Computer Architecture & Organization (YCS4001)

Module 1: Evolution of Computer System

Soumya Majumdar
Text/Reference books

● C. Hamacher, Z. Vranesic and S. Zaky, “Computer Organization (5th

Ed.)", Tata-McGraw-Hill.
● W. Stallings, “Computer Organization and Architecture (6th Ed.)",
Prentice Hall of India.
● D. A. Patterson, and J. L. Hennessy, “Computer Organization and Design-
The Hardware/Software Interface", Morgan Kaufmann.
Introduction to Computing System
● Word computer is derived from the word compute.
● Computer was originally defined as a super fast calculator with capacity to solve complex
arithmetic and scientific problems at very high speed.
● Information provided by the user to the computer is data. Information presented to the computer
is the input information/input data. Information presented by the computer after performing a
process on it is output information/output data.
● Set of instructions given to the computer to perform various operations is called as the
computer program.
● Process of converting the input data into the required output form with the help of the computer
program is called as data processing. Hence, computer is a data processor.
● Computer can now be defined as a fast and accurate data processing system that accepts data,
performs various operations on the data, has the capability to store the data and produce the
results on the basis of detailed step by step instructions given to it..
Introduction to Computing System
● Hardware and Software terms are used in connection with the computer.
● Hardware is made up of the physical parts or devices of the computer system like the electronic
Integrated Circuits (ICs), magnetic storage media and other mechanical devices like input
devices, output devices etc. All these various hardware are linked together to form an effective
functional unit.
● Computer hardware is not capable of doing anything own. It has to be given explicit instructions
to perform the specific task. Computer program is the one which controls the processing
activities of the computer. Software is a collection of programs which utilize and enhance the
capability of the hardware.
Basic Functional Units of Computer
● A computer has five functional units:
1. Input unit
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit
3. Memory unit to store final or intermediate results
4. Control unit that coordinates functions of every unit
5. Output unit
Basic Functional Units of Computer
● Arithmetic Logic Unit, Memory Unit and Control Unit are called Central Processing Unit
together.
Basic Functional Units of Computer
● Input devices are the devices which are used to feed programs and data to the computer.
● Input devices are the means of communication between the user and the computer system.
● Input devices include the keyboard, floppy disks, mouse, microphone, light pen, joystick,
magnetic tapes etc.
● Computer can accept data only in a specific form. Therefore these input devices transform the
data fed to them, into a form which can be accepted by the computer.
● Functions of the input unit are :
1. Accept information (data) and programs.
2. Convert the data in a form which the computer can accept.
3. Provide this converted data to the computer for further processing.
Basic Functional Units of Computer
● Memory unit is required to store the programs that have the set of instructions that instructs the
Arithmetic and logic unit in which operation has to be performed. Memory can further be
classified into three types: Primary memory, Secondary memory, Cache memory.
● Primary memory is also known as the main memory or the random-access memory (RAM). It
is fastest accessible memory of the computer
● Memory is organized in such a way that in one basic operation, one word can be retrieved from
the memory, or one word can be stored in the memory. A word length could be 16, 32, or 64
bits.
● Primary memory is expensive as well as faster but volatile in nature.
● Secondary memory is the hard disk of system. It includes flash drives, optical disks, and
magnetic disks. It doesn’t lose its contents even if the supply of power gets off.
● Cache memory can be accessed much faster than primary memory, and it is even smaller in
size. It is stored with the data that is required frequently by the processor.
Basic Functional Units of Computer
● Arithmetic logic unit of the processors performs all the arithmetic operations.
● Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, comparison
between numbers, etc.
● Arithmetic operation is performed on the operands. The operands are placed into the registers,
which store one word at a time which is sufficient for an operand.
● Retrieval of the data from registers is even faster than the cache memory.
● Functions of input, ALU, memory, and output unit require coordination so that everything goes
in sequence, i.e. the processor accepts input, places it in memory, processes the stored input, and
generates output. The control unit coordinates the entire sequence.
● Output unit is there to provide the generated output by the system.
● Example of Output unit: printer, display screen
Evolution Of Computer
● First Generation Computer (1940-1956)
● Second Generation Computer (1956-1963)
● Third Generation Computer(1964-1971)
● Fourth Generation Computer(1971-Present)
● Fifth Generation Computer(Present and Beyond)
First Generation Computer: Vacuum Tubes
● Vacuum tube is an electronic device that is used to controls the flow of electric current in a
vacuum. It is used in CRT(Cathode Ray Tube) Tv, Radio, etc.
● First general-purpose programmable electronic computer was the ENIVAC(Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer), built by”J Presper Eckert and John V Mauchly at the
University of Pennsylvania.
● Ekart and Mauchly developed the first commercially successful computer name
UNIVAC(Univesal Automatic Computer) in 1952.
● Other examples: EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer),
UNIVAC-1(Univesal Automatic Computer-1)
● Advantages: simple architecture, calculate data in a few milliseconds
● Disadvantages: costly, very large in size, slow in calculation,expensive, heat issues, need of
cooling
Second Generation Computer: Transistors
● Transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals or opens or
close a circuit. It is invented in bell labs, The transistors become the key ingredient of all digital
circuits, including computers.
● Developed in 1947 by three American physicists “John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and
William Shockley”
● Examples: PDP-8(Programmed Data Processor-8), IBM1400(International business machine
1400 series), IBM 7090(International business machine 7090 series), CDC 3600( Control Data
Corporation 3600 series)
● During the second generation many high programming languages are introduced including
FORTAN (1956), ALGOL(1958), and COBOL(1959)
● Advantages: smaller in size as compared to the first generation computer, better speed, less
electricity, Not heated as much as first-generation computer.
● Disadvantages: costly and not versatile, expensive for commercial purpose, cooling still
needed, use of punch card for input
Third Generation Computer: Integrated Circuits (IC)
● Integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuit on a small flat of pieces of semiconductor that is
normally known as silicon. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips which are
called semiconductors, which drastically increased efficiency and speed of computers.
● Developed in 1958 by “Jack Kilby”
● High languages such as Pascal PL/1, FORTON-II to V, COBOL, ALGOL-68,
BASIC(Beginners all-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was introduced
● Examples: NCR 395(National Cash Register), IBM 360,370 series, B6500
● Advantages: smaller in size, consumed less energy and more reliable, more versatile, produced
less heat, use of fan for head discharge to prevent damage, increase of storage capacity
● Disadvantages: requirement of sophisticated Technology to manufacture Integrated Circuits,
maintenance of IC chips, degradation of performance during execution of large applications
Fourth Generation Computer: Microprocessor
● Microprocessor contains all the circuits required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control
functions on a single chip. Because of microprocessors, fourth-generation includes more data
processing capacity than equivalent-sized third-generation computers.
● Developed by Marcian Hoff, Masatoshi Shima, Federico Faggin, Stanley major
● First invented microprocessor was “Intel 4004” CPU
● Examples: APPLE II, Alter 8800
● Advantages: smaller in size, heating issue almost negligible, all type of higher languages can be
use, general-purpose, less expensive, portable
● Disadvantages: fan is required, highly sophisticated, requirement of advanced technology to
make ICs
Fifth Generation Computer: AI Technology
● Artificial technology is branch of computer science which concerned with making computers
behave like humans and allow computer to take its own decision
● Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (able to simulate human behavior)
● VLSI technology and ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology are used and the speed of
these computers is extremely high
● Examples: Desktop computers, laptops, notebooks, MacBook
● Advantages: smaller in size, more compatible, very powerful, cheaper in cost, development of
true artificial intelligence advancement in parallel processing and superconductor technology
● Disadvantages: sophisticated and complex tools, pushes limit of transistor density
Stored-program computer
● Stored program concept means that data and instructions are both logically the same and can
both be stored in memory.
● Introduced in the late 1940s by John von Neumann, who proposed that a program be
electronically stored in binary-number format in a memory device so that instructions could be
modified by the computer as determined by intermediate computational results.
● Stored-program computer: computer that stores instructions in its memory to enable it to
perform a variety of tasks in sequence or intermittently
● Von Neumann architecture is built around this principle.
● Stored program concept is important because the human does not have to execute instruction
from without the machine.
Fixed-program concept vs Stored-program concept
● Historically there have been 2 types of Computers: Fixed-programmed, Stored-programmed
● Fixed Program Computers – Their function is very specific and they couldn’t be
reprogrammed, e.g. Calculators
● Stored Program Computers – These can be programmed to carry out many different tasks,
applications are stored on them, hence the name
Von Neumann Architecture
Von Neumann Architecture
● Also known as ISA (Instruction set architecture) computer
● Has three basic units: Central Processing Unit (CPU), Main Memory Unit, Input/Output Device
● Input/Output Devices – Program or data is read into main memory from the input device or
secondary storage under the control of CPU input instruction. Output devices are used to output
information from a computer.
● Main Memory Unit (Registers): Registers refer to high-speed storage areas in the CPU.
Data processed by the CPU are fetched from the registers. Different types of registers
used in architecture are: Accumulator, Program Counter (PC), Memory Address Register (MAR),
Memory Data Register (MDR), Current Instruction Register (CIR), Instruction Buffer Register (IBR)
● Control Unit: handles all processor control signals, directs all input and output flow, fetches
code for instructions, and controls how data moves around the system.
● Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): part of the CPU that handles calculations CPU may need,
e.g. Addition, Subtraction, Comparisons, Logical Operations, Bit Shifting Operations, and
Arithmetic operations
● Buses: Data Bus, Address Bus, Control Bus
Von Neumann Architecture
● MAR (Memory Address Register) – This register holds the memory location of the data that
needs to be accessed.
● MDR (Memory Data Register) – This register holds the data that is being transferred to or
from memory.
● AC (Accumulator) – This register holds the intermediate arithmetic and logic results.
● PC (Program Counter) – This register contains the address of the next instruction to be
executed.
● CIR (Current Instruction Register) – This register contains the current instruction during
processing.
● IBR (Instruction Buffer Register): The instruction that is not to be executed immediately is
placed in the instruction buffer register IBR.
Von Neumann Architecture
● Data Bus: It carries data among the memory unit, the I/O devices, and the processor.
● Address Bus: It carries the address of data (not the actual data) between memory and processor.
● Control Bus: It carries control commands from the CPU (and status signals from other devices)
in order to control and coordinate all the activities within the computer.
Bottleneck in Von Neumann Architecture
● Instructions can only be done one at a time and can only be carried out sequentially and they
hold back the competence of the CPU. This is commonly referred to as ‘Von Neumann
bottleneck’.
● In this matter, more cache, more RAM, or faster components doesn’t help much.
Harvard Architecture
Harvard Architecture
● Developed to overcome the bottleneck of Von Neumann Architecture
● Contains separate storage and separate buses (signal path) for instruction and data
● Main advantage of having separate buses for instruction and data is that CPU can access
instructions and read/write data at same time
● Has three basic units: Central Processing Unit (CPU), Main Memory Unit, Input/Output Device
● Input/Output Devices – Program or data is read into main memory from the input device or
secondary storage under the control of CPU input instruction. Output devices are used to output
information from a computer.
● Control Unit: handles all processor control signals, directs all input and output flow, fetches
code for instructions, and controls how data moves around the system.
Harvard Architecture

● Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): part of the CPU that handles calculations CPU may need,
e.g. Addition, Subtraction, Comparisons, Logical Operations, Bit Shifting Operations, and
Arithmetic operations
● Buses: Data bus, Data address bus, Instruction bus, Instruction address bus
● Operational Registers used for storing addresses of different types of instructions.
Example- Memory Address Register and Memory Data Register
● Program Counter has the location of the next instruction to be executed.
Harvard Architecture

● Data Bus: It carries data among the main memory system, processor, and I/O devices.
● Data Address Bus: It carries the address of data from the processor to the main memory
system.
● Instruction Bus: It carries instructions among the main memory system, processor, and
I/O devices.
● Instruction Address Bus: It carries the address of instructions from the processor to the
main memory system.
Advantage of Harvard Architecture

● Harvard architecture has two separate buses for instruction and data.
● So, CPU can access instructions and read/write data at the same time.
Differences b/w Von Neumann & Harvard Architecture
Von Neumann Harvard

Ancient computer architecture based on stored Modern computer architecture based on Harvard
program computer concept Mark I relay based model

Same physical memory address used Separate physical memory address used

Common bus for data and instruction transfer Separate bus for data and instruction transfer

Two clock cycles required for execution of single One clock cycle required for execution of single
instruction instruction

Cheaper in cost Costly than Von Neumann Architecture

Can’t access instruction and read/write at same Can access instruction and read/write at same time
time

Used in personal computers and small computers Used in microcontrollers and signal processing