Introduction

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
What is Geophysical Interpretation? “Management is usually tolerant of
optimistic interpretations that are
Geophysical interpretation is a fundamental disproven by subsequent work, but failing
part of petroleum and mineral exploration. The to recognize a possibility is an
decision to drill for oil or minerals often depends ‘unforgivable sin’.”
on our ability to obtain reliable models of the
earth by using geophysical data. These data are It should be noted that many factors are
gathered at the earth’s surface or in boreholes. critical to commercial production of minerals or
Interpretation involves determining the oil and gas. Many of these factors are not related
geological significance of geophysical data and to geophysics. For example, the price of
will generally integrate all available geological commodity will effectively define whether a
and geophysical information. It is closely linked discovery is commercially successful. Also, the
to other disciplines such as data acquisition and expiry date for an exploration lease may dictate
processing. the necessity of drilling a well or conducting a
seismic program. Geophysical interpretation is
Interpretation is a process of estimating an but one factor in the decision to carry out an
earth model whose response is consistent with all exploration program.
available observations. In this sense,
interpretation can be considered as a type of Given that we understand geophysical
geophysical inversion. Examples of geophysical interpretation to be a very important exploration
observations might include seismic, gravity, tool, one might ask the following question: What
magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic, and well- makes an ideal interpreter?
log data.
The Ideal Interpreter
Since data sets are always limited in size and (paraphrased from Sheriff and Geldart, 1995)
scope, there are several interpretations that will
be consistent with available data. That is, our The ideal interpreter combines geophysical
interpretations will show ambiguity, and data- and geological information.
fitting alone is usually inadequate. Although
interpretation is built on the scientific He or she fully understands the processes
foundations of geology and geophysics, it is involved in the generation and transmission of
often a fascinating mixture of art and science. seismic waves, the effects of recording
equipment and data processing, and the physical
Given a number of possible mathematical significance of geophysical data. This
solutions that describe our data, which interpreter’s geological experience would allow
interpretation should we use? In such cases, it is for the assimilation of massive amounts of data
helpful to rely on experience in geological case in order to arrive at the most plausible geologic
histories and to have insight into geophysical picture. Such geologic experience requires
constraints for our models. thorough understanding of rock properties,
history of geological formations, and possible
With their past experience of related structural and stratigraphic trapping mechanisms.
exploration plays as a guide, most successful
interpreters in exploration will usually choose The ideal interpreter probably does not exist.
the most optimistic interpretation that is Many interpreters have some of the requisite
consistent with available data. Optimism will knowledge and experience in both geology and
generally lead to further data acquisition (for geophysics but it would be rare to find all
example, shooting more seismic surveys), more knowledge and experience in a single individual.
extensive processing, or it will lead to drilling a
well. A pessimistic approach will generally The best alternative to the ideal interpreter is
“close the door” on an exploration play and the to have a team of geologists and geophysicists
abandonment of the area as being prospective. working in close cooperation. For exploration,
The following quotation from Sheriff and these geoscientists generally coordinate with
Geldart (1995) is very appropriate: land department of their companies. In the

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Introduction

development and production of a field, the team Earth. Different geophysical methods will allow
would usually include reservoir engineers. The us to differentiate between the rock properties. In
modern oil company includes a team of petroleum exploration, reflection seismology
petroleum experts working together in provides the main tool due to its resolving
synergistic cooperation. capabilities for most sedimentary rocks. The
following table briefly summarizes some of the
Although the terms “teamwork” and most frequently used geophysical methods for
“synergies” may be overused in today’s surface recordings and the rock properties that
exploration environment, they are nonetheless an they measure.
essential part of most successful oil and gas
exploration ventures. On the other hand, Although most of the discussions in this
successful exploration ventures will also rely on course will focus on exploration seismology, and
the individual’s creativity and initiative in most frequently on reflection seismology, the
interpretation. explorationist should be aware of the many
geophysical tools that are available. The
Rock properties and geophysical surveys geophysicist should remember that seismology is
a subset of geophysics. The integrated use of
Geophysics may be described as “physics of geophysical methods will hopefully be made
the Earth”. In the application of geophysics we clear in the discussions of cooperative inversions
make physical measurements that allow us to of geophysical data.
distinguish between rock formations within the

Geophysical Method Physical Property Range of Use Comment on

Measured applicability
Seismic wave velocity Resolution of The most widely used
and rock density sedimentary geophysical method
Seismology
boundaries in used in petroleum
petroleum exploration exploration.
Response is Gravity surveys are The method is
determined by rock generally used in generally less
mass and depth of reconnaissance expensive but has
Gravity Surveys burial. Rock density exploration, for less resolving power
contrasts determine determining large- than seismic
response. scale anomalies, as in exploration.
basin analysis.
Response is a Surveys are used in Aeromagnetic surveys
function of magnetic reconnaissance work are widely used in
susceptibility or the in petroleum both petroleum and
Magnetic Surveys
rock’s intrinsic exploration, especially mining applications for
magnetization for determination of determining large,
basement features deep structures
Response is a Electrical and EM These methods are
function of rock surveys are mainly also frequently used
Electrical and
resistivity, used in mineral in well logging (for
Electromagnetic
capacitance and exploration. example, resistivity,
Surveys
inductance properties SP, and induction
logs).

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 Introduction

Why are we writing this book? that covered all of the recent topics. For this
reason, we have developed the following book
This book is intended to serve as a textbook that covers modern interpretation topics. It
for a geophysical interpretation course at the would be incorrect to assume that this is the final
senior undergraduate or first year graduate word on interpretation, since the field continues
studies level. At the University of Calgary, this to evolve. Nevertheless, we believe that the
course is Geophysics 559 and its enrollment concepts discussed in the book will prove useful
consists of both geology and geophysics to the student of interpretation who is about to
students, most of whom will enter the petroleum undergo the interesting journey into geophysical
exploration industry. The course requires some exploration.
undergraduate-level knowledge of geophysics.
Teaching this course, we have relied on a References
number of textbooks, many of which are listed in
the references and suggestions for further Aki, K. and Richards, P.G., 1980, Quantitative
reading. There are many good exploration Seismology, W.H. Freeman and Company,
geophysics textbooks such as Sheriff and Geldart San Francisco.
(1995). In theoretical seismology, the book by Grant, F., and West, G., 1965, Interpretation
Aki and Richards (1980) is very comprehensive. Theory in Applied Geophysics, McGraw-
For seismic processing, the book by Yilmaz Hill Book Company, New York.
(2001) is a popular reference. In past decades, McQuillin, R., Bacon, M., and Barclay, W.,
the textbook by Grant and West (1965) provided 1984, An Introduction to Seismic
an excellent reference for interpretation theory in Interpretation, Gulf Publishing Co.,
applied geophysics. We also found the book An Houston.
Introduction to Seismic Interpretation by Sheriff, R. and Geldart, L., 1995, Exploration
McQuillin et al. (1984) to be very worthwhile for Seismology, Cambridge University Press,
all but the most recent developments. Cambridge, U.K.
Yilmaz, O., 2001, Seismic Data Processing,
In teaching our interpretation course, we Second Edition, Society of Exploration
have found many good textbooks but not one Geophysicists, Tulsa.

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