WET eyAtyd RESEARCH METHODOLOGY DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION % SWAMI VIVEKANAND SUBHARTI UNIVERSITY Meerut (National Capital Region Delhi)Contents UNIT 1: -INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UNIT 2: Ad 12 13 14 15 16 a7 18 19 1.40 Ll Liz Ld3 14 LAS 1.16 17 118 119 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 125 1.26 1.27 Leaming Objectives Introduction Objectives of Research General Characteristics of Research ‘Types of Research Stage |: Formulating the Problem Stage 2: Method of Inquiry Stage 3: Research Method Siage 4: Research Design Stage 5: Data Collection Techniques Stage 6: Sample Design Stage 7: Data Collection Stage 8: Analysis and Interpretation Resource Planning For Your Study Importance of Defining the Problem Formulating the Problem Sources for the Problem Identification Self Questioning by the Researcher while defining the Problem ‘Types of Research Design Exploratory Research Conclusive Research How to Prepare a Synopsis Choosing a Research Design Summary Glossary Review Questions Further Readings SAMPLING AND DATA COLLECTION 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Learning Objectives Introduction What is a Hypothesis? Null and Alternative Hypotheses : Making Inferences The Relationship between a Population, a Sampling Distribution, and a Sample Hypothesis Testing 1.37 wh aANN 12 14 16 16 16 16 7 7 18 18 18 19 20 20 20 32 33 33 35 35 37 38-123 39 39 4 43 46 47 47UNIT3: Steps in Hypothesis Testing ‘Type Land Type Il Errors Secondary Data Special Techniques of Market Research or Syndicated Data Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data Primary Data . Methodology for Collection of Primary Data Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research Conditions for a Successfil interview Descriptive Research Design: Survey Descriptive Research Design: Observation: Why Sample? Distinction Between Census and Sampling ‘Terms Used in Sampling, Sampling Process Sampling Techniques Sample Sizes: Considerations Sampling Challenges Probability Samples ‘Non-probability Sampling Kandom Selection and Random Assignment Determining the Sample Size When Random Sampling is used Sampling in Mixed Research Distinction between Probability Sample and Non-probability Sample Errors in Sampling : Summary Glossary Further Readings MEASUREMENT AND SCALING 31 327 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3.10 3.1 Learning Objectives Introduction Measurement Scales: Tools of Sound Measurement Techniques of Developing Measurement Tools Scaling - Meaning Comparati: : and Non-comparative Scaling Techniques Criteria for the Good ‘Test : Summary - Keywords Review Questions Further Readings 50 31 53 54 56 58 58 8 82 85. 90 94 95 95 7 99 100 101 102 108 Mt ul M2 4 us 7 120 123 124-144 124 124 125 130 131 132 140 142 123 143 144UNIT 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA UNITS: 41 42 43 44 44 45 46 47 48 49 4.10 41 412 413 414 415 4.16 417 4.18 4.19 4.20 421 422 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 427 4.28 4.29 4.30 431 432 433 434 Learning Objectives Introduction Processing and Analysis of Data Processing Operations Some Problems In Processing Elements/Types of Analysis Descriptive or Summary Statistics Parametric and non-parametric tests Univariate Analyses of Parametric Data The Confidence Interval The Normal Distribution Measures of Relative Position Standard Scores (7-Scores) Measures of Relationship Interpretation of Correlation Coefficient Central Limit Theorem Parametric Tests Sign Test One-sample z test One-Sample 2-Test for Proportions Students" distribution Homogeneity of variance Analysis of Co-variance (ANOCOVA) Partial Correlation Multiple Correlation and Regression Non-parametric tests Use of Statistical Software's in Research The Statistical ProgramMe for Social Scientists (SPSS) Organization of the SPSS Package Data analysis using SPSS Using SPSS to Describe Data Summary Glossary Review Questions Further Readings REPORT PREPARATION op 52 53 Learning Objectives Introduction Types of Report 148-240 146 147 148, 148 156 157 158 162 165 165 241-271 241 242 24254 54 55 56 58 59 5.10 S.A 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 S17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 Preparation of Research Report How to Make Interpretations Significance of Report Writing Mechanics of Writing a Research Report How to Write a Bibliography Precautions for Writing Research Reports Effective Report Writing Use of Figures Use of Tables in Report Use of Graphs in Report Organizing and Numbering Use of Headings in Report Reference Lists and Referencing Use of Appendices Editing Giving Effective to Report Presentation Summary Glossary Review Questions Further Readings 244 245 247 248 253 255 256 256 259 260 261 263 264 264 265 266 269 270 270 amMBA 2™ Semester 1* year RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Course Code: MBA 202 Course Credit: 04 Lecture: 03 [Tutorial: 02 Course Type: Core Course 7 Lectures delivered: 40 End Semester Examination System ‘Maximum Marks Allotted Minimum Pass Marks Time Allowed 70 28 3 Hours Continuous Comprehensive Assessment (CCA) Pattern Tests Assignment/Tutorial/ | Attendance Total Presentation/class test 5 5 10 30 Course Objective: This course emphasizes the basic methodologies, as well as introduces a variety of techniques, and demonstrates how research applies to field of management. UNIT | Course Content [Hours 1 | Introduction: Concept of Research and Its Application in Various Functions of | 8 Management, Research at different levels of Business Administration. Types of Research, Types of Business Problems Encountered by the Researcher, Problems and Precautions to the Researchers. Problem Definition, Components of Problem, Types of Problem in Research, Process of Research, Research Design: Exploratory, Descriptive and Conclusive or Experimental Research Design I | Sampling: Concept, Sample Size and Sampling Procedure, Probability and Non-] 10 Probability Sampling Techniques, Determination and Selection of Sample Member, Data Collection: Secondary and Primary Data, Advantages & Disadvantages, Methods of Data Collection: Oaservation, Interview, Questionnaire & Schedule, Procedure of Questionnaire and Schedule construction, Types of Questions, Sequencing of Questions, Check Questions, Length of Questionnaire, Precautions in Preparation of Questionnaire, Difference between Questionnaire & Schedule, ill | Measurement and Scaling: Types of Scales, Difficulty of Measurement, Sources of | 6 Error, Criteria for a Good Scale, Attitude Scales: The Concept of Attitude, Component of Attitude, General Procedure in Attitude Scaling, Selected Attitude “Scales, Rating Methods, _____| Limitations of attitude Measurement. Likert & Thurston Scales. WV | Analysis of Data: Coding, Editing and Tabulation of Data, Various Kinds of Charts | 10 and Diagrams Used in Data Analysis: Bar and Pie Diagrams and their Significance. Measurement and Central Tendency, Measure of Dispersion and their Advantages. Hypothesis Testing, Bi-variate Analysis: Chi square, Correlation, Rank Correlation, Regression Analysis, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Overview of Factor and Cluster Analysis, Use of SPSS in Data Analysis. V__ | Report Preparation: Types and Layout of Research Report, Precautions in Preparing 6 the Research Report. Bibliography, References and Annexure in the Report, Drawing Conclusions, Suggestions and Recommendations to the Concerned Persons. Plagiarism and IPR issues in Research .‘Text and Reference Books Research Methodology by C. R. Kothari. ~ New Age Business Research Methods by Donald C Cooper and Pamela.S. Schindler, Tata Mcgraw Hill. ‘Marketing Research Rajendra Nargundkar. - TMH Marketing Research by N. K. Malhotra.- Pearson Research Methodology by Ranjeet Kumar. ~ Pearson Marketing Research by Beri, ~ TMH: | | UNIT-1 Introduction to Research Methodology Learning Objectives Introduction Objectives of Research General Characteristics of Research Types of Research Stage I: Formulating the Problem Stage 2: Method of Inquiry Stage 3: Research Method Stage 4: Research Design Stage 5: Data Collection Techniques Stage 6; Sample Design Stage 7: Data Collection Stage 8: Analysis and Interpretation Resource Planning For Your Study Importance of Defining the Problem Formulating the Problem Sources for the Problem Identification Self Questioning by the Researcher while defining the Problem Types of Research Design Exploratory Research Conclusive Research How to Prepare a Synopsis Choosing a Research Design Summary Glossary Review Questions Further Read: Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material2 Research Methodology 1.1 Learning Objectives Notes. After studying the chapter, students will be able to: © The objectives of research; ‘© Different types of research; © Meaning of research methodology; © Qualities of good research; © Probleins encountered by researchers in India; © Know the steps of a research process; ¢ Know understand the importance of formulating the problem and statement of research; © Know understand the tasks involved in problem definition; ‘ ‘© Know understand discuss the environmental factors affecting the definition of the research problem; ‘© Know what are the different types of research design; ‘© Discuss what is descriptive research and what methods are adopted; ‘© Explain what is experimental research and what are the methods of conducting experimental research; ‘© Know what are the types of errors that affect research design. 1.2 Introduction Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. ‘The Advanced Leamer’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.” 1, Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” 2. Some people consider research as a movement, 2 movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital - instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research, 7 Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining Self Learning Materialproblems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D, Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.” 3. Researchis, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making, for its advancernent. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers tothe systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concemed problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation. In this unit, we will show you the steps of conducting such a research project. Figure 1.1 shows the stages in the research process. While these steps are presented in order, you can be creative and adapt the steps to meet your business needs. Some steps ‘can be completed in parallel to speed the project as it begins to develop. Problem Formulation U ‘Method of Inguiry Eu Research Method y Research Design v Selection of Data Collection Techniques v Sample Design ye Data Collection v Analysis and Interpretation of Data v Research Reports Fig, 1.1: Stages in Research Process There isa famous saying that “problem well-defined is half solved”. This statement is strikingly true in market research, because if the problem is not stated properly, the Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Leaning Material 34 Research Methodology Notes objectives will not be clear, If the objectives arc not clearly defined, the data collection becomes meaningless. 1.3 Objectives of Research There are various objectives of research. Some of them are listed below. The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures, The main aim of research is to find out the. truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet, Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupins 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies); To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or @ group (studies with this object in viow are known as descriptive research studies); To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with Something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies); 4: To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies). 14 General Characteristics of Research The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of ‘Research’, 1. Itgathers now knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources. 2. Itplaces emphasis upon the discovery of general principles. 3. Itis an exact systematic and accurate investigation. 4, Ituses certain valid data gathering devices. 5. Itis logical and objective. 7 6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his hypotheses. 7, The researcher climinates personal feclings and preferences. 8. It endeavours to organise data in quantitative terms. 9, Research is patient and unhurried activity, 10, The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be unpopular and bring social disapproval. 11. Research is carefully recorded and reported. 12, Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and cautiously. Self Learning Material1.5 Types of Research ‘There are different types of research. Exploratory Research Exploratory research is carried out at the very beginning when the problem is not clear or is vague, In exploratory r-search, all possible reasons which are very obvious are climinated, thereby directing the research to proceed further with limited options. Sales decline in a company may be due to: 1, Inefficient service 2, Improper price 3. Inefficient sales force 4 Ineffective promotion Improper quality The research executives must examine such questions to identify the most useful avenues for further research. Preliminary investigation of this type is called exploratory research. Expert surveys, focus groups, case studies and observation methods are used. to conduct the exploratory survey. Descriptive Research The main purpose of descriptive research is to describe the state of view as it exists at present. Simply stated, itis a fact finding investigation. In descriptive research, definite conclusions can be arrived at, but it does not establish a cause and effect relationship. This type of research tries to describe the characteristics of the respondent in relation to a particular product. Descriptive research deals with demographic characteristics of the consumer. For example, trends in the consumption of soft drink with respect to socio-economic characteristics such as age, family, income, education level, ete. Another example can be the degree of viewing TV channels, its variation with age, income level, profession of respondent as well as time of viewing. Hence, the degree of use of TV to different types of respondents will be of importance to the researcher. There are three types of players who will decide the usage of TV: (a) Television manufacturers, (b) Broadcasting agency of the programme, (c) Viewers. Therefore, research pertaining to any one of the following can be conducted: © The manufacturer can come out with facilities which will make the television more user-friendly. Some of the facilities are (a) Remote control, (b) Child lock, (c) Different models for different income groups, (d) Internet compatibility etc., (e) Wall mounting ete. Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 56 Research Methodology Notes © Similarly, broadcasting agencies can come out with programmes, which can suit diferent age groups and income. © Ultimately, the viewers who use the TV must be aware of the programmes appearing in different channels and can plan their viewing schedule accordingly. © Descriptive research deals with specific predictions, for example, éales of a company’s product during the next three years, i., forecasting. © Descriptive research is also used to estimate the proportion of population who behave in a certain way. Example: “Why do middle income groups go to FoodWorld to buy their products?” «A study can be commissioned by a manufacturing company to find out various facilities that can be provided in television sets based on the above discussion, © Similarly, studies can be conducted by broadcasting stations to find out the degree of utility of TV programmes. Example: The following hypothesis may be formulated about the programmes: : © The programmes in various channels are usefull by way of entertainment to the viewers. ‘© Viewers feel that TV isa boon for their children in improving their knowledge— especially, fiction and cartoon programmes. Applied Research Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem faced by ny business organization. This research deals with real life situations, Example: “Why have sales decreased during the last quarter? Market research is an example of applied research. Applied research has a practical problem-solving emphasis. Itbrings out many new facts. Examples: 1. Use of fibre glass body for cars instead of metal. 2. Te develop a new market for the product. Pure/Fundamental Résearch or Basic Research Gathéring knowledge for knowledge’s sake is known as basic research. Itis not directly involved with practical problems. It does not have any commercial potential. There is no intention to apply this research in practice. Tata Institute of Fundamental Research conducts such studies. Example: Theory of Relativity (by Einstein). Conceptual Research This is generally used by philosophers. Itis related to some absiract idea or theory. Jn this type of research, the researcher should collect the data to prove or disapprove his, hypothesis. The various ideologies or “isms” are examples of conceptual research, Self Learning Material‘Causal Research Causal research is conducted to determine the cause and effect relationship between the two variables. Example: Effect of advertisement on sales. Historical Research ‘The name itself indicates the meaning of the research. Historical study is a study of past records and data in order to understand the future trends and development of the organisation or market. There is no direct observation. The research has to depend on the conclusions or inferences drawn in the past. For example, investors inthe share market study the past records or prices of shares which he/she intends to buy. Studying the share prices of a particular company enables the investor to take decision whether to invest in the shares of a company. Crime branch police/CBI officers study the past records or the history of the criminals and terrorists in order to arrive at some conclusions. The main objective of this study is to derive explanation and generalization from the past trends in order to understand the present and anticipate the future. There are however, certain shortcomings of Historical Research: 1. Reliat ity and adequacy information is subjective and open to question 2. Accuracy of measurement of events is doubtful. 3. Verification of records are difficult. Ex-post Facto Research In this type of research, an examination of relationship that exists between independent and dependent variable is studied. We may call this empirical research, In this method, the researcher has no control over an independent variable, Ex-post facto literally means “from what is done afterwards”. In this research, 2 variable “A” is observed, Thereafter, the researcher tries to find a causal variable “B” which caused “A”. It is quite possible that “B” might not have been caused “A”. In this type of analysis, there is no scope for the researcher to manipulate the variable. The researcher can only report “what has happened” and “what is happening”. Action Research This type of research is undertaken by direct action. Action research is conducted to solve a problem. Example: Test marketing a product is an example of action research. Initially, the geographical location is identified. A target sample is selected from among the population. Samples are distributed to selected samples and feedback is obtained from the respondent. This method is most common for industrial products, where a trial is a must before regular usage of the product. Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 18 Research Methodology Notes Evaluation Research Evaluation research is an example of applied research, This research is conducted to find out how well a planned programme is implemented, Therefore, evaluation research deals with evaluating the performance or assessment of « project. Example: “Rural Employment Programme Evaluation” or “Success of Midday Meal Programme”. Library Research Library research is done to gather secondary data. This includes notes from the past data of review of the reports already conducted. This is a convenient method whereby both manpower and time are saved. Research Methods versus Methodology It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and research methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods! techniques that are used for conduction of research: Research methods or techniques*. thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, is 10 arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other, to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups: 1: Inthe first group, we include those methods which are concemed with the collection of data, These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution; 2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns; 3, The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained, Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical tools of research. Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are Self Learning Material :relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also rieed to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certai iques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not, All this means that itis necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a building, has.to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.c., he has to evaluate why and on whet basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilatu:s, uses particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist ‘has to expose the research decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also. From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimensions‘and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research meitoddlogy we not only talk of the res ider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research study ‘has been undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been. collected and what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique of analysing data lias been used and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research ‘methodology concerning a research problem or study. : tech eh methods but also cot Criteria of Good Research Whatever may be thetypes of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them, One expects scientific research to satisfy the following eriteri 1, The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used. 2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit ‘another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained. 3. The procedural design of the research should be that are as objective as possible. wrefully planned to yield results 4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings. 5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate, The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. Introduction to Research ‘Methodology Notes Self Leaming Material 9Research Methodology Notes 6.' Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. 7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity. In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under: 1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions. 2... Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning froma part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research ‘more meaningful in the context of decision making, 3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provide a basis for external validity to research results, 4 Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions. * Problems Encountered by Researchers in India ‘Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research; are facing several problems, Some of the important problems are as follows: 1, The lack of scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers, Many researchers take a leap in the dark without knowing research methods, Most of the ‘work, which goes in the name of research is not methodologically sound. Research to many researchers and even to their guides, is mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the collated materials. The consequence is obvious, _ viz., the research results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or realities. Thus, a systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before undertaking research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects. As such, efforts should be made to provide short duration intensive courses for meeting this requirement. 2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments ‘on one side and business establishments, governinent departments and research institutions on the other side. great deal of primary data of non-confidential 10 Self Learning Materialnature remain untouched/untreated by the researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison among all concemed for better and realistic researches. There is need for developing some mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programme so that academics can get ideas from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the research done by the academics. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers, The concept of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to business organizations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable barrier to researchers. Thus, there is the need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained from a business unit will not be misused, Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which and the places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to the industries, There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a code of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of research studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time, University Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty, Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the time energy of researchers is spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time, This problem is felt more in libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals, Thus, efforts should be made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our libraries. Introduction to Research ‘Methodology Notes Self Leaming Material 11Research Methodology -Notes 9. There is also the difficulty of timely avaitability of published data from various government and other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of difierences in coverage by the concerning agencies. 10, ‘There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the process of data collection and related things. 1.6 Stage 1: Formulating the Problem 7 “Formulating a problem’ is the first step in the research process. In many ways, research starts with a problem that management is facing, This problem needs to be understood, the cause diagnosed, and solutions developed. However, most management problems are not always easy to research, A manjagement problem must first be translated into a research problem. Once you approach the problem ffom a research angle, you can find ‘a soldtion. For example, “sales are not growing” is a management problem. Translated into a research problem. we may examine the expectations and experiences of several ‘groups: potential customers, first-time buyers, and repeat purchasers. We will determine if the lack of sales is due to (1) poor expectations that lead 10 a general lack of desiré to buy, or (2) poor performance experience and a lack of desire to repurchase. What then is the difference between 2 management problem and a research problem? Management problems focus on an action, Do we advertise more? Do we change our advertising message? Do we change an underperforming product configuration? If so, how? Research problems, on the other hand, focus on providing the information you need in order to solve the management problem. Once you've created a research problem, you have to develop a research question, A research question gives you research direction. From the research question, a hypothesis or hypotheses can be formulated to guide the research. A hypothesis should-include a statement about the relationship between two or more variables and carry clear implications for testing the stated relationship. For example, you might need to know iff and how your customers” positive’and negative product expectations are confirmed or disconfirmed upon product use, How to Formulate the Research Problem Problem formulation is simplified once we define the coniponents of the research problem. 1. Specify the Reseurch Objectives: A clear statement of objectives will help you develop effective research. It will help the decision makers evaluate your project. It is critical that you have manageable objectives. Thus, two or three clear goals will help 10 keep your research project focused and relevant. 2. Review the Environment or Context of the Problem: As a marketing researcher, you must work closely with your team. This will help you determine whether thefindings of your project will produce enough information to be worth the cost. [n order to do this, you have to identify the environmental variables that will affect the research project. These variables will be discussed in-depth in later uni 3. Explore the Nature of the Problem: Research probiems range from simple to complex, depending on the number of variables and the nature of their relationship. If you understand the nature of the problem as a researcher. you will be able to better develop a solution for the problem. To help you understand all dimensions. you might want to consider focus groups of consumers, sales people, managers, or professionals to provide what is sometimes much necded insight. 4. Define the Variable Relationships: Marketing, plans often focus on creating a sequence of behaviours that occur over time. as in the adoption of a new package design, or the introduotion of a new product. Such programmes create a commitment to follow some behavioural pattern in the future. Studying such a process involves: (Determining which variables affect the solution to the problem (ii) Determining the degree to which each variable can be controlled. Gi) Determining the functional relationships between the variables and which variables are critical to the solution of the problem. During the problem formulation stage, you will want to generate and consider os many courses of action and variable relationships as.possible. 5. The Consequences of Altemative Courses of Action: There are always consequences to any course of action. Anticipating and communicating the possible outcomes of various courses of action is a primary responsibility in the research proces Basie Research Issues As technology advances, marketing researchers continually look for ways to adapt new technology to the practice of research: However. researchers must never forget that research basics cannot be overlooked. Rather. what must be done is to adapt the new techniques and technologies to these basics. All studies must address the following basic issues (Anderson, Berdie, & Liestman, 1984): 1, Ask the right questions: This is the essence of project design and the heart of proper planning. Every project is unique, and as such must be tailored te the user's needs. 2. Ask the right people: The goal of sample design should be that only those people who are of interest to the researcher are contacted, and that those contacted are representative of the group of interest Ask questions the right way: It is nol crough to be able wo ask the tight questions: they must be asked the right way. This is the essence of questionnaire design. Ifthe Wording of the questions is not clearto the respondents. the results will be useless. Pre-testing the questionnaire is crucial for ensuring that responses are the ones that are needed, Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 13.Research Methodology 4. Obtain answers to questions: Data collection is central to all marketing research. The techniques used should minimize on-response while maximizing response. Case “Let New Coke” Versus Original Coke Notes In the mid-1980s, te Coca Cola Company inade a decision to introduce a new beverage product (Hartley, 1995, pp. 129-145). The company had evidence that taste was the single most important cause of Coke's decline in the market share in the late 1970s and early 1980s, A new product dubbed “New Coke” was developed that was sweeter than the original-formula Coke. Almost 200,000 blind product taste tests were conducted in the United States, and more than one-half of the participants favored New Coke over both the original formula and Pepsi. The new product was introduced and the original formula was withdrawn from the market. This tumed out to be a big mistake! Eventually, the company reintroduced the original formula as Coke Classic and tried to market the two products. Ultimately, New Coke was withdrawn from the market. ‘What went wrong? Two things stand out, First, there was a flaw in the market research taste tests that were conducted: They assumed that taste was the deciding factor in consumer purchase behaviour, Consumers were not told that only one product would be marketed. Thus, they were not asked whether they would give up the original formula for New Coke. Second, no one realized the symbolic value and emotional involvement people had with the original Coke. The bottom line on this is that relevant variables that would affect the problem solution were not included in the research. Relate Answers to the Needs of the Research User/Client Data seldom speaks for itself, Proper data analysis is needed if a study is to have any value to the user. Here there is a risk of letting advanced techniques become the master of the researcher rather than the opposite, Common sense is a valuable tool for the researcher when considering alternative analysis approaches for any project. Communicate Effectively and in a Way that the Client Understands ‘Many good projects are rained because the information that is reported to the user is in a form that is not understandable. Reports must tell the user what information is relevant, and how it is relevant to the issues at hand, . 1.7 Stage 2: Method of Inquiry “The scientific method is the standard pattern for investigation. It provides an opportunity for you to use existing knowledge as a starting point and proceed impartially. The scientific method includes the following steps: 1, Formulate problem 2. Develop a hypothesis 14 Self Learning MaterialMake predi Devise a test of the hypothesis ns based on the hypothesis, Conduct the test ava e Analyze the results The terminology is similar to the stages in the research process. However, there are subtle differences in the way the steps are performed. For example, the scientific method is objective while the research process can be subjective. Objective-based research (quantitative research) relies on impartial analysis. The facts are the priority in objective research. On the other hand, subjective-based research (qualitative research) ‘emphasizes personal judgement as you collect and analyze data. The Scientific Method In structure, if not always in application, the scientific method is simple and consists of the following steps: 1. Observation: Thisis the problem-awareness phase, which involves observing a set of significant factors that relate to the problem situation, 2. Formulation of Hypotheses: In this stage, a hypothesis (ie., a generalization about reality that permits prediction) is formed that postulates a connection between seemingly unrelated facts. In a sense, the hypothesis suggests an explanation of what has been observed. Prediction of the Future: Afier hypotheses are formulated, their logical implications are deduced. This stage uses the hypotheses to predict what will happen. 4. Testing the Hypotheses: This is the evidence collection and evaluation stage. From 2 research project perspective this is the design and implementation of the main study, Conclusions are stated based on the data collected and evaluated. A simple example will show how the scientific method works. Assume a researcher is performing a marketing research project for a manufacturer of men’s shirts: 1. Observation: The researcher notices some competitors’ sales are increasing and that many competitors have shifted to a new plastic wrapping. 2. Formulation of Hypotheses: The researcher assumes his client’s products are of similar quality and that the plastic wrapping is the sole cause of incteased competitors’ sales. Prediction of the Future: The hypothesis predicts that sales will increase if the manufacturer shifts to the new wrapping, 4. Testing the Hypotheses: The client produces some shirts in the new packaging and market-tests them. Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 15Research Methodology Notes 1.8 Stage 3: Research Method In addition to selecting a method of inquiry (objective or subjective), you must select a research method, There are wo primary methodologies that can be used to answer any research question: experimental research and non-experimental research. Experimental research gives you the advantage of controlling extraneous variables and manipulating one or more variables that influence the process being implemented. Non-experimental research allows observation but not intervention. You simply observe and report on your findings. 1.9 Stage 4: Research Design The datadays research design is a plan or framework for conducting the study and collecting data, {tis defined as the specific methods and procedures you use to acquire the information you need. 1.10 Stage 5: Data Collection Techniques Your research design will develop as you select techniques to use. There are many ways to collect data. Interviews require you to ask questions and receive responses. Common ‘modes of research communication include interviews conducted face-to-face, by mail, by telephone, by e-mail, or over the Internet. This broad category. of research techniques is known as survey research. These techniques are used in both non-experimental research and experimental research. Another way to collect data is by observation, Observing a person’s or company’s past or present behaviour can predict future purchasing decisions. Data collection techniques for past behaviour can include analyzing company records and reviewing studies published by extemal sources. In order te analyze information from interview of observation techniques. you must record your results. Because the recorded results are vital, measurement and development are closely linked to which data collection techniques yon decide on, The way you record the data changes depends on which method you use. 1.11 Stage 6: Sample Design ‘Your marketing research project will rarely examine an entire population. It's more practical to use a sample—a smaller but accurate representation of the greater population In order to design your sample, you must find answers to thes questions: 1. From which base population is the sample to be selected? 2. What is the method (process) for sample selection? 3. Whatis the size of the sample? 16 Self Learning MaterialOnce you've established who the relevaat population is (completed inthe problem formulation stage), you have a base for your sample. This will allow you to make inferences about a larger population. There are two methods of seleeting a sample from «population: probability or non-probability sampling, The probability method relies on a random sampling of everyone within the larger population. Non-probability is based on part on the judgement of the investigator. and often employs convenience samples, or by other sampling methods that do not rely on probability. The final stage of the sample design involves determining the appropriate sample size. This important step involves cost and accuracy decisions. Larger samples generally reduce sampling error and increase accuracy, but also increase costs. 1.12 Stage 7: Data Collection Once you've established the first six stages. you can move on to data collection, Depending on the mode of data collection, this part of the process can require large amounts of personnel and a significant portion of your budget, Personal (face-to-face) and telephonic interviews may require you to use a data days rather than weeks or months. Regardless of the mode of data collection, the data collection process introduces another essential element to your research project; the importance of clear and constant communication. 1.13 Stage 8; Analysis and Interpretation In order for data to be useful, you must analyze it. Analysis techniques vary and their effectiveness depends on the types of information you are collecting, and the type of ‘measurements you are using. Because they are dependenton the data collection, analysis techniques should be decided before this step. Stage 9: The Research Report The research process culminates with the research report. This report will include all of your information. including an accurate description of your research process, the results, conclusions, and recommended courses of action. The report should provide all the information the decision maker needs to understand the project. It should also be written in language that is easy to undetstand. [t's important to find a balance between completeness and conciseness. You don’t want to leave any information out: however, you can’t let the information get so technical that it overwhelms the reading audience. One approach to resolving this contflit is to prepare two reports: the technical report and the summary report. The technical report discusses the methods and the underlying assumptions. [n this document, you discuss the detailed findings of the research project, ‘The summary report. as its name implies summarizes the research process and presents the findings and conclusions as simply as possible, Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 17Research Methodology Notes Another way tokeep your findings clear isto prepare several different representations of your findings. PowerPoint presentations, graphs, and face-to-face reports are all common methods for presenting your information. Along with the written report for reference, these alternative presentations will allow the decision maker to understand all aspects of the project. 1.14 Resource Planning For Your Study As you are developing your study, you have to account for the expenditure of your resources: personnel, time, and money. Resource plans need to be worked out with the decision maker and will rangé from very formal budgeting and appfoval processes to a very informal “Go ahead and do it”. Before you can start the research project, you should get yoursclf organized and prepare a budget and time schedule for the major activities in the study. Microsoft Project and similar programmes are good resources for breaking down your tasks and resources. 1.15 Importance of Defining the Problem Problem definition involves stating the general problem and identifying the specific components of the research problem, Only when the marketing research problem has been clearly defined can research be designed and conducted properly. Of all the tasks in a research, none is more vital to the ultimate fulfilment of a client’s needs than a proper definition of the research problem. All the effort, time, and money spent from this point will be wasted if the problem is misunderstood or ill defined. This point is worth remembering because inadequate problem definition is a leading cause of failure of research projects. 1.16 “Formulating the Problem ‘The first step in research is t6 formulate the problem. A company manufacturing television sets might think that it is losing sales to a foreign company. A brief illustration aptly demonstrates how such problem can be ill conceived: The management of a company felt7a drop in sales was because of the poor quality of product. Subsequently, research was undertaken with a view to improving the quality of the product. However, despite an improvement in qitlity, salés did not pick up. In this case, we may say that the problem is ill defined. The actual reason was ineffective sales promotion. The problem thus needs to be carefully identified. Marketing problem, which needs research, can be classified into two categories: 1. Difficulty related problems 2. Opportunity related problems, while the first category produces negative results such as, decline in market share or sales, the second category provides benefits. 18 Self Leaming Material :Either problem definition might refer to a real-life situation or it may also refer to 4 Set of opportunities. Market research problems or opportunities will arise under the following circumstances 1, Unanticipated change 2. Planned change. Many factors in the environment can create problems or opportunities. Thus, changes in the demographics, technological and legal changes affect the marketing function. Now the question is how the company responds to new technology, or product introduced by the competitor or how to cope with the changes in lifestyles. It may be a problem and at the same time, it can also be viewed as an opportunity. In order to conduct research, the problem must be defined accurately. While formulating the problem, clearly define: 1. Who is the focus? 2. What is the subject-matter of research? 3. To which geographical territory/area the problem refers to? 4, To which period does the study pertains to? Example: “Why does the upper-middle class of Bangalore shop at Lifestyle during the Diwali season”? Here all the above four aspects are covered. We may be interested in a number of variables due to which shopping is done at a particular place. The characteristic of interest to the researcher may be: 1. Variety offered at Lifestyle 2. Discount offered by way of promotion 3. Ambience at the Lifestyle and the 4, Personalised service offered. - In some cases, the cause of the problem is obvious whereas in others the cause is not so obvious. The obvious causes are the products being on the decline. Not so obvious causes could be a bad first experience for the customer. 1.17 Sources for the Problem Identification Research students can adopt the following ways to identify the problems: ‘* Research reports already published may be referred to define a specific problem. ‘¢ Assistance of any research organisation, which handles a number of projects of the companies, can be sought to identify the problem. Professors wort identification. in reputed academic institution can act as guides in problem Introduction to Research ‘Methodology NotesResearch Methodology Notes * Company employees and competitors can assist in identifying the problems. * Cultural and technological changes can act as a source for research problem identification, © Seminars/symposiums/focus groups can act as a useful source, 1.18 Self Questioning by the Researcher while defining the Problem 1. Is the research problem correctly defined? Is the research problem solvable? Can relevant data be gathered-through the process of marketing research? Is the research problem significant? Can the rescarch be conducted within the available resources? Is the time given to complete the project sufficient? * What ‘exactly will be the difficulties in conducting the study, and hurdles to be overcome? 8. Am I competent, to carry the study out? Managers often want the results of research in accordance with their expectation. This satisfies them immensely. Ifone were to closely look at the questionnaire, itis found that in most cases, there are stereotyped answers given by the respondents. A researcher must be creative and should look at problems in a different perspective. What does the researcher understand from the above? 1.19 Types of Research Design Exploratory. descriptive and causal research is some of the major types. Exploratory research is used to seek insights into general nature of the problem. It provides the relevant variable that needs to be considered. In this type of research, there is no previous knowledge: research methods are flexible, qualitative and unstructured, The researcher in this method does not know “what he will fiid”, Descriptive research is a type of research, very widely used in marketing research. Generally in descriptive study there will bea hypothesis, with respect to this hypothesis, we ask questions such as size, distribution, ete, Causal research, this type of research is concerned with finding cause and effect relationship, Normally, experiments are conducted in this type of research, 1.20 Exploratory Research The major emphasis in exploratory research is on converting broad. vague problem statements into small, precise sub-problem statements, which is done in order to 20 Self Leaning Materialformulate specific hypoth ‘The hypothesis is a statement that specifies, “how two or more variables arc related?” In the edrly stages of research, we usually lack sufficient understanding of the problem to formulate a specific hypothesis. Further, there are often several tentative explanations, For Example “Sales are down because our prices are too high”, “our dealers or sales representatives are not doing a good job”, “our advertisement is weak” and so on. In this scenario, very little information is available to point out, what is the actual cause of the problem. We can say that the major purpose of exploratory research is to identify the problem more specifically. Therefore, exploratory study is used in the initial stages of research, Under What Circumstances is Exploratory Study Ideal? The following are the circumstances in which exploratory study would be ideally suited: To gain an insight into the problem © To generate new product ideas © To list ali possibilities. Among the several possibilities, we need to prioritize the possibilities which seem likely to occur «To develop hypothesis occasionally © Exploratory study is also used to increase the analyst’s familiarity with the problem. This is particularly true, when the analyst is new to the problem area, For example, a market researcher working for (new entrant) a company for the first time. © Toestablish priorities so that further research can be conducted. © Exploratory studies may be used to clarify concepts and help in formulating precise problems. For example, the management is considering a change in the contract policy, which it hopes, will result in improved satisfaction for channel members. An exploratory study can be used to clarify the present state of channel members’ satisfaction and to develop a method by which satisfaction level of channel members is measured. © To pre-test a draft questionnaire. ‘¢ In general, exploratory research is appropriate to any problem about which very little is known. This research is the foundation for any future study. Hypothesis Development at Exploratory Research Stage Research Design At Exploratory Stage: 1 2 Sometimes, it may not be possible to develop any hypothesis at all i the situation is being investigated for the first time. This is because no previous data is available. Sometimes, some information may be available and it may be possible to formulate a tentative hypothesis. Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 21n Research Methodology 3. In other cases, most of the data is available and it may be possible to provide Notes answers to the problem, ‘The exainples given below indicate each of the above type: Research purpose Research question Hypothesis . 1. What product feature, —_| What benefit do people No hypothesis ifstated, will be derive from this Ad appeal? | formulation is possible most effective in the advertisement? 2. What new packaging is | What altematives exist to | Paper cup is better than tobe developed by the | provide a container for soft | any other forms, such as company with respect to | drink? bottle. a soft drink, 3. How cin our insurance _| What is the nature of Impersonalization is the service be improved? _| customer dissatisfaction? | problem. In example 1: The research question is posed to determine “What benefit do people seek from the Ad?” Since no previous research is done on consiimer benefit for this product, it is not possible to form any hypothesis, In example 2: Some information is currently available about packaging for a soft drink. Heré itis possible to formulate a hypothesis which is purely tentative. The hypothesis formulated here may be only one of the several alternatives available, In example 3: The root cause of customer dissatisfaction is ktiown, i.e. lack of personalised service. In this case, itis possible to verify whether thi Characteristics of Exploratory Research 1. Exploratory research is flexible and very versatile. For data collection structured forms are not used. Experimentation is not a requirement. 2 3. 4, Cost incurred to conduct study'is low. 5. This type of research allows very wide exploration of views. 6. Research is interactive in nature and also it is open ended. Exploratory Research Methods The quickest and the cheapest way to formulate a hypothesis in exploratory research is, by using any of the four methods: 1. Literature search 2. Experience survey 3. Focus group 4 |. Analysis of seletted cases Self Learning MaterialLiterature Search This refers to “referring to a literature to develop a.new hypothesis”. The literature referred ar¢—trade journals, professional journals, market research finding publications, statistical publications, ete. Example: Suppose a problem is “Why are sales down?” This can quickly be analysed with the help of published data which stiould indicate “whether the problem is an “industry problem” or a “firm problem”, Three possibilities exist to formulate the hypothesis. : 1. The company’s market share has declined but industry’s figures are normal. 2. The industry is declining and hence the company’s market share is also deciining. 3. The industry’s share is going up but the company’s share is declining. If we accept the situation that our company’s sales are down despite the market showing an upward trend, we need to analyse the marketing mix variables. Example 1: ATV manufacturing company feels that its market share is declining whereas the overall television industry is doing very well. Example 2: Due to a trade embargo imposed by a country, textiles exports are down and hence sales of a company making garment for exports is on the decline. The above information may be used to pinpoint the reason for declining sales. Experience Survey In experience surveys, it is desirable to talk to persons who are well informed in the area being investigated. These people may be company executives or persons outside the organisation. Here, no questionnaire is required. The approach adopted in an experience survey should be highly unstructured, so that the respondent can give divergent views. Since the idea of using experience survey is to undertake problem formulation, and not conclusion, probability sample need not be used. Those who cannot speak freely should bbe excluded from the sample. ‘Example 1 1, A group of housewives may be approached for their choice for a “ready to cook product”, 2. Appublisher might want to find out the reason for poor circulation of newspaper introduced recently. He might meet (a) Newspaper sellers (b) Public reading room (©) General public (d) Business community, etc. These are experienced persons whose knowledge researcher can use. Focus Group Another widely used technique in exploratory research is the focus group. In a focus ‘group, a small number of individuals are brought together to study and talk about some topic of interest. The discussion is co-ordinated by a moderator. The group usually is of Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 23Research Methodology Notes 8-12 persons. While selecting these persons, care has to be taken to see that they should have a common background and have similar experiences in buying. This is required because there should not bea conflict among the group members on the common issues that are being discussed. During the discussion, future buying attitudes, present buying, opinions ete., are gathered. Most of the companies conducting the focus groups first screen the candidates to determine who will compose the particular group, Firms also take care to avoid groups, in which some of the participants have their friends and relatives, because this leads to a biased discussion. Normally, a number of such groups are constituted and the final conclusion of various groups is taken for formulating the hypothesis, Therefore, a key factor in focus group is to have similar groups. Normally, there are 45 groups. Some of them may even have 6-8 groups. The guiding criterion is to see whether the latter groups are generating additional ideas or repeating the same with respect to the subject under study. When this shows a diminishing return from the group, the discussions stopped. ‘The typical focus group lasts for 1-80 hours to 2 hours. The moderator under the focus ‘group has 2 key role. His jab is to guide the group to proveed in the right direction. The following should be the characteristics of a moderator/facilitator: © Listening: He must have a good listening ability. The moderator must not miss the participant's comment, due to lack of attention. © Permissive: The moderator must be permissive. yet alert to the,signs that the group is disintegrating. © Memory: He must have # good memory. The moderator must be able to remember the comments of the participants, Example: A discussion is centered on a new advertisement by a telecom company. The participant may make a statement early and make another statement later, which is opposite to what was said earlier. For example, the participant may say that s(he) never subscribed to the views expressed in the advertisement by the competitor, but subsequently may say that the “current advertisement of competitor is excellent”. © Encouragement: The moderator must encourage unresponsive members to participate. © Learning: He should be a quick learner. Sensitivity: The moderator must be sensitive enough to guide the group discussion, © Intelligence: He must be a person whose intelligence is above the average. © Kladfiro: He must combine detachment with empathy. Types of Focus Group ‘© Respondent Moderator group: Unéer this method, the moderator will select one of the participants to act as a temporary moderator. 24 Self Learning Material© Dueling Moderator Group: \n this method, there are two moderators. They purposely take opposing positions on a given topic. This will help the researcher to obtain the views of both groups. . © Bvo-way Focus Group: Under this method. one group will listen to the other group. Later, the second group will react to the views of the first group. © Dual Moderator Group: Here, there are two moderators. One moderator will ‘make sure that the discussion moves smoothly. The second moderator wil! :sk a specific question. Case Studies Analyzing a' selected case sometimes gives an insight into the problem which is being researched. Case histories of companies which have undergone a similar situation may be available. These case studies are well suited to carry out exploratory research. Hoivever, the result of investigation of case histories is always considered suggestive, rather than conclusive. In case of preference to “reads 10 eat food”, many case histories mnay be available in the form of previous studies made by competitors. We must carefully examine the already published case studies with regard to other variables such as price, advertisement, changes in the taste, ete, 1.21 Conclusive Research Meaning This is a research having clearly defined objectives. In this type of research, specific courses of action are taken to solve the problem. In conclusive research, there are two types: 1, Descriptive research 2. Experimental research or Causal research, Descriptive Research Meaning © The name itself reveals that, itis essentially a research to describe something. For example, it can describe the characteristics of a group such as—customers, organisations, markets, ete. Descriptive research provides “association between ‘vo variables” like income and place of shopping, age and preferences. © Descriptive study informs us about the proportions of high and low income customers in a particular territory. What descriptive research cannot indicate is that it cannot establish a cause and effect relationship between the characteristics of interest, This is the distinet disadvantage of descriptive research, Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 25Research Methodology Notes 26 Self Learning Material * Descriptive study requires a clear specification of “Who, what, when, where, +s Why and how” of the research, for example, consider a situation of convenience stores (food world) planning to open a new outlet. The company wants to determine, “How people come to patronize a new outlet?” Some of the questions that need to be answered before data collection for this descriptive study are as follows: + Who?—Who is regarded as a shopper responsible for the success of the shop, whose demographic profile is required by the retailer? + What?—What characteristics of the shopper should be measured? Is it the age of the shopper, sex, income or residential address? ‘When?—When shall we measure? Should the measurement be made while the shopper is shopping or at a later time? Where?—Where shall we measure the shoppers? Should it be outside » * the stores, soon after they visit or should we contact them at their residence? Why?—Why do you want to measure them? + Whet is the purpose of measurement?—Based on the information, are there many strategies which will help the retailer to boost the sales? Does the retailer want to predict future sales based on the data obtained? Answer to'some of the above questions will help us in formulating the hypothesis. + How to measure? Is it a ‘structured’ questionnaire, ‘disguised’ of “undisguised’ questionnaire? When to use Descriptive Study. 1, To determine the characteristics of market such as: Size of the market Buying power of the consumer Product usage pattern To fiid out the market share for the product To track the performance ofa brand. 2, To determine the association of the two variables such as Ad and sales. 3, Tomakea prediction, We might be interested in sales forecasting for the next three years, so that we can plan for training of new sales representatives. 4. To estimate the proportion of people in a specific population, who behave in a particular way? Example: What percentage of population in a particular geographical location would be shopping in a particular shop?Hypothesis study at the descriptive research stage (to demonstrate the characteristics of the group) Management problem | Research problem Hypothesis How should a new product | Where do customers | Upper class buyers use be distributed? buy a similar product | “Shopper's Stop” and middle right now? class buyers buy from local departmental stores What will be the target | What kind of people | Senior citizens buy our products. segment? buys ourproductnow?| Young and married buy our competitors products. Types of Descriptive Studies There are two types of descriptive research: 1, Longitudinal study 2. Cross-sectional study Longitudinal Study These are the studies in which an event or occurrence is measured again and again over «period of time. This is also known as "Time Series Study’. Through longitudinal study, the researcher comes to know how the market changes over time. Longitudinal studies involve panels. Panel once constituted will have certain elements. These elements may be individuals, stores, dealers, etc. The pane! or sample remains constant throughout the period. There may be some dropouts and additions. The sample members in the panel are being measured repeatedly. The periodicity of the study may be monthly or quarterly etc. Example for longitudinal study, assume a market research is conducted on ‘ready to eat food’ at two different points of time TI and T2 with a gap of 4 months. Each of the above two times, a sample of 2000 houschold is chosen and interviewed. The brands used most in the household are recorded as follows. Brands s AtTl AtT2 Brand X 500(25%) 600(30%) Brand Y 700(35%) 650(32.5%) Brand Z 400(20%) 300(15%) Brand M 200(10%) 250(12.5%) ALL OTHERS 200(10%) 250(12.5%) 200 100% As can be seen between period TI and T2 Brand X and Brand M has shown an improvement in market share, Brand Y and Brand Z have decrease in market share, Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 27Research Methodology Notes whereas all other categories remain the same. This, shows that Brand A and M have gained market share at the cost of ¥ and Z. There are two types of panels: ¢ Tre panel : © Omnibus panel. -True panel: This involves repeat measurement of the same variables. Example: Perception towards frozen peas or iced tea. Each member of the panel is exomined at a different time, to arrive at a conclusion on the above subject. Omnibus panel: In omnibus panel too, a sample of elements is being selected and maintained, but the information collected from the member varies. At a certain point of time, the attinude of panel members “towards an advertisement” may be measured. At ‘some other point of time the same panel member may be questioned about the “product performance”. : Advantages of Panel Data ; 1.* We can find out what proportion of those who bought our brand and those who did not, This is computed using the brand switching matrix. 2. The study also helps to identify and target the group which needs promotional effort. 3. Panel members are willing persons; hence a lot of data can be collected. This is because becoming a member of a panel is purely voluntary. 1 in nature. 4, The greatest advaniage of panel data is that itis analytic 5. Panel data is more accurate than cross-sectional data because itis free from the error associated with-reporting past behaviour. Errors occur in past behaviour because of time that has elapsed or forgetfulness. Disadvantages of Panel Data 1. The sample may not be representative. This is because sometimes, panels may be selected on account of convenience. 2. The panel members, who have provided the data, may not be interested to continue as panel members. There could be dropouts, migration, ete. Members who replace them may differ vastly from the original member, 3. Remuneration given to panel members may not be attractive. Therefore, people ‘may not like to be panel members. 4, Sometimes the panel members may show disinterest and non-commitment. 5. A lengthy period of membership in the panel may cause respondents to start imagining themselves to be experts and professionals. They may start responding like experts and consultants and not like respondents, To avoid this, no one should be retained as a member for more than 6 months, 28 Self Learning MaterialCross-sectional Study Introduction to Research - Methodology Cross-sectional study is one of the most important types of descriptive research, it can be done in two ways: © Field study Notes © Field survey Field study: This includes a depth study. Field study involves an in-depth study of 1a problem, such as reaction of young men and women towards a product. for example, Reaction of Indian men towards branded ready-to-wear suit’. Field study is carried 0% in real world environment settings. Test marketing is an example of field study. Field survey: Large samples are a feature of the study. The biggest limitations of this survey are cost and time. Also, if the respondent is cautious, he might answer the questions in a different manner. Finally, field survey requires good knowledge like construct 1g a questionnaire, sampling techniques used. etc Example: Suppose the management believes that geographical factor is an important attribute in determining the consumption ofa product. like sales ofa woollen wear in a particular location. Suppose that the proposition to be examined is that, the urban population is more likely to use the product than the semi-urbah population. This hypothesis can be examined in a cross-sectional study. Measurement can be taken from a representative sample of the population in both geographical locations with respect to the occupation and use of the products. In case of tabulation, researcher can count the ‘number of cases that fall into each of the following classes: 1, Urban population which uses the product —Category | 2, Semi-urban population which uses the product—Category I 3. Urban population which does not use the produet—Category II 4, Semi-urban population which does not use the product—Category IV Here, we should know that the hypothesis nced to be supported and tested by the sample data, .., the proportion of urbanities using the product should exceed the semi- urban population using the product. Causal Studies Although descriptive information is often useful for predictive purposes, where possible we would like to know the causes of what we are predicting—-the “reasons why.” Further, wwe would like to know the relationships of these causal factors to the effects that we are predicting. If we understand the causes of the effects we want to predict, we invariably improve our ability both to predict and to control these effects. Bases for Inferring Causal Relationships There are three types of evidence that can be used for drawing inferences about causal relationships: Self Learning Material 29Research Methodology Notes 1, Associative variation 2. Sequence of events 3, Absence of other possible causal factors In addition, the cause and the effect have to be related, .c., there must be logical implication (or theoretical justification) to imply the specific causal relation. Associative Variation ” Associative variation, or “concomitant variation,” as it is often termed, is a measure of the extent to which occurrences of two variables are associated, Two types of associative variation may be distinguished: 1. Association by presence: A measure of the extent to which the presence of one variable is associated with the presence of the other, "2. Association by change: A measure of the extent to which a change in the level of. cone variable is associated with a change in the level of the other. It has been argued that two other conditions-may also exist, particularly for continuous variables: — @®. The presence of one variable is associated with a change in the level of other; and . Gi) Achange in the level of one variable is associated with the presence of the other (Feldman, 1975), Sequence of Events A second characteristic of a causal relationship is the requirement that the causal factor occurs first; the cause must precede the result. In order for salesperson retraining to result in increased sales, the retraining must have taken place prior to the sales increase. Absence of Other Possible Causal Factors ‘A final basis for inferring causation is the absence of any other possible causes other than the one(s) being investigated. Ifit could be demonstrated, for example, that no other factors present could have caused the sales inerease in the third quarter, we could then logically conclude that the salesperson training must have been responsible. * Obviously, in an after-the-fact examination of an uncontrolled result such as an increase ini detergent sales, it is impossible to clearly rule oui all causal factors other than salesperson retraining. One could never be completely sure that there were no competitor-, customer-, or company-initiated causal factors that would account for the sales increase, 7 Conclusions Concerning Types of Evidence No single type of evidence, or even the’ combination of all three types considered, can ever conclusively demonstrate that a causal relationship exists. Other unknown Self Learning Materialfactors may exist. However, we can obtain evidence that makes it highly reasonable to conclude that a particular relationship exists. Exhibit 1.1 shows certain questions that are necessary to answer. Exhibit 1.1: Issues in Determining Causation ‘Several questions arise when determining whether a variable X has causal power over another variable, Y: 1, What is the source of causality—does X cause Y, or does ¥ cause X? 2. What is the direction of causality—does X positively influence Y, or is the relationship negative? 3. IsXanecessary and sufficient cause—or necessary, but not sufficient cause—of ‘Y? Is X’s causation deterministic or probabilistic? 4. Which value of the believed cause exerts a causal influence—its presence or absence? 5. Are the causes and effects the states themselves or changes in the states? Is the relationship static or dynamic? In the end, the necessary conditions for causality to exist are a physical basis for causality, a cause that temporally precedes the effect (even for associative variation), and a logical reason to imply the specific causal relation being examined. (Monroe and Petroshius, n.d.). Difference Between Exploratory and Descriptive Research Exploratory research E Descriptive research Tt is concerned with the “Why” aspect _| It is concerned with the “What”, “When” of consumer behaviour, ie, it ries to | or “How often” on the consumer understand the problem and not measure | behaving the result “This research does not require large | This needs large samples of respondents. samples. ‘Sample need not to represent the ‘Sample must be representative of population. population, Due to imprecise statement, data Statement is precise, Therefore, data collection is not easy. collection is easy. ‘Characteristics of interest to be measured | Characteristics of interest to be measured are not clear. are clear. ‘There is no need fora questionnaite for | There should be a properly designed collecting the data. questionnaire for data collection. Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 313t Research Methodology Notes Data collection methods are: Use of panel data Focus group Longitudinal Literature Searching Cross-sectional studies, Case study 1.22 How to Prepare a Synopsis Synopsis isan abstract form of research which underlines the research procedure followed and is presented before the guide for evaluating its potentiality. In one senteice it may be described as « céndensation ofthe final report. The structure of synopsis varies and also depends on the guides’ choice. However, for our understanding a common structure may be framed as under: 1. Defining the Problem: \n defining the problem of the research objective, definition of Glossary, general background information, limitations of the study and order of presentation should be mentioned in brief. 2. Review of Existing Literature: in this head, researcher should study the summary of different points of view on the subject matter as found in books, periodicals and approach to be followed at the time of writing, 3. Conceptual Framework and Methodology: Under this head, the researcher should first make a statement of the hypothesis. Discussion on the research methodology used, duly pointing out the relationship between the hypothesis and objective of the study and finally discussions about the sources and means of obtaining data should also be made. In this head, the researcher should also point out the limitations of methodology. if any, and the natural crises from which the research is bound to suffer for such obvious limitations, 4. Analysis of Data: Analysis of the data involves testing of hypothesis from data collected and key conclusions thus arrived. 5. General Conclusions: In general conclusions, the researcher should make restatement of objectives. Conclusion with respect to the acceptance or rejection of hypothesis, conclusion with respect to the stated objectives. suggested areas of further research and final discussion of possible implications of the study for a model, group, theory and discipline, Finally, the researcher should mention about the bibliographies and appendices. The above format is drawn after a standard framework followed internationally in preparation ofa synopsis. However, in our country. keeping in view the object of research, style and structure of synopsis varies and quite often it is found that the research-guide exercises his own discretion in synopsis preparation than following some acceptable intemational norms. A standard format for preparation of synopsis commonly used in management and commerce research in India may be drawn as follows: Self Learning Materiai1. Introduction: This includes definition of the problem and its review from a historical perspective. Objective of the Study: It defines the research purpose and its specialty from the existing available research in the related field, Literature Review: It includes among other things, different sources from which the required abstract is drawn, 4. Methodology: It is intended to draw out the sequences followed in research and on of data, ‘ways and manners of carrying out the survey and compi 5. Hypothesis: Its a formal statement relating to the research problem and it need to be tested on the basis of the researchers’ findings, ‘Modet: \tunderlies the nature and structure of the model that the researcher is going, to build in the light of survey findings, 1.23 Choosing a Research Design The overview of research designs and sources of error just presented should make it apparent that, given a specified problem. many competing designs can provide relevant information. Each design will have an associated expected value of information and incurred cost. Suppose, for example, that a researcher is assigned to determine the market share’ of the ten leading brands of energy drinks. There are many possible ways of measuring market share of energy drink brands, including questioning a sample of respondents, observing purchases at a sample of retail outlets, obtaining sales figures from a sample of wholesalers, obtaining sales figures from a sample of retailers and vending machine operators. obtaining tax data, subscribing to a national consumer panel, subscribing to a national panei of retail stores. and. possibly, obtaining data dizectly from trade association reports or a recent study by some other investigative agency. Though lengthy, this listiig is not exhaustive. The selection of the best design from the alternatives is no different in principle from choosing among the altematives in making any decision, The associated expected value and cost of information must be determined for each competing design option. Ifthe design is such that the project will yield information for solving more than one problem, the expected value should be determined for all applicable problems and summed. The design with the highest, positive. net expected payoff of research should be selected, 1.24 Summary Research Methodology is a way to find out the result of a given problem on a specific ‘matter or problem that is also referred as rescarch problem, In Methodology. researcher Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 33,Research Methodology Notes uses different citeria for solving/searching the given research problem. Different sources use different type of methods for solving the problem. Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as @ science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it wwe study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. We've introduced the research process and discussed some of the decisions that need to be made before you start your research project. This unit has introduced the research process planning from the perspective of valuing research on the basis of how well it has been done (the management of total error). Planning are search project that includes: Problem formulation © Method of inquiry ‘© Research method © Research design ‘© Selection of data collection techniques © Sample design Data collection © Analysis and interpretation of data ‘Research reports We've also discussed how managers use research to help with decision-making. It's important to build strong and frequent communication between team members, decision makers, and clients. As you develop your research project, you want to consult with the decision makers throughout the project, building a common understanding of exactly what is needed and is to be provided to assure success. Proper problem formulation is the key to success in research, It is vital,and any error in defining the problem incorrectly can result in wastage of time and money. Several elements of introspection will help in defining the problem correctly. In this unit, we have dealt with a subject of single most importance to the research project: the research design. We described whata research design is, discussed the classes of designs, and examined major sources of marketing information that vatious designs employ, Finally, we considered the errors that affect research designs. The unit deals with two types of research, namely exploratory research and descriptive rescarch exploratory research helps the researcher to become familiar with the problem. It helps-to establish the priorities for further research. It may or may not be possible to formulate hypothesis during exploratory stage. To get an insight into the problem, literature search, experience surveys, focus groups, and selected case studies 34. Self Learning Materialassist in gaining insight into the problem. The role of moderator or facilitator is extremely Introduction to Research important in focus group. There are several variations in the formation of focus group. Methodology 1.25 Glossary Notes © Marketing research: Marketing research is about researching the whole of a company’s marketing process, © Exploratory research: Exploratory research provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or situation. Descriptive research: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. © Applied research: Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization. © Fundamental research: Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. © Research methodology. Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem, © Research design: The research design is a plan ot framework for conducting the study and collecting data. © Research problem: It focuses on the relevance of the present research. © Objective of Research: It means to what the researcher aims to achieve. © Literature research: \t refers to “referring to a literature to develop a new hypothesis” © Conclusive research: This is a research having clearly defined objectives. In this type of research, specific courses of action are taken to solve the problem. © Descriptive research: \t is essentially a research to describe something. * Longitudinal study: These are the studies in which an event or occurrence is ‘measured again and again over a period of time. © Field study: Field study involves an in-depth study of a problem, such as reaction of young men and women towards a product. © Synopsis: Synopsis is an abstract form of research which underlines the research procedure followed and is presented before the guide for evaluating its potentiality. 1.26 Re ‘What do you mean by research? Ww Questions 2. Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology. Self Learning Material 35Research Methodology Notes‘ 2. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 36 Self Learning Material Write short notes on following: @: Exploratory research Gi) Descriptive research Discuss the objectives of research. What are the qualities of a good research? What are the Problems Encountered by Researchers in India? ‘What are the various types of research? Discuss in detail. What is a scientific method? ‘What are the various methods of inquiry? List any two methods of data collection. Explain the importance of formulating the research problein. Describe in detail various steps of conducting research. hat is a research problem? ‘What are the steps involved in formulating the problem? What are the sources of problem? What is a research problem? Why is it necessary to formulate the problem? Explain the steps involved in formulating the problem? What are the sources of problem? Describe in detail What are the questions posed for self while formulating the problem? “The objective of research problem should be clearly defined; otherwise the data collection becomes meaningless”. Explain with suitable examples. Why is research design necessary to conduct a study? ‘What are the Various types of research design? Explain with examples. What is exploratory research? Give Example under what circumstances, exploratory research is ideal. What are the sources available for data collection at exploratory stage? What are the different variations in the focus group? ~ For each of the situation rientioned below, state whether the research should be exploratory, descriptive or causal: (® - To find out the relationship between promotion and sales. Gi) To find out the consumer reaction regarding use of new detergents which are economical? (ii) To identify the target market demographies, for a shopping mall : iv) Estimate the sales potential for ready-to-eat food in the northeastem parts of India,21. 28, 30. 31. 32, 33. 34, 35. 36. ‘What are the characteristic that a moderator should possess while conducting the focus group? What are the uses of descriptive researcti and when will it is used? What are the various types of descriptive studies? What are the Longitudinal and cross sectional studies? Describe the various types of panels and its use. What is a Sample survey? What are its benefits? ‘What are the various types of cross sectional studies? ‘What are the benefits and limitations of each? Distinguish exploratory from descriptive research. What are the advantages and disadvantages of panel data? 1.27 Further Readings © C.R. Kothari, Research Methodology, Willey International Ltd., New Delhi © William J. Goode and Paul K. Hatt, Methods in Social Research, McGraw Hill, New Delhi * CA. Moser and G. Kalton, Swvey Methods in Social Investigation * PL. Bhandar Kar and T.S. Wilkinson, Methodology and Techniques of Social Research, Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi * VP. Michael, Research Methodology in Management, Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi © S.R. Bajpai, Methods of Social Survey and Research, Kitab Ghar, Kanpur © M.H. Gopal, An Introduction to Research Procedure in Social Sciences, Asian Publishing House, Bombay Introduction to Research Methodology Notes Self Learning Material 37Research Methodology UNIT-2 Noes | - Sampling and Data Collection . 38 Self Leaming Material * Learning Objectives Introduction What is a Hypothesis? ‘Null and Alternative Hypotheses ‘Making Inferences ‘The Relationship between a Population, a Sampling Distribution, and a Sample Hypothesis Testing, 7 Steps in Hypothesis Testing ‘Type | and Type I Errors Secondary Data Special Techniques of Market Research or Syndicated Data Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data, Primary Data Methodology for Collection of Primary Data Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research Conditions for a Successful Interview Descriptive Research Design: Survey Descriptive Research Design: Observation Why Sample? Distinction Between Census and Sampling ‘Terms Used in Sampling Sampling Process ‘Sampling Techniques Sample Sizes: Considerations Sampling Challenges, Probability Samples Non-probability Sampling2.28 Random Selection and Random Ass 2.29 Determining the Sample Size When Random Sampling is used 2.30 Sampling in Mixed Research 2.31 Distinction between Probability Sample and Non-probability Sample 2.32 Errors in Sampling 233. Summary 234 Glossary Further Readings 2.1 Learning Objectives After studying the chapter, students will be able to: State the need of hypothesis in research; Describe the use of null and alternative hypothesis; ‘© Discuss the steps in hypothesis testing; # Relate the difference between type I and type II errors; © Know what is primary data and what are the methods adopted for collecting primary data; ‘¢ Know what are the various steps involved in designing a questionnaire; © Understanding what are the advantages! limitations of a mail questionnaire/ Secondary sources; ¢ Know how to conduct successfill interview; ‘Explain how to collect data through observation meth Differentiate between census and sample; ‘© Understand the process of sampling; © Discuss various types of probability sampling techniques; ‘© Discuss various types of non-probability sampling techniques. 2.2 Introduction Scientific research is directed at the inquiry and testing of altemative explanations of what appears to be fact. For behavioural researchers, this scientific inquiry translates into a desire to ask questions about the nature of relationships that affect behaviour within markets. It is the willingness to formulate hypotheses capable of being tested to determine (1) what relationships exist, and (2) when and where these relationships hold. The first stage in the analysis process is identified to include editing, coding, and making initial counts of responses (tabulation and cross tabulation). In the current unit, Sampling and Data Collection Notes . Self Learning Material 39Research Methodology Notes wwe then extend this first stage to include the testing of relationships, the formulation of hypotheses, and the making of inferences. : In formulating hypotheses the researcher uses “interesting” variables, and considers their relationships to each other, to find suggestions for working hypotheses that may or may not have been originally considered. In making inferences, conclusions are reached about the variables that are important, their parameters, their differences, and the relationships among them. A parameter is a summarizing property of acollectivity— such as a population—when that collectivity is not considered to be a sample (Mohr, 1990, p.12). . Although the sequence of procedures, (a) formulating hypotheses, (b) making inferences and (c) estimating parameters is logical, in practice these steps tend fo merge and do not always follow in order. For example, the initial results of the data analysis may suggest additional hypotheses that in turn require more and different sorting and analysis of the data, Similarly, not all of the steps are always required in a particular project; the study may be exploratory in nature. which means that it is designed more to formulate the hypotheses to be examined in a more extensive project, than to make inferences or estimate parameters, In this unit, we will discuss several methods of qualitative research methods commonly adopted in educational research, namely; ethnography, casé study, action research and the generic qualitative method. Imespective of research method adopted, the techniques of data collection are more or less similar. In this unit, we will discuss in detail three common data collection or evidence-gathering techniques employed in qualitative research methods, For example, the experimental method in quantitative research uses tests or attitude scales to collect data, Similarly, the survey method use questionnaires and interview checklists to collect data. Therefore, for ethnography or case study methods or action research the data collection techniques employed could ‘be observations, interviews or the examination of documents or a combination of three techniques. The purpose of this unit is to help you learn about sampling in quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research, In other words, you will lear how participants are selected to be part of empirical research studies. ‘Sampling refers to drawing a sample (the subset) from a population (the full set). © Theusual goal in sampling is to produce a representative sample (j.e., a sample which is similar to the population on all characteristics, except that it includes fewer people because it is a sample rather than the complete population). © Metaphorically, a perfectly representative sample would be &"'mirror image” of the population from which it was selected (again, except that it would include fewer people). : 40° Self Learning Material -In the previous unit, you have studied about the fundamental concepts of sampling, In this unit, you will study in detail about the various types of samples and errors in sampling. Although there are a number of different methods that might be used to create a sample, they generally can be grouped into one of two categories: probability samples or non-probability samples. In the first part of the unit you will study about probability sampling techniques and in the next part you will study about various types ‘of non-probebility sampling techniques. Lastly, you will study about errors in sampling. 2.3. What is a Hypothesis? Asa beginning point in the discussion of hypotheses testing, we ask: what is a hypothesis? A hypothesis is an assertion that variables (measured concepts) are related to a specific way such that this relationship explains certain facts or phenomena. From a practical standpoint, hypotheses may be developed to solve a problem, answer a question, or imply a possible course of action. Outcomes are predicted if a specific course of action is followed. Hypotheses must be empirically testable. A hypothesis is often stated as a research question when reporting either the purpose of the investigation or the findings. The hypothesis may be stated informally as a research question, or more formally as an alternative hypothesis, or in a testable form known as a null hypothesis. Hypothesis: A prediction of the outcome of a study. Hypotheses are drawn from theories and research questions or from direct observations. In fact, a research problem can be formulated as a hypothesis. To test the hypothesis we need to formulate it in terms that can actually be analysed with statistical tools. Asan example, if we want to explore whether using a specific teaching method at school will result in better school marks (research question), the hypothesis could be that the mean school marks of students being taught with that specific teaching method will be higher than of those being taught using other methods. In this example, we stated a hypothesis about the expected differences between groups. Other hypotheses may refer to correlations between variables. Thus, to formulate a hypothesis, we need to refer to the descriptive statistics (such as the mean final marks), and specify a set of conditions about these statistics (such asa difference between the means, or in a different example, a positive or negative correlation), The hypothesis we formulate applies to the population of interest, ‘The null hypothesis makes a statement that no difference exists (see Pyrezak, 1995, pp. 75-84). Research questions state in layman's terms the purpose of the research, the variables of interest, and the relationships to be examined. Research questions are not empirically testable, but aid in the important task of directing and focusing the research effort. To illustrate, a sample research question is developed in the following scenario: Sampling and Data Collection Notes Self Learning Material 41Research Methodology Notes Exhibit 2. Dévelopment of a Research Question for Mingles Mingles is an exclusive restaurant specialized in seafood prepared with a light Italian flair. Barbara C., the owner and manager, has attempted to create an airy ‘contemporary atinosphere that is conducive to conversation and dining enjoyment. In the’ first three months, business has grown to about 70 % of capacity during dinner hours. ‘Barbara wanis to track customer satisfaction with the Mingles concept, the quality of the service, and the value of the food for the price paid. To implement the survey,.a questionnaire was developed using a five-point expectations scale with items scaled as values from —2 to +2. The questionnaire asks, among other things: “How would you rate the value of Mingles food for the price paid”? ‘The response format for the five answers appeared as: When tabulated, the average response was found to be +0.89 with a sample standard deviation of 1.43. The research question asks if Mingles is perceived as being better than average when considering the price and value of the food. Additional questions measure customer satisfaction by addressing “How satisfied Mingles customers are with the concept, service, food, and value”, Why State Hypothesis? : ‘The hypothesis guides us on the selection of a certain design, observations and methods of researching over others. Based on previous theory and research, research questions are formulated, which are.“translated” into hypothesis, which, by tum, are tested using a sample in order to make inferences for the whole population. If we could test the whole population directly, we would not need to formulate hypothesis, conduct inferential statistics and make inferences for the population based on a sample. However, itis often impossible to test the whole population, and we need to make our observations based on a sample, If differences (or relationships) between variables are revealed, the null hypothesis is tested for significance. This test may determine whether these differences (or relationships) are “real”, in other words, if they are due to true differences between the groups instead of due to, say, sampling error. Sample results are often subject to sampling fluctuations. These fluctuations could account forthe differences between the mean exam scores the students had in ourexample. Since we are researching a sample drawn from a population, we should always expect some vatiation in the sample statistics, such as the mean exam scores, in our example, between the groups of students being taught using different methods. 42 Self Learning Material2.4 Null and Alternative Hypotheses Null Hypotheses ‘Null Hypotheses (H,) are statements identifying relationships that are statistically testable end can be shown not to hold (nullified). The logic of the null hypothesis is that if we hypothesize no difference, and we “reject” the hypotheses if a difference is found. If, however, we confirm that no difference exists, we “tentatively accept” the null hypothesis. We may only accept the mull on a “tentative” basis because another testing of the null hypothesis using a new sample may reveal that sampling error was present and that the null hypothesis should be rejected. The null hypothesis, H,, is an essential part of any research design, and is always tested, even indirectly. For example, to compare the population and the sample, the null hypothesis might be: “There is no difference between the perceived price-value of Mingles food and what is expected on average. In this example, the difference between the population average, which is assumed to be the middie scale value of 0 = “about average” and the sample’s mean evaluation of Mingles can be tested using the z distribution, Examples of the Null Hypothesis A researcher may postulate a hypothesis: H,: Tomato plants exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost rather than in soil, And a null hypothesis: H,: Tomato plants do not exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost rather than soil. It is important to carefully select the wording of the null, and ensure that itis as specific as possible. For example, the researcher might postulate a null hypothesis: H,: Tomato plants show no difference in growth rates when planted in compost rather than soil, There is a major flaw with this H,, If the plants actually grow more slowly in compost than in soil, an impasse is redched. H, is not supported, but neither is Hy, because there is a difference in growth rates, If the null is rejected, with no altemative, the experiment may be invalid. This is the reason why science uses a battery of deductive and inductive processes to ensure thiat there are no flaws in the hypotheses, Many scientists neglect the null, assuming that it is merely the opposite of the alternative, but it is good practice to spend a little time creating a sound hypothesis. It is not possible to change any hypothesis retrospectively, including Hy Sampling and Data Collection Notes Self Learning Material 43Research Methodology Notes ‘Significance Tests If significance tests generate 95% or 99% likelihood that the results do not fit the null hypothesis, itis rejected, in favour of the alternative, Otherwise, the null is accepted. These are the only correct assumptions, and it is incorrect to reject, or accept, H,. . Accepting the null hypothesis does not mean that it is true: Its still a hypothesis, and must conform to the principle of falsifiablity, in the same way that rejecting the null does not prove the alternative, Perceived Problems With the Null ‘The major problem with the Hy is that many researchers, and reviewers, see accepting the null asa failure of the experiment. This is very poor science, as accepting or rejecting any hypothesis is a positive result. Even if the null is not refuted, the world of science has learned something new. Strictly speaking, the term ‘failure’, should only apply to errors in the experimental design, or incorrect initial assumptions. Development of the Null : ‘The Flat Earth model was common in ancient times, such as in the civilizations of the Bronze Age or Iron Age. This may be thought of as the null hypothesis, H,, at the time. Hy: World is Flat Many of the Ancient Greek philosophers assumed that the sun, the moon and other objects in the universe circled around the Earth. Hellenistic astronomy established the spherical shape of the earth around 300 BC. Hy: The Geocentric Model: Earth is the centre of the Universe and it is Spherical Copernicus had an alternative hypothesis, H, that the world actually circled around the sun, thus being the center of the universe. Eventually, people got convinced and accepted it as the null, Hy, Hy; The Heliocentric Model: The sun is the:centre of the universe Later someone proposed an alternative hypothesis that the sun itself also circled around the something within the galaxy, thus creating a new Hy, This is how research works - the H, gets closer to the reality each time, even if it isn’t correct, itis better than the last H,. Alternative Hypotheses Altemative hypotheses may be considered to be the opposite of the null hypotheses. The alternative hypothesis makes a formal statement of expected difference, and may state 44 Self Learning Materialsimply that a difference exists or that a directional difference exists, depending upon how the null hypothesis is stated. Because population differences may exist, even if not verified by the current sample data, the alternative form is considered to be empirically non-testable. The objectives and hypotheses of the study should be stated as clearly as possible and agreed on at the outset. Objectives and hypotheses shape and mold the study; they determine the kinds of questions to be asked, the measurement scales for the data to be collected, and the kinds of analyses that will be necessary. However, # project will usually turn up new hypotheses, regardless of the rigor with which it was planned and developed. New hypotheses are continually suggested as the project progresses from data collection through the final interpretation of the findings. In Unit 2, it was pointed out that when the scientific method is strictly followed, hypothesis formulation must precede the collection of data. This means that according to the rules for proper scientific inquiry, data suggesting a new hypothesis should not be used to test it. New data must be collected prior to testing a new hypothesis, In contrast to the strict procedures of the scientific method, where hypotheses formulation must precede the collection of data, actual research projects almost always formulate and test new hypotheses during the project. It is both acceptable and desirable to expand the analysis to examine new hypotheses to the extent that the data permit. At ‘one extreme, it may be possible to show that the new hypotheses are not supported by the data and that no further investigation should be considered, At the other extreme, a hypothesis may be supported by both the specific variables tested and by other relationships that give similar interpretation. The converging results from these separate parts of the analysis strengthen the case that the hypothesized relationship is correct. Between these extremes of nonsupport-support are outcomes of indeterminacy: the new hypothesis is neither supported nor rejected by the data, Even this result may indicate the need for an additional collection of information. In a position yet more extreme from scientific method, Selvin and Stuart (1966) convincingly argue that in survey research, it is rarely possible to formulate precise hypotheses independently of the data. This means that most survey research is essentially exploratory in nature. Rather than having a single pre-designated hypothesis in mind, the analyst often works with many diffuse variables that provide a slighily different approach and perspective on the situation and problem. The added cost of an extra question is so low that the same survey can be used to investigate many problems without increasing the total cost. However, researchers mustresist the syndrome of “just one more question”, Often, the one more question escalates into many more questions of the type “it would be nice to know”, which can be unrelated to the research objectives. In a typical survey project, the analyst may alternate between searching the data (analyzing) and formulating hypotheses. Obviously, there are exceptions to all general Sampling and Data Collection Notes Self Learning Material 48