is modified, and then written
to the port data latch. Pin RA4 is multiplexed with the Timer0 module
clock input to become the RA4/T0CKI pin. The RA4/T0CKI pin is a
Schmitt Trigger input and an open drain output. All other RA port pins
have TTL input levels and full CMOS output drivers. Other PORTA pins
are multiplexed with analog inputs and analog VREF input. The
operation of each pin is selected by clearing/setting the control bits in the
ADCON1 register (A/D Control Register1).

The TRISA register controls the direction of the RA pins, even

when they are being used as analog inputs. The user must ensure the bits
in the TRISA register are maintained set when using them as analog
inputs.

PORTB AND TRISB REGISTER:

PORTB is an 8-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding

data direction register is TRISB. Setting a TRISB bit (=1) will make the
corresponding PORTB pin an input, i.e., put the corresponding output
driver in a hi-impedance mode. Clearing a TRISB bit (=0) will make the
corresponding PORTB pin an output, i.e., put the contents of the output
latch on the selected pin. Three pins of PORTB are multiplexed with the

27
Low Voltage Programming function; RB3/PGM, RB6/PGC and
RB7/PGD. The alternate functions of these pins are described in the
Special Features Section. Each of the PORTB pins has a weak internal
pull-up. A single control bit can turn on all the pull-ups.

This is performed by clearing bit RBPU (OPTION_REG<7>). The

weak pull-up is automatically turned off when the port pin is configured
as an output. The pull-ups are disabled on a Power-on Reset.

Four of PORT B’s pins, RB7:RB4, have an interrupt on change

feature. Only pins configured as inputs can cause this interrupt to occur
(i.e. any RB7:RB4 pin configured as an output is excluded from the
interrupt on change comparison). The input pins (of RB7:RB4) are
compared with the old value latched on the last read of PORTB. The
“mismatch” outputs of RB7:RB4 are OR’ed together to generate the RB
Port Change Interrupt with flag bit RBIF (INTCON<0>). This interrupt
can wake the device from SLEEP. The user, in the interrupt service
routine, can clear the interrupt in the following manner:

a) Any read or write of PORTB. This will end the mismatch

condition.

b) Clear flag bit RBIF. A mismatch condition will continue

to set flag bit RBIF. Reading PORTB will end the mismatch condition,
and allow flag bit RBIF to be cleared. The interrupt on change feature is
recommended for wake-up on key depression operation and operations
where PORTB is only used for the interrupt on change feature. Polling of
PORTB is not recommended while using the interrupt on change feature.
This interrupt on mismatch feature, together with software configurable

28
pull-ups on these four pins, allow easy interface to a keypad and make it
possible for wake-up on key depression

PORTC AND THE TRISC REGISTER :

PORTC is an 8-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding

data direction register is TRISC. Setting a TRISC bit (=1) will make the
corresponding PORTC pin an input, i.e., put the corresponding output
driver in a hi-impedance mode. Clearing a TRISC bit (=0) will make the
corresponding PORTC pin an output, i.e., put the contents of the output
latch on the selected pin. PORTC is multiplexed with several peripheral
functions. PORTC pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers.

When the I2C module is enabled, the PORTC (3:4) pins can be
configured with normal I2C levels or with SMBUS levels by using the
CKE bit (SSPSTAT <6>). When enabling peripheral functions, care
should be taken in defining TRIS bits for each PORTC pin. Some
peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an output, while other
peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an input. Since the TRIS
bit override is in effect while the peripheral is enabled, read-modify write
instructions (BSF, BCF, XORWF) with TRISC as destination should be
avoided. The user should refer to the corresponding peripheral section for
the correct TRIS bit settings.

PORTD AND TRISD REGISTERS :

This section is not applicable to the 28-pin devices. PORTD is an

8-bit port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is individually
configurable as an input or output. PORTD can be configured as an 8-bit
wide microprocessor Port (parallel slave port) by setting control bit
PSPMODE (TRISE<4>). In this mode, the input buffers are TTL.

29
PORTE AND TRISE REGISTER :

PORTE has three pins RE0/RD/AN5, RE1/WR/AN6 and

RE2/CS/AN7, which are individually configurable as inputs or outputs.
These pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers.

The PORTE pins become control inputs for the microprocessor

port when bit PSPMODE (TRISE<4>) is set. In this mode, the user must
make sure that the TRISE<2:0> bits are set (pins are configured as digital
inputs). Ensure ADCON1 is configured for digital I/O. In this mode the
input buffers are TTL.

PORTE pins are multiplexed with analog inputs. When selected as

an analog input, these pins will read as '0's. TRISE controls the direction
of the RE pins, even when they are being used as analog inputs. The user
must make sure to keep the pins configured as inputs when using them as
analog inputs.

MEMORY ORGANISATION :

There are three memory blocks in each of the PIC16F877 MUC’s.

The program memory and Data Memory have separate buses so that
concurrent access can occur.

PROGRAM MEMORY ORGANISATION :

The PIC16f877 devices have a 13-bit program counter capable of

addressing 8K *14 words of FLASH program memory. Accessing a
location above the physically implemented address will cause a
wraparound.

The RESET vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector is at 0004h.

30
DATA MEMORY ORGANISTION :

The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which contain

the General Purpose Registers and the special functions Registers. Bits
RP1 (STATUS<6) and RP0 (STATUS<5>) are the bank selected bits.

RP1:RP0 Banks

00 0

01 1

10 2

11 3

Each bank extends up to 7Fh (1238 bytes). The lower locations of

each bank are reserved for the Special Function Registers. Above the
Special Function Registers are General Purpose Registers, implemented
as static RAM. All implemented banks contain special function registers.
Some frequently used special function registers from one bank may be
mirrored in another bank for code reduction and quicker access.

GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTER FILE :

The register file can be accessed either directly or indirectly

through the File Selected Register (FSR). There are some Special
Function Registers used by the CPU and peripheral modules for
31
controlling the desired operation of the device. These registers are
implemented as static RAM. The Special Function Registers can be
classified into two sets; core (CPU) and peripheral. Those registers
associated with the core functions.

2.7 INSTRUCTION SET SUMMARY:

Each PIC 16f877 instruction is a 14-bit word, divided into an

OPCODE which specifies the instruction type and one or more operand
which further specify the operation of the instruction. The PIC16F877
instruction set summary in Table 2.13 lists byte-oriented, bit-oriented,
and literal and control operations. It shows the opcode Field
descriptions.

For byte-oriented instructions, ‘f’ represents a file register

designator and ’d’ represents a destination designator. The file register
designator specifies which file register is to be used by the instruction.
The destination designator specified where the result of the operation is to
be placed. If ‘d’ is zero, the result is placed in the w register. If ‘d’ is one,
the result is placed in the file register specified in the instruction.

For bit-oriented instructions, ‘b’ represents a bit field designator

which selects the number of the bit affected by the operation, which ‘f’
represents the address of the file in which the bits is located. For literal
and control operations, ‘k’ represents an eight or eleven bit constant or
literal value.

The instruction set is highly orthogonal and is grouped into three basic
categories:

• Byte-oriented operations

• Bit-oriented operations

32
 • Literal and control operations

All instructions are executed within one single instruction cycle,

unless a conditional test is true or the program counter is changed as a
result of an instruction. In this case, the execution takes two instruction
cycles with the second cycle executed as a NOP. One instruction cycle
consists of four oscillator periods. Thus, for an oscillator frequency of 4
MHz, the normal instruction execution time is 1 ms. If a conditional test
is true or the program counter is changed as a result of an instruction,
then the instruction execution time is 2 ms.

33
 CHAPTER IV
DRAWING

4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

34
4.2 OVERALL DRAWING FOR FABRICATION
OF AUTOMATIC STEERING MECHANISM

35
 CHAPTER V
WORKING PRINCIPLE

In this project we are using motors, vehicle model and IR sensor

for detecting the objects or vehicles in front of our vehicle. It also
measures the distance of the vehicle in front of ours. It consists (3 nos) of
IR transmitter and IR receiver. The transmitter always transmitting the
waves, the receiver receives the reflected waves and converts it in to
digital pulse. The IR sensor sends the output to the controller. The sensor
which is fixed in the both side of vehicle senses any object in the path,
signal is send to the control unit and the vehicle turns to corresponding
direction. If the middle sensor sense any object means the signal send to
the control unit and the vehicle move backward and turns the direction as
signal received from the control unit.

36
 CHAPTER VI
MERITS & DEMERITS
MERITS
⮚ Easy to operate
⮚ Easy to maintain
⮚ Quick response

DEMERIT
Additional power is required for control unit.

37
 CHAPTER VII
APPLICATIONS

⮚ Cars and industrial vehicles.

⮚ Large farm vehicles etc.,

38
 CHAPTER VIII

LIST OF MATERIALS

FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS

The various factors which determine the choice of material are
discussed below.

1. PROPERTIES
The material selected must posses the necessary properties for the
proposed application. The various requirements to be satisfied
Can be weight, surface finish, rigidity, ability to withstand
environmental attack from chemicals, service life, reliability etc.
The following four types of principle properties of materials
decisively affect their selection
⮚ Physical
⮚ Mechanical
⮚ From manufacturing point of view
⮚ Chemical

The various physical properties concerned are melting point, thermal

Conductivity, specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific
gravity, electrical conductivity, magnetic purposes etc.
The various Mechanical properties Concerned are strength in tensile,
Compressive shear, bending, torsion and buckling load, fatigue
resistance, impact resistance, elastic limit, endurance limit, and modulus
of elasticity, hardness, wear resistance and sliding properties.

39
 The various properties concerned from the manufacturing point of
view are,
⮚ Cast ability
⮚ Weld ability
⮚ Surface properties
⮚ Shrinkage
⮚ Deep drawing etc.
2. MANUFACTURING CASE
Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or
surface qualities obtainable by the application of suitable coating
substances may demand the use of special materials.

3. QUALITY REQUIRED
This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately the
material. For example, it would never be desirable to go casting of a less
number of components which can be fabricated much more economically
by welding or hand forging the steel.

4. AVAILABILITY OF MATERIAL
Some materials may be scarce or in short supply, it then becomes
obligatory for the designer to use some other material which though may
not be a perfect substitute for the material designed. The delivery of
materials and the delivery date of product should also be kept in mind.

5. SPACE CONSIDERATION
Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the
forces involved are high and space limitations are there.

6. COST

40
 As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of
material plays an important part and should not be ignored.
Some times factors like scrap utilization, appearance, and non-
maintenance of the designed part are involved in the selection of proper
materials.

41
 CHAPTER IX
COST ESTIMATION

42
 CHAPTER X
CONCLUSION

This project is made with pre planning, that it provides flexibility

in operation.

This innovation has made the more desirable and economical. This

project “FABRICATION OF AUTOMATIC STEERING

MECHANISM” is designed with the hope that it is very much

economical and help full to all automobile four wheeler vehicles.

This project helped us to know the periodic steps in completing a

project work. Thus we have completed the project successfully.

43
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Design data book -P.S.G.Tech.

2. Machine tool design handbook –Central machine tool Institute,

Bangalore.
3. Strength of Materials - R.S.Kurmi

4. Manufacturing Technology - M.Haslehurst.

5. Design of machine elements - R.S.Kurmi

6. Automobile Engineering – Dr. Kirpal Singh

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PHOTOGRAPHY

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