Importing Libraries

import os: Used for operating system-related functions.

import pickle: Used for serializing and deserializing Python objects.
import numpy as np: Used for numerical computations with arrays and matrices.
from tqdm.notebook import tqdm: Provides a smart progress bar for iterative processes.
from tensorflow.keras.applications.vgg16 import VGG16, preprocess_input: Imports the VGG16
model and image preprocessing function.
from tensorflow.keras.preprocessing.image import load_img, img_to_array: Imports image loading
and conversion functions.
from tensorflow.keras.preprocessing.text import Tokenizer: Used for text tokenization.
from tensorflow.keras.preprocessing.sequence import pad_sequences: Provides padding for
sequences.
from tensorflow.keras.models import Model: Used for building and manipulating neural network
models.
from tensorflow.keras.utils import to_categorical, plot_model: Imports functions for one-hot encoding
and model visualization.
from tensorflow.keras.layers import Input, Dense, LSTM, Embedding, Dropout, add: Imports various
layer types for neural networks.

VGG16 model is loaded and modified for

feature extraction.
1. `model = VGG16()`: The VGG16 model is instantiated using `VGG16()`. VGG16 is a pre-trained
convolutional neural network model that is commonly used for image classification tasks.

2. `model = Model(inputs=model.inputs, outputs=model.layers[-2].output)`: This line creates a new

model by removing the last layer of the VGG16 model. The `Model` class from Keras is used to
define this new model. The `inputs` parameter specifies the input layer of the new model, which is the
same as the input layer of the original VGG16 model. The `outputs` parameter specifies the output
layer of the new model, which is set to be the second-to-last layer (`model.layers[-2].output`) of the
original VGG16 model. By doing this, we retain the feature extraction capabilities of VGG16 while
discarding the final classification layer.
3. `model.summary()`: This line prints a summary of the architecture of the modified VGG16 model.
The summary provides information about each layer in the model, including the layer type, output
shape, and number of trainable parameters. It gives an overview of the model's structure and can be
helpful for debugging and understanding the model's composition.

Overall, this code loads the VGG16 model and prepares it for feature extraction by removing the last
layer. The `model.summary()` line provides a summary of the modified model's architecture.

Using a pre-trained model, such as VGG16, has

several advantages over training a custom
model from scratch:

1. **Transfer Learning**: Pre-trained models are trained on large-scale datasets, typically on a task
like image classification, which requires a significant amount of labeled data and computational
resources. By using a pre-trained model, you can leverage the knowledge and learned features from
the pre-training task and transfer it to your specific task. This can greatly speed up the training process
and improve performance, especially when you have limited data available.

2. **Learned Features**: Pre-trained models have already learned hierarchical representations of

features through the layers during their pre-training. These learned features capture general patterns
and structures present in images. By using a pre-trained model, you can utilize these pre-learned
features as a starting point for your own task. This is particularly beneficial when working with
limited data, as the pre-trained model has already learned useful and generic image features.

3. **Reduced Training Time and Resources**: Training a deep learning model from scratch can be
computationally expensive and time-consuming, especially for complex models. Pre-trained models
save training time and computational resources since the initial layers have already learned low-level
features. By removing the need to train these initial layers, you can focus on fine-tuning the later
layers specific to your task, reducing the overall training time and resource requirements.

4. **Better Generalization**: Pre-trained models are trained on diverse and large-scale datasets,
making them effective at generalizing to different image domains and tasks. They have already
learned useful representations that are applicable to a wide range of images. This generalization
ability helps in cases where you have limited data for your specific task, as the pre-trained model can
capture and utilize the common patterns and structures present in the data.

While using a pre-trained model offers these advantages, there might be cases where a custom model
is necessary, such as when working with a highly specialized or domain-specific task, or when the
pre-trained models are not available for your specific task. In such cases, training a custom model
from scratch might be the best approach.

Feature extraction code

This code snippet performs the following steps to extract features from images using the pre-trained
VGG16 model and store them in a dictionary:

1. **Define an empty dictionary to store the extracted features**: The dictionary `features` is
initialized as an empty container to store the extracted features.

2. **Set the directory of the images**: The variable `directory` is assigned the path to the directory
containing the images. It is typically set to the `Images` subdirectory within the `BASE_DIR`.

3. **Loop through each image in the directory**: The code uses a `for` loop to iterate over each
image file in the specified directory. The `tqdm` function is used to create a progress bar to track the
progress of the loop.

4. **Load the image from file**: The image file is loaded using the `load_img` function from Keras.
The `target_size` parameter is set to `(224, 224)`, which resizes the image to the desired dimensions.

5. **Convert the image pixels to a numpy array**: The loaded image is converted to a numpy array
using the `img_to_array` function. This converts the image into a 3-dimensional array representing
the pixel values.

6. **Reshape the image data for the model**: The image array is reshaped to have a shape of `(1,
image.shape[0], image.shape[1], image.shape[2])`. This additional dimension is required to match the
input shape expected by the VGG16 model.

7. **Preprocess the image for VGG16**: The `preprocess_input` function from Keras is applied to
the image array. It performs preprocessing operations such as mean subtraction and channel-wise
color normalization, specific to the VGG16 model.

8. **Extract features using the pre-trained VGG16 model**: The preprocessed image is passed to the
VGG16 model using the `model.predict` function. This extracts the features from the image by
feeding it through the layers of the model.

9. **Get the image ID by removing the file extension**: The image ID is extracted from the image
file name by removing the file extension using the `os.path.splitext` function.
10. **Store the extracted feature in the dictionary**: The extracted feature is stored in the `features`
dictionary, with the image ID as the key and the feature as the value.

This process is repeated for each image in the directory, resulting in a dictionary `features` that
contains the extracted features for each image, accessible using the respective image ID.

Storing the Features as pickle file and opening

it
Storing part
1. **`pickle.dump(features, open(os.path.join(WORKING_DIR, 'features.pkl'), 'wb'))`**: The
`pickle.dump()` function is called to serialize and save the `features` dictionary. This function takes
two main arguments: the object to be serialized (`features` dictionary) and the file object to which the
serialized data will be written.

- `features`: The dictionary containing the extracted image features.

- `open(os.path.join(WORKING_DIR, 'features.pkl'), 'wb')`: The `open()` function is used to open a
file in binary write mode ('wb'). It takes two arguments: the file path and the mode. The
`os.path.join()` function is used to construct the file path by joining the `WORKING_DIR` (directory
where the file will be saved) and the file name 'features.pkl'.

By calling `pickle.dump(features, open(os.path.join(WORKING_DIR, 'features.pkl'), 'wb'))`, the

`features` dictionary is serialized and written to a binary file named 'features.pkl' in the specified
directory.
Opening part
In this code snippet, the extracted image features that were previously saved using pickle are loaded
from a pickle file. Here's a brief explanation:

1. **`with open(os.path.join(WORKING_DIR, 'features.pkl'), 'rb') as f:`**: The `open()` function is

used to open the pickle file containing the saved features in binary read mode ('rb'). The
`os.path.join()` function constructs the file path by joining the `WORKING_DIR` (directory where
the file is located) and the file name 'features.pkl'. The file object is assigned to the variable `f`.

2. **`features = pickle.load(f)`**: The `pickle.load()` function is called to deserialize and load the
data from the pickle file. It takes the file object `f` as the argument. The loaded data, in this case, the
features, is assigned to the variable `features`.
By using the `with` statement, the file is automatically closed after the loading process is completed,
ensuring proper resource management.

This code snippet allows you to load the previously saved features from the pickle file into the
`features` variable, making them available for further analysis or usage in your code.

Bar Graph for most frequent words

1. **Importing libraries**: The code imports the `matplotlib.pyplot` module as `plt` for data
visualization and the `Counter` class from the `collections` module for counting word occurrences.

2. **Reading the text file of captions**: The code opens the file `'captions.txt'` located in the
`BASE_DIR` directory for reading. It skips the first line using `next(f)` and reads the remaining lines
into the `captions_doc` list.

3. **Concatenating captions into a single string**: The individual captions in `captions_doc` are
concatenated into a single string named `all_captions` using the `' '.join(captions_doc)` operation.

4. **Splitting the text into individual words**: The `all_captions` string is split into individual words
using the `.split()` method, resulting in a list of words stored in the `words` variable.

5. **Counting the occurrences of each word**: The `Counter` class is used to count the occurrences
of each word in the `words` list. The resulting word counts are stored in the `word_counts` variable.

6. **Getting the top most common words**: The `most_common()` method of `Counter` is used to
retrieve the top 30 most common words and their respective counts from `word_counts`. The results
are stored in the `top_words` variable as a list of tuples.

7. **Preparing data for the graph**: The `words_labels` list is created to store the keys (words) from
`top_words`, and the `words_values` list is created to store the corresponding values (counts) from
`top_words`.

8. **Creating a bar plot**: The code creates a bar plot using `plt.bar()` to visualize the top most
repeated words. The `words_labels` and `words_values` are passed as the x and y data, respectively.
The plot is customized with x and y labels, a title, rotated x-axis tick labels, and adjusted layout.

9. **Displaying the plot**: The plot is displayed using `plt.show()`.

This code generates a bar plot showing the top 30 most repeated words in the captions, providing
insights into the most common words used in the text file.

Load the caption file for mapping

1. **Define an empty dictionary**: The dictionary `mapping` is initialized as an empty container to

store the mapping of images to captions. This dictionary will be used to associate each image ID with
its corresponding captions.

2. **Loop through each line in the captions document**: The code iterates through each line in the
`captions_doc` list, which represents the lines in the captions document. It processes one line at a time
to extract the necessary information.

3. **Split the line by comma**: Each line is split using the comma (',') delimiter using the `split()`
method. This splits the line into multiple tokens, where each token represents a part of the line
separated by commas. The resulting tokens are stored in the `tokens` list.

4. **Check if the line has at least two tokens**: The code checks if the `tokens` list has at least two
elements. This check ensures that the line contains both an image ID and a caption. If the line doesn't
have at least two tokens, it means that the line does not contain complete information, so the code
skips to the next line using the `continue` statement.

5. **Extract the image ID and caption from the tokens**: The image ID is assigned the first token
(`tokens[0]`), which represents the image ID. The caption is assigned the remaining tokens
(`tokens[1:]`). This slicing operation removes the image ID from the tokens and stores the caption as a
list.

6. **Remove the file extension from the image ID**: The `os.path.splitext()` function is used to split
the image ID into its base name and file extension. By accessing the first element of the resulting
tuple (`[0]`), the file extension is removed, leaving only the base name. This modified image ID is
assigned back to the `image_id` variable.

7. **Convert the caption list to a string**: The caption, which is initially a list of tokens, is converted
into a string by joining the tokens with a space separator. The `" ".join(caption)` operation
concatenates the tokens together with a space in between, creating a single string representing the
caption. The resulting string is assigned back to the `caption` variable.
8. **Create a list if needed and store the caption**: The code checks if the `image_id` is already
present as a key in the `mapping` dictionary. If the `image_id` is not present, it means that this is the
first caption encountered for that image. In this case, a new empty list is created as the value
associated with the `image_id` key. The caption is then appended to the list, effectively storing it as
the first caption for that image. If the `image_id` already exists in the dictionary, it means that there
are already captions associated with that image. In this case, the caption is simply appended to the
existing list of captions for that image.

By executing this code snippet, the `mapping` dictionary will be populated with the mapping of image
IDs to their corresponding captions. Each image ID serves as a key in the dictionary, and the
associated value is a list containing all the captions associated with that image ID. This mapping can
be used to retrieve the captions for a specific image ID later in the code.

Printing mapped captions before Preprocess

1. **Import the `islice` function**: The code imports the `islice` function from the `itertools` module.
This function allows us to easily retrieve a specific number of items from an iterable.

2. **Define the number of items to print**: The variable `num_items` specifies the number of image
IDs with their corresponding captions that we want to print.

3. **Get the first `num_items` items from the dictionary**: The `islice()` function is used to retrieve
the first `num_items` items from the `mapping` dictionary. It takes two arguments: the iterable (in this
case, the `mapping.items()` which returns a sequence of (key, value) pairs) and the number of items to
retrieve (`num_items`). The `list()` function is used to convert the obtained iterator into a list, which is
assigned to the variable `first_items`.

4. **Print the first `num_items` items with image IDs and captions**: The code then iterates over
each item in `first_items`, which represents a tuple of an image ID and its associated captions. For
each item, it prints the image ID and the captions in a structured format. The image ID is printed first,
followed by the captions. Each caption is printed with a preceding dash ("-") for clarity. An empty line
is printed after each set of image ID and captions for better readability.

This code snippet calculates the number of

images in the dataset by counting the number of
image IDs in the `mapping` dictionary. Here's
how it works:
1. **Calculate the number of images**: The `len()` function is used to determine the length of the
`mapping` dictionary, which corresponds to the number of unique image IDs present in the dataset.
The resulting count is assigned to the variable `num_images`.

By executing this code snippet, the program will calculate the number of images in the dataset and
store the count in the `num_images` variable. This count provides information about the size of the
dataset and can be used for various purposes in further analysis or processing of the data.

Preprocessing the Caption data

This code snippet defines a function named `clean` that is used to preprocess captions within the
`mapping` dictionary. Here's how it works:

1. **Loop through each image in the mapping dictionary**: The function iterates through each image
in the `mapping` dictionary using the `items()` method, which returns a sequence of (key, value) pairs.

2. **Loop through each caption for the current image**: For each image, the function loops through
each caption associated with that image. It uses a `for` loop to iterate over the range of the length of
the `captions` list.

3. **Get the current caption**: Within the loop, the current caption is retrieved from the `captions`
list using the index `i`.

4. **Preprocessing steps**: The code applies several preprocessing steps to clean the caption text.
These steps include:
- Converting all text to lowercase using the `lower()` method.
- Removing any non-letter characters (e.g., digits, special characters) using the `replace()` method
with a regular expression pattern `[^A-Za-z]`.
- Removing any extra whitespace using the `replace()` method with the regular expression pattern `\
s+`.
- Adding start and end tags to the caption to indicate the beginning and end of the sentence. This is
done by appending `'startseq '` to the beginning of the caption and `' endseq'` to the end of the caption.

5. **Replace the current caption with the cleaned version**: After performing the preprocessing
steps, the code replaces the current caption in the `captions` list with the cleaned version.
By executing this code snippet, the `clean` function can be used to preprocess captions within the
`mapping` dictionary. It modifies each caption by converting it to lowercase, removing non-letter
characters and extra whitespace, and adding start and end tags. This preprocessing is often performed
to standardize the captions and prepare them for further natural language processing tasks, such as
training a caption generation model.

clean(mapping) calls the clean function to preprocess the captions within the
mapping dictionary. By executing this code, the captions in the mapping dictionary will undergo the
preprocessing steps defined in the clean function.

Print captions after preprocessing

Same as printed before processing.

Now create a list named `all_captions` to hold

all the captions from the `mapping` dictionary.
Here's how it works:

1. **Creating an empty list**: The code initializes an empty list called `all_captions` that will be used
to store all the captions.

2. **Looping over each key in the mapping dictionary**: The code iterates over each key in the
`mapping` dictionary. Each key represents an image ID.

3. **Looping over each caption for the current key**: For each key (image ID), the code iterates over
each caption associated with that key. The captions are obtained from the `mapping` dictionary using
the key as the index.

4. **Adding the current caption to the list of all captions**: Inside the inner loop, the current caption
is appended to the `all_captions` list using the `append()` method. This adds the caption to the end of
the list.

By executing this code snippet, all the captions from the `mapping` dictionary will be collected and
stored in the `all_captions` list. This list will contain all the captions available in the dataset,
regardless of their association with specific image IDs. This consolidated list of captions can be used
for various natural language processing tasks, such as training language models or performing
statistical analysis on the text data.
len(all_captions) #check the correct caption
amount around 40k
all_captions[:10] #get 20 captions for image

Word Cloud
This code snippet demonstrates the creation
and display of a word cloud using the
`matplotlib` and `WordCloud` libraries. Here's
how it works:

1. **Importing the necessary libraries**: The code imports the `matplotlib.pyplot` module as `plt` and
the `WordCloud` class from the `wordcloud` library.

2. **Reading the captions from the file**: The code opens the `captions.txt` file located in the
`BASE_DIR` directory and reads its contents. The `next(f)` line skips the first line of the file,
assuming it contains a header or irrelevant information. The remaining content is stored in the
`captions_doc` variable.

3. **Creating a WordCloud object**: The code creates a `WordCloud` object, specifying the desired
width, height, and background color. The `WordCloud` object is initialized with the `captions_doc`
text data.

4. **Generating the word cloud**: The `generate()` method is called on the `WordCloud` object,
using the `captions_doc` as the input. This generates the word cloud based on the provided text data.

5. **Displaying the word cloud using matplotlib**: The code sets up the figure size using
`plt.figure(figsize=(10, 5))`. Then, it uses `plt.imshow()` to display the generated word cloud image.
The `interpolation` parameter is set to `'bilinear'` for smooth image rendering. `plt.axis('off')` removes
the axis labels and ticks. Finally, `plt.show()` is called to display the word cloud visualization.
A tokenizer is a tool used in natural language
processing (NLP) to break down text into
smaller units, typically words or subwords. It
plays a crucial role in various NLP tasks, such
as text classification, machine translation, and
text generation.

The `Tokenizer` class in the code snippet is part of the `tensorflow.keras.preprocessing.text` module.
It provides functionalities to preprocess and tokenize text data. Here's an overview of the steps
involved:

1. **Creating a Tokenizer object**: An instance of the `Tokenizer` class is created using `tokenizer =
Tokenizer()`. This initializes the tokenizer object.

2. **Fitting the tokenizer**: The `fit_on_texts()` method is called on the tokenizer object, passing
`all_captions` as the input. This step analyzes the text data and creates a vocabulary of unique words
based on the captions. Each word is assigned a unique integer index.

3. **Saving the tokenizer**: The tokenizer object is saved to a file using the `pickle` module. This
allows you to reuse the trained tokenizer later without having to fit it on the data again.

4. **Getting the total number of unique words**: The `word_index` attribute of the tokenizer object
is accessed to retrieve the vocabulary. The length of the `word_index` dictionary is computed, and 1 is
added to account for the '0' padding index. This provides the total number of unique words in the
vocabulary.

The tokenizer's vocabulary is built based on the captions provided in the `all_captions` list. It assigns
a unique index to each word in the vocabulary, and this index can be used to represent words in a
numerical format suitable for machine learning models.

By tokenizing the text data, you can convert raw text into a sequence of tokens that can be processed
and analyzed for various NLP tasks.
The variable `vocab_size` represents the vocabulary size, which is the
total number of unique words in the tokenizer's vocabulary. In the given code snippet, `vocab_size` is
computed as the length of the `word_index` dictionary of the tokenizer object plus 1. The additional 1
is added to account for the '0' padding index.

The vocabulary size is an important parameter in natural language processing tasks, especially when
using neural network models. It determines the size of the input and output layers of the models and
influences the dimensionality of word embeddings or one-hot encodings.

By obtaining the vocabulary size, you can gain insights into the richness of the text data and
understand the complexity of the language used in the captions. This information is useful for setting
the appropriate model configurations and designing the input and output layers of the neural network
models to effectively handle the text data.

The code snippet sets the maximum length of a

caption based on the number of words in the
captions present in the `all_captions` list.

Here's a breakdown of the code:

```python
# Calculate the maximum length of a caption
max_length = max(len(caption.split()) for caption in all_captions)
```

In this code, a list comprehension is used to iterate over each caption in the `all_captions` list. For
each caption, `caption.split()` is called to split the caption into individual words using whitespace as
the separator. The `len()` function is then used to determine the number of words in each caption.
The `max()` function is applied to the resulting list of caption lengths to find the maximum length
among all captions. This maximum length represents the highest number of words present in any
single caption within the dataset.

Finally, the maximum length is stored in the `max_length` variable, and it can be accessed or printed
as shown in the comment `# print the maximum length`.

The maximum length of a caption is a crucial parameter when working with sequence-based models
such as recurrent neural networks (RNNs) or transformers. It helps determine the appropriate length
for input sequences and can influence the design of the model architecture and the handling of
sequence data during training and inference.

The code snippet performs a train-test split on

the list of image IDs stored in the `mapping`
dictionary. Here's a breakdown of the code:

```python
# Get the list of all image IDs from the dictionary "mapping"
image_ids = list(mapping.keys())

# Calculate the split index for 90-10 train-test split

split = int(len(image_ids) * 0.90)

# Split the list of image IDs into train and test sets
train = image_ids[:split]
test = image_ids[split:]
```

In this code, `list(mapping.keys())` retrieves all the keys (image IDs) from the `mapping` dictionary
and converts them into a list called `image_ids`.

The variable `split` is calculated as 90% of the total number of image IDs, multiplied by `0.90`. This
determines the index at which the split between the train and test sets will occur.

Next, the list of image IDs, `image_ids`, is split into two sets: `train` and `test`. The `train` set
contains the image IDs from index 0 up to the `split` index (90% of the data), while the `test` set
contains the remaining image IDs (10% of the data).

This train-test split is commonly used in machine learning to separate the data into training and testing
subsets. The train set is used to train the model, while the test set is used to evaluate its performance
on unseen data.

By splitting the image IDs, you can create separate datasets for training and testing your image
captioning model, ensuring that the model's performance is assessed on unseen images during
evaluation.

Data generator
Certainly! The data_generator function is responsible for generating batches of training data for the
image captioning model. Here's a breakdown of the code:
The data_generator function takes several inputs:

data_keys: The list of image keys (image IDs) used for generating data.
mapping: The dictionary mapping image IDs to their corresponding captions.
features: The dictionary storing image features extracted from a pre-trained model.
tokenizer: The tokenizer object used to tokenize the captions.
max_length: The maximum length of a caption sequence.
vocab_size: The size of the vocabulary.
batch_size: The batch size for training.
Within the function, the variables X1_batch, X2_batch, and y_batch are initialized to store the image
features, input sequences, and output sequences, respectively, for a batch of data. The variable n keeps
track of the current batch size.
The function then enters an infinite loop to generate batches of data. It iterates over the data_keys list,
which contains the image IDs. For each image ID, it retrieves the corresponding captions from the
mapping dictionary.

Next, it processes each caption by encoding it using the tokenizer's texts_to_sequences method, which
converts the caption into a sequence of integers representing the word indices.

The sequence is then split into input (in_seq) and output (out_seq) pairs. Starting from the second
word, for each word in the sequence, a new pair is created where in_seq contains the words before the
current word, and out_seq contains the current word.

The input sequence (in_seq) is padded using the pad_sequences function to ensure that all sequences
have the same length (max_length).

The output sequence (out_seq) is encoded using one-hot encoding, where each word index is
converted into a binary vector with the size of the vocabulary (vocab_size), representing the presence
or absence of each word in the vocabulary.

The image features, input sequence, and output sequence are appended to the respective batch lists
(X1_batch, X2_batch, y_batch).

When the batch size is reached (n == batch_size), the function yields the batch as a tuple of inputs
([np.array(X1_batch), np.array(X2_batch)]) and the corresponding outputs (np.array(y_batch)). Then,
the batch lists are cleared, and n is reset to 0 to start building the next batch.

This generator function allows you to generate batches of training data on-the-fly, which is useful
when working with large datasets that cannot fit into memory at once. It enables efficient training of
the image captioning model by feeding it with batches of image features, input sequences, and output
sequences.

Encoder Decoder

1. *Importing the necessary modules*: The code imports the required modules from TensorFlow's
Keras API. These modules provide the building blocks for constructing the neural network model.

2. *Input layers*: Two input layers are defined using the `Input` class from Keras. The first input
layer (`inputs1`) is for image features and has a shape of `(4096,)`, indicating a 1-dimensional vector
with 4096 elements. The second input layer (`inputs2`) is for sequence features and has a shape of
`(max_length,)`, where `max_length` represents the maximum length of the sequence.

3. *Feature extraction layers*: The image features (`inputs1`) are passed through a dropout layer
(`fe1`) with a dropout rate of 0.2. Dropout is a regularization technique that randomly sets a fraction
of input units to 0 during training, which helps prevent overfitting. The output of the dropout layer is
then fed into a dense layer (`fe2`) with 512 units and ReLU activation. The dense layer applies a
linear transformation to the input and applies the rectified linear unit (ReLU) activation function
element-wise.

4. *Sequence feature layers*: The sequence features (`inputs2`) are processed through an embedding
layer (`se1`). The embedding layer converts the input sequence of integer tokens into dense vectors of
fixed size. It takes the vocabulary size (`vocab_size`), which represents the number of unique words
in the corpus, as its input dimension. The embedding layer also has an output dimension of 256,
which determines the size of the dense vector representation for each word. The `mask_zero=True`
parameter is used to handle variable sequence lengths by masking the zero-padding in the input
sequences. After the embedding layer, a dropout layer (`se2`) with a dropout rate of 0.2 is applied to
the embedded sequence features for regularization. Finally, an LSTM layer (`se3`) with 512 units is
used to extract the sequence features. LSTM (Long Short-Term Memory) is a type of recurrent neural
network (RNN) layer that can effectively model sequence data.

5. *Decoder model*: The image features (`fe2`) and sequence features (`se3`) are combined using the
`add` function (`decoder1`). This merging step helps the model fuse the relevant information from
both sources. The resulting features are then passed through a dense layer (`decoder2`) with 512 units
and ReLU activation. This layer further processes the combined features to aid in the decoding
process.

6. *Output layer*: The output layer (`outputs`) is a dense layer with `vocab_size` units and softmax
activation. It produces a probability distribution over the vocabulary, representing the likelihood of
each word being the next word in the caption. The softmax activation ensures that the predicted
probabilities sum up to 1.

7. *Model compilation*: The model is created using the `Model` class, specifying the input and
output layers. After defining the model, it needs to be compiled with the desired loss function and
optimizer. In this case, the categorical cross-entropy loss function (`loss='categorical_crossentropy'`)
is chosen, which is suitable for multi-class classification problems. The Adam optimizer
(`optimizer='adam'`) is used for optimization, which is an efficient variant of stochastic gradient
descent.

8. *Plotting the model architecture*: The `plot_model` function from Keras' `utils` module is used to
create a visual representation of the model's architecture. The resulting plot shows the connections
between the different layers, providing a visual understanding of how the input flows through the
network.
By going through these steps, you can construct an image captioning model that

Regularization is a technique used in machine learning to prevent overfitting and

improve the generalization performance of a model. Overfitting occurs when a model learns to
perform well on the training data but fails to generalize well to new, unseen data.

Regularization methods add additional constraints or penalties to the model's objective function,
encouraging it to learn simpler and more general patterns from the data. This helps to reduce the
model's reliance on noisy or irrelevant features, making it more robust and less prone to overfitting.

There are different types of regularization techniques commonly used in machine learning, including:

1. L1 Regularization (Lasso): It adds a penalty term proportional to the absolute value of the model's
weights. L1 regularization encourages sparsity, meaning it encourages some weights to become
exactly zero, effectively performing feature selection.

2. L2 Regularization (Ridge): It adds a penalty term proportional to the squared value of the model's
weights. L2 regularization encourages smaller weights overall, effectively shrinking the magnitude of
the weights.

3. Dropout Regularization: It randomly sets a fraction of the input units to zero at each training
iteration. This technique helps to prevent co-adaptation of neurons and encourages the model to learn
more robust and generalized representations.

4. Early Stopping: It stops the training process early based on a validation set performance criterion.
By monitoring the validation loss or accuracy, training can be terminated when the model starts to
overfit, resulting in the best performance on unseen data.

These regularization techniques help to control the complexity of the model, reduce overfitting, and
improve its ability to generalize well to new data. By using regularization, models can achieve better
performance on both the training set and unseen data, leading to more reliable and effective machine
learning models.

Training the model

The provided code snippet demonstrates the training process of a neural network model over a
specified number of epochs. Here's a breakdown of the code:

1. `import matplotlib.pyplot as plt`: This line imports the `pyplot` module from the `matplotlib`
library, which is used for creating visualizations, such as plots.

2. `epochs = 20` and `batch_size = 32`: These lines define the number of training epochs and the batch
size. The model will be trained for `epochs` number of iterations, and each iteration will process
`batch_size` number of samples.

3. `steps_per_epoch = len(train) // batch_size`: This line calculates the number of steps per epoch. It
divides the total number of training samples (`len(train)`) by the batch size to determine how many
batches of data will be processed in each epoch.

4. `loss_history = []`: This line initializes an empty list to store the loss values at each epoch.

5. Training Loop:
- The code enters a loop that iterates over the number of epochs specified.
- `generator = data_generator(train, mapping, features, tokenizer, max_length, vocab_size,
batch_size)`: This line creates a data generator using the `data_generator` function, which generates
batches of training data for each epoch.
- `history = model.fit(generator, epochs=1, steps_per_epoch=steps_per_epoch, verbose=1)`: The
`fit` method is called to train the model for one epoch using the data generator. It performs the
forward and backward passes, updates the model's weights, and returns the training history for that
epoch.
- `loss_history.append(history.history['loss'][0])`: The loss value from the training history is
extracted and appended to the `loss_history` list.

6. Visualization:
- `plt.plot(range(1, epochs + 1), loss_history)`: This line plots the loss values over the epochs. The
x-axis represents the epoch number, and the y-axis represents the corresponding loss value.
- `plt.xlabel('Epoch')`, `plt.ylabel('Loss')`, `plt.title('Loss over Time')`: These lines set the labels and
title for the plot.
- `plt.show()`: This line displays the plot on the screen.

By running this code, you will train the model for the specified number of epochs, track the loss
values at each epoch, and visualize the loss over time. The plot helps in understanding the training
progress and evaluating the model's performance during the training process.
# Save the trained model to disk to use for
future predictions
model.save(WORKING_DIR+'/vgg_model.h5')

# Load a saved model from disk for use in predictions

model = load_model('/content/drive/MyDrive/Dataset/Fixed/vgg_model.h5')

The provided code snippet defines a function

called `idx_to_word` that converts an integer
index to its corresponding word in the tokenizer
vocabulary. Here's how the code works:

1. The function `idx_to_word` takes two parameters: `integer` (the integer index to be converted) and
`tokenizer` (the tokenizer object containing the word-to-index mapping).

2. The function begins by looping through the word-to-index mapping in the tokenizer using a `for`
loop.

3. Inside the loop, each iteration provides two variables: `word` (the word from the vocabulary) and
`index` (the corresponding index of the word).

4. The code checks if the `index` of the current word matches the `integer` value passed to the
function. If there is a match, it means that the current word corresponds to the given integer index.

5. If a match is found, the function immediately returns the `word` as the output.
6. If the `integer` index is not found in the tokenizer vocabulary, the loop completes without finding a
match. In this case, the function returns `None` to indicate that the integer index does not correspond
to any word in the tokenizer vocabulary.

The purpose of this function is to provide a convenient way to retrieve the word representation of an
integer index in the tokenizer vocabulary. It can be used, for example, to convert the predicted integer
indices from a model into their corresponding words for better interpretation or evaluation of the
model's output.

The provided code snippet defines a function

called `predict_caption` that generates a
caption for an image using a trained model.
Here's how the code works:

1. The function `predict_caption` takes four parameters: `model` (the trained image captioning
model), `image` (the input image for which the caption will be generated), `tokenizer` (the tokenizer
object used for encoding and decoding sequences), and `max_length` (the maximum length of the
caption sequence).

2. The function initializes the `in_text` variable with the start tag `'startseq'`. This start tag is used as
the initial input for the generation process.

3. The code enters a loop that iterates over the range of `max_length`. This loop controls the
generation of the caption up to the maximum length specified.

4. Inside the loop, the current `in_text` sequence is encoded using the tokenizer, resulting in a
sequence of integer indices representing the words.

5. The encoded sequence is then padded to the `max_length` using the `pad_sequences` function to
ensure that the input has the same length as expected by the model.
6. The model is used to predict the next word in the caption sequence based on the current input
image and input sequence.

7. The predicted output is an array of probabilities for each word in the tokenizer vocabulary. The
code uses `np.argmax` to get the index with the highest probability, representing the predicted word.

8. The function calls the `idx_to_word` function (not shown in the code snippet) to convert the
predicted index to the corresponding word in the tokenizer vocabulary.

9. If the predicted word is not found in the vocabulary (i.e., `word` is `None`), the loop breaks,
indicating the end of the caption generation.

10. If the predicted word is found and is not the end tag `'endseq'`, it is appended to the `in_text`
string, separated by a space. This updated `in_text` is then used as the input for generating the next
word in the caption.

11. If the predicted word is the end tag `'endseq'`, the loop breaks, indicating the completion of the
caption generation.

12. Finally, the function returns the generated caption stored in the `in_text` variable, representing the
generated caption for the input image.

This function allows you to generate captions for images using a trained image captioning model. By
providing an image, the tokenizer, and the maximum length of the caption, the function iteratively
generates each word in the caption sequence, taking into account the predicted probabilities of the
next word. The process continues until the maximum length is reached or the end tag is encountered,
resulting in the complete generated caption.

The provided code snippet demonstrates how to

calculate BLEU scores to evaluate the
performance of a captioning model using the
NLTK library. Here's an explanation of the
steps involved:
1. Import the necessary function: The code imports the `corpus_bleu` function from the
`nltk.translate.bleu_score` module. This function is used to calculate the BLEU scores.

2. Initialize lists: Two empty lists, `actual` and `predicted`, are initialized to store the actual captions
and predicted captions, respectively.

3. Iterate over the test data: The code iterates over each key in the `test` dataset. The `test` dataset
contains image IDs for which captions need to be predicted.

4. Get actual captions: For each key, the code retrieves the actual captions from the `mapping`
dictionary. The `mapping` dictionary maps image IDs to their corresponding captions.

5. Predict the caption: The `predict_caption` function is called to generate a caption for the current
image using the trained model, image features, tokenizer, and maximum caption length.

6. Split the captions: The actual captions and predicted caption are split into words. The actual
captions are already split using whitespace, while the predicted caption is split using the same
approach.

7. Append to lists: The actual caption, represented as a list of words, is appended to the `actual` list.
The predicted caption, also represented as a list of words, is appended to the `predicted` list.

8. Calculate BLEU scores: After iterating over all the test data, the code calculates the BLEU scores.
Two BLEU scores are calculated: BLEU-1 and BLEU-2.

- BLEU-1: The `corpus_bleu` function is called with the `actual` and `predicted` lists, and the
`weights` parameter is set to `(1.0, 0, 0, 0)`. This indicates that only unigram precision (BLEU-1) will
be considered in the calculation.

- BLEU-2: The `corpus_bleu` function is called again with the same `actual` and `predicted` lists,
but this time the `weights` parameter is set to `(0.5, 0.5, 0, 0)`. This indicates that both unigram and
bigram precisions (BLEU-2) will be considered in the calculation.

9. Print the BLEU scores: The calculated BLEU-1 and BLEU-2 scores are printed using the `print`
function.
The BLEU scores provide a measure of the similarity between the predicted and actual captions. A
higher BLEU score indicates a better match between the predicted and actual captions, indicating
better performance of the captioning model.

BLEU
BLEU (Bilingual Evaluation Understudy) is a metric used to evaluate the quality of machine-
generated translations or captions. It compares the generated output with one or more human-
generated reference translations. The score ranges from 0 to 1, with a higher score indicating a better
match to the references.

BLEU calculates the similarity by comparing n-grams (contiguous sequences of words) between the
generated output and the references. It measures precision by counting overlapping n-grams and
incorporates a brevity penalty for shorter outputs. BLEU provides a quantitative measure of quality
but focuses on lexical overlap and has limitations in capturing semantics and syntax.

BLEU scores are reported as BLEU-n, where 'n' represents the size of the n-gram used. Higher n-gram
values capture longer word sequences and offer a stricter evaluation. BLEU is widely used in machine
translation and captioning tasks for comparing different models or approaches.

Unigrams and bigrams are terms used to

describe the size or length of n-grams, which
are contiguous sequences of words within a text.
Here's an explanation of unigrams and
bigrams:

1. Unigrams: Unigrams refer to individual words or tokens in a text. Each word in a sentence or
document is considered a unigram. For example, in the sentence "The cat is sleeping," the unigrams
are "The," "cat," "is," and "sleeping." Unigrams capture the most basic level of word information and
can provide insight into the vocabulary and word frequency within a text.

2. Bigrams: Bigrams consist of pairs of consecutive words in a text. They capture the relationship
between two adjacent words. For example, in the sentence "The cat is sleeping," the bigrams are "The
cat," "cat is," and "is sleeping." Bigrams provide more contextual information compared to unigrams
and can help capture simple patterns or collocations in the text.
In the context of the BLEU metric, the n-gram size specifies the number of consecutive words
considered for comparison. BLEU-1 uses unigrams, BLEU-2 uses bigrams, and so on. Higher n-gram
values capture longer sequences of words and can provide a more nuanced evaluation of the generated
output compared to the reference(s).

The code snippet you provided demonstrates a

function called `generate_caption` that
performs the following tasks:

1. Importing libraries: The code imports the `Image` class from the PIL (Python Imaging Library)
module and the `pyplot` module from matplotlib.

2. Function definition: The code defines the `generate_caption` function, which takes an
`image_name` as input.

3. Image loading: The code constructs the path to the image file by joining the `BASE_DIR` (base
directory) with the "Images" subdirectory and the `image_name`. It then uses the `Image.open`
function from PIL to open and load the image.

4. Displaying real captions: The code retrieves the actual captions for the image by using the
`image_id` derived from the `image_name` and accessing the `mapping` dictionary. It then prints each
caption in the console.

5. Generating predicted caption: The code calls the `predict_caption` function, passing the trained
`model`, image features corresponding to the `image_id`, `tokenizer`, and `max_length`. The function
generates a predicted caption for the image using the model and the provided inputs.

6. Displaying the estimated caption: The predicted caption is printed in the console.

7. Displaying the image: The code uses `plt.imshow` from matplotlib to display the loaded image.
By using this function and providing an image name as input, you can view the real captions
associated with the image, the predicted caption generated by the model, and visualize the image
itself.

#generating captions for testing the real captions vs estimated captions

generate_caption("599366440_a238e805cf.jpg")

The provided code snippet demonstrates how to

generate captions for an image using a trained
model and the VGG16 model for feature
extraction. Here's an explanation of each step:

1. Setting the image path: The `image_path` variable is set to the path of the image for which captions
need to be generated. In this case, the image path is specified as
`'/content/drive/MyDrive/Dataset/testing image/kids playing football.jpg'`.

2. Loading the image: The `load_img` function is used to load the image from the specified path. The
`target_size` parameter is set to `(224, 224)` to resize the image to the desired dimensions.

3. Converting image pixels to a numpy array: The `img_to_array` function is used to convert the
loaded image to a numpy array. This allows for further processing and feeding the image to the model.

4. Reshaping the image data: The `image` array is reshaped to have a batch size of 1 using
`image.reshape((1, image.shape[0], image.shape[1], image.shape[2]))`. This reshaping is necessary to
match the expected input shape of the model.

5. Preprocessing the image for VGG: The `preprocess_input` function is applied to the image array.
This function performs preprocessing specific to the VGG16 model, such as subtracting the mean
RGB values of the ImageNet dataset.

6. Extracting features using the VGG model: The VGG16 model is loaded and the last layer is
removed to obtain the feature extraction model. The reshaped and preprocessed image is passed
through this model using `vgg_model.predict(image, verbose=0)`, resulting in the extraction of image
features. The extracted features are stored in the `features` variable.
7. Plotting the image: The `load_img` function is called again to load the image for plotting purposes.
The `plt.imshow` function is then used to display the image, and `plt.axis('on')` ensures that the image
axes are displayed.

8. Generating predictions: The `predict_caption` function is called to generate captions for the image.
It takes the trained model, extracted features (`features`), tokenizer, and maximum caption length as
inputs. The generated caption is returned by the function.

Overall, this code snippet loads an image, preprocesses it, extracts features using the VGG16 model,
plots the image, and generates captions for it using a trained model.