Structural Organisation in Animals


Structural Organisation
 inlayers:
BM has two Animals
(A) Basal lamina – secreted by epithelium made of
 Animal tissues :
glycoprotein
 Tissue –group of similar cells( same origin and
(B) Fibrous/ reticular lamina – secreted by connective
same basic function)
tissue m/o protein fibres in MPS matrix
 Histology- study of tissue (term by Mayer)
 BM formed by both epithelium andconnective
 Term „animal tissue‟- Bichat tissue
 Plant tissue- N.Grew  compactly packed cells with little intercellular space
derived from all three germ layer
 Father of animal histology- Marcello Malpighi
 Has a free surface, which faceseither a body fluid or
 Detailed study of tissue-Microscopic Anatomy
outside environment.
 Founder of microscopic anatomy Marcello
 thus provides covering or liningfor some part of
MALPIGHI
body
 Tissue First evolved in cnidaria
 Only tissue in which cellsare arranged in uniform
 Four kinds of tissue :- layers-Epithelium
1. Epithelial – ecto, meso, endoderm/first evolved Cell junctions
tissue/ avascular
 GAP junctions – allow free passage of substances
2. Connective – mesoderm across cells
3. Muscular- mainly mesoderm (iris, ciliary muscle –  Connects cytoplasm of adjoining cells for rapid
ectodermal) transfers of ions, small molecules and sometimes
big molecules
4. Nervous – ectoderm
 Analogous to plant ‗plasmodesmata‘
 Tight junctions
 k/a Zona occludens
 Prevent leakage of substances
 Plasma membrane fuses in apical parts
 Intedigitations
 Interfitting, finger- like processes of PM of adjacent
cells
 Increase surface area of contact between cells
 Present in ‗transitional epithelium ‗
NOTE :- Stratum germinatum :- basal layer of
Epidermis (Simple Columnar)  Desmosomes/ adhering junctions / Macula
adherans
 Epithelium (epi=upon, thelia = growth )
 Consists of protein disc with intermediate fibres of
 First evolve tissue in embryonic life keratin scleroprotein
 Term ‗epithelium‘ – by RUYSCH  Provides mechanical support to cell, perform
 High regeneration power (least in nervous tissue) cementing to keep adjoining cells together
 A vascular (no blood supply) rest upon connective Modifications of free surface of PM of epithelial
tissue on basement membrane depend for nutrients cells
on underlaying connective tissue  Microvilli
 Short finger- like protoplasmic projections
 Increase absorptive surface area

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 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Non -motile, non- contractile  Endothelium:
 K/A ‗brush bordered epithelium’  Inner lining of blood vessel,lymph vessel
 Example :  Inner lining of heart wall
o Small intestine  Mesothelium:
o Gall bladder  covering of coelom,lines internal organs
o PCT of kidney  (peritoneum-lines abdominal organs,pericardium-
lines heart,pleura-lines lungs)
 CILIA – long protoplasmic process
 Simple cuboidal epithelium
 Kinocilia –
o Cells cube- like
o Contractile, motile
o Nuclei rounded and central
o 9+2 microtubular skeleton
o Function -secretion and absorption
o Basal body 9+0 present
o Two types – simple cuboidal and brush border
o Movement of substance in uniform direction
simple cuboidal
 Stereocilia
David– DCT of kidney
o Non- contractile, non- motile
Teaches– Thyroid follicles
o Actin microfilaments skeleton
Physics of– PCT of kidney
o Basal body absent
Graduation– Germinal epithe.
o Absorptive function(Increase surface area)
Post Graduation at - Pancreatic acini,Glandular
 Note ducts(small)
o Both kinocilia and stereocilia are present in International– Iris
1. Organ of corti (internal ear ) Collage of– Choroid
2. Ependymal cavity of brain and spinal cord Commerce– Ciliar bod
Types of epithelium
 Simple epithelium –  Simple columnar epithelium
 Single layered o Cells tall and slender
 Functions as lining for body cavities, ducts and o Nuclei elongated and at base of cells
tubes
o Functions – secretion, absorption, sensation
 Simple squamous epithelium
o Some produce mucus, called GOBLET cells
o Single layer of flattened cells (pavement- tile like) (glandular )
o Irregular boundaries (tesselated )  Five types :
o Nuclei flat and lie at center of cell o simple columnar
o Forms diffusion boundary o simple columnar glandular
 TRICKS EPITHELIUM :- o brush -border simple columnar
 Simple squam Epith o Brush- border glandular simple columnar
o sensory epithelium
Simple Columnar Epith. –

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 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Examples:
o fallopian tube (coloumnar ciliated )
o trachea, bronchi (pseudo stratified coloumnar
ciliated)
o small bronchioles(cuboidal ciliated)
 Glandular epithelium
 Coloumnar and cuboidal cells, specialised for
secretion

 Pseudostratified epithelium
 Modification of columnar epithelium
 Two types of cells –
o Long cells – extend upto free surface,elongated  Merocrine glands
nucleus
 Secretory granules leave the cells by simple
o Short cells – does not extend upto free diffusion, with no loss of cellular part
surface,rounded nucleus
 Trick for merocrine gland
 Nuclei lie at different levels in different cells
appears multilayered goblet cells (mucus producing)  Salman and - Salivary glands
can also occur  Shahrukh are- Sweat glands 90%
 Influential and – Intestinal gland
 Pseudostratified. –  Great Men –Gastric gland, Merocrine
 Apocrine glands
 Only apical portion of cytoplasm is discharged
along with secretory product
 Holocrine glands
 Product of secretion is shed with the whole cell,
leading to its destruction
 Ciliated epithelium
 If coloumnar or cuboidal cells bear cilia on their free
surface
 Function – to move particles or mucus in a specific
direction over epithelia

 Ciliated –

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 Structural Organisation in Animals

 Types of compound epithelium:

 Stratified epithelium-
 Trick – tubular glands o desmosomes present,provide mechanical support
 Carry– Crypts of liberkuhn (simple straight) o Unstretchable
 Sweets for – Sweat glands (simple coiled) o Stratified squamous/cuboidal/columnar
 Grand – Gastric glands (simple branched)  Stratified squamous epi.
 Birthday – Brunners gland (compound tubular) o Keratinized strat.squamous epithelium:
 Treat – Tubular glands  Some cells become dead,non living,non
nucleated,filled with hard keratin scleroprotein
 Alveolar and compound tubulo – alveolar glands
 k/a ‗horny/cornified epithelium‘
 CharleS–Cutaneous glands of frogs skin(simple
alveolar)  Impervious to water
 Sebaceous gland(simple branched)  Highly resistant to mechanical stress
 Shobhraj is–Submandibular(compound alv. o Eg. Keratinised stratified squamous epi.
 Swiss–Sublingual (compound alveol)  Skin epidermis (dry surface of skin)
 Police–Parotid gland(comp.tubulo-alveo)  reptilian scales,
 Main–Mammary gland(comp.tubulo-alv)  feathers in birds,
 TArget–Tubulo-alveolar and Alveolar glands  hair, horn, hoofs, nails in mammals
 Non-keratinised stratified squamous epithelium:
o Living,nucleated cells. Eg:
o Moist surface of buccal cavity
o Pharynx
o Vocal cord
o Esophagus
o Anal canal
o Vagina
o Cervix(lower part of uterus)

 Compound epithelium: o Conjunctiva and cornea of eye

 More than one layer of cells(multi layered)  Stratified Cuboidal – uppermost layer cube- like

 Main function-provide protection against chemical

and mechanical stress
 Limited role in secretion and absorption.

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 Structural Organisation in Animals

 Stratified Columnar :
 Mammary duct(lactiferous duct)
 Distal part of male urethra
 Transitional epithelium:
 Highly stretchable,on stretch becomes single
layered.
 Interdigitations present
 Basement membrane absent.
 At base-single layer of cuboidal cells,2-3 middle
layers of polygonal cells,superficial layer of large
broad,rectangular or oval cells
 Fuction-permits distension
 k/a ‗UROTHELIUM‘  In all connective tissue, except blood, cells secrete
protein fibres
 eg:
 Fibres provide strength,flexibility and elasticity to
o renal pelvis,ureter,urinary bladder
tissue
o some part of uterus
 Connective tissue :
o proximal part of male urethra
 (most abundant and widely distributed)
S.No. Epithelial Connective tissue
 Types of cell in connective tissue :
Tissue
 Fibroblasts – largest, maximum in number, produce
1. Lines organs Linking protein fibre and matrix, abundant in RER,Oval
/surface /joining/packaging with oval nucleus largest
of two structures
o maximum in number
2. Closely packed Abundant extra
cells, little cellular substance o produce protein fibre and matrix
intercellular Matrix (poly o abundant in RER
space sacch.sugar and
protein fibres) o Oval with oval nucleus
3. Rest over No basement  Macrophages –
basement membrane o second largest
membrane
o second maximum
4. Cell Junction No cell junctions
present(Gap/ o amoeboid shaped with bean/kidney/U shaped
tight/ adhering nucleus
or o scavenger / phagocytic cells
desmosomes)
o Abundance of lysosomes
5. No blood Blood vessles
vessels present(except o Note: Histeocytes –
cartilage)  Liver – kupffers cells
o  Brain – microglia
 Connective tissue:  Bones – osteoclast
 Constitute 30% of total body weight.  Lungs – dust cell
 Most abundant and widely distributed in body.  Thymus – hassels cells
 Linking and supporting other tissue/organ of body
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 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Skin – dendritic / langerhans cells o serves as a support framework for epithelium
 Blood- monocytes o contains fibroblast,macrophages and mast cells
mainly
 Mast cells –
 Adipose loose C.T:
o like basophil of blood in structure and function.
o located mainly beneath skin specialised to store fats.
o S/U shaped nucleus(2-3 lobed) .
o excess of nutrients,not used immediately are
o In cytoplasm, basophilic granules present,stain with
converted into fats and stored in this tissue
basic dye Methylene Blue.
o Also‟secrete matrix‟
o Mast cells secretes:
 Histamine: (aa derivative – vasodilator / starts
inflammation / diapedesis),
 Serotonin: (aa derivative,5-hydroxy
tryptamine/vasoconstrictor/ increase B.P)
 Heparin: (mucopolysaccharide / natural blood anti-
coagulant)  Dense C.T: Fibres and cells are compactly packed.
 Adipocytes – Fat storing modified fibroblast  Regular dense C.T: Fibroblasts are present in rows
between many parallel bundles offibres
 Lymphocytes(Defence) and plasma cells
(modified lymphocytes & cart wheel cell) – o Strongest tendon of body: Tendo
antibody production calcaneous/Achilles tendon/heel cord/calcaneal
tendon
 Why plasma cell called cart wheel cell:
o connects gastrocnemius muscle with calcaneus(heel)
o In rounded nucleus, chromatin material is arranged
bone
like spokes in wheel(radial rows)
o Strongest ligament of body: Ilio femoral ligament
 Pigmented cells/chromatophore/ melanocytes
o connects Ilium bone of pelvicgirdle to Femur bone
 Reticular cells: in lymphoid organs, phagocytic
of hind limb
 Mesenchymal cells:embryonal cells,gets modified
 Irregular dense C.T: Fibroblasts and many
into other C.T Cells
fibres(mostly collage) are oriented differently.
Skin:
 Outermost EPIDERMIS (keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium)
 DERMIS:
 Loose Areolar C.T
 Dense Iregular C.T
 HYPODERMIS – Adipose C.T
 Muscles

 LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE : Cells and

fibres loosely arranged in semi fluid ground
substance.
 Areolar loose C.T :
o present beneath skin

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 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Inorganic compound - 62% matrix as ―hydroxy
apatite crystals, Ca10 [(PO4)6 OH2]‖
 As age advances, organic compound decrease,bone
becomes more brittle
 Hardest tissue – bone, softest tissue - blood
 Hardest substance: enamel (ameloblast cell of teeth)
S.No. Bone Cartilage
1 Non-pliable Pliable, resist
compression
2 Periosteum Perichondrium
3 Osteoblast(bone Chondroblasts
forming)

 Specialised C.T: 5 Types 4 Osteoclasts(bone Chondroclasts

destroying)
 Reticular fibrous C.T
5 Osteocytes(bone Chondrocytes
 Mucoid C.T repairing/mature bone
 Pigmented C.T cell)

 Skeletal C.T- bones and cartilages 5. Vascular C.T – 6 Osteocytes lie Chondrocyte lie in
blood and lymph individually groups
7 Proein ossein Chondrin protein
 Reticular fibrous C.T/lymphoid tissue: 8 Vascular Avascular except
perichondrium
 Reticular fibres
 Lymphocytes more in no. 9 Longitudinal haversion Haversian cannal
canal present in long absent
 Mostly found in lymphoid organs (spleen,lymph mammalian bone
nodes,thymus)
Mucoid C.T/ Embryonic tissue:

 Jelly like matrix

 Mainly found during embryonic life
 Whartons jelly of Umbilical cord
 vitreous humour in eye
 Comb of cock

 Pigmented C.T:
 Melanophores/ chromatophore cells present.
 Eg.Iris and choroid of eye

 Skeletal connective tissue:

 Hard matrix (dense and mineralised, abundant
collagen fibre and calcium)
 Main inorganic part: calcium phosphate (80%) and
magnesium phosphate (10%)
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 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Weight bearing - Limb bones like long bones of legs
 Site of production of blood cells (bone marrow in
some bones)

 Types of Cartilage

 Long bones - Humerus, femur, radius, ulna, tibia,

fibula, clavicle, metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges
of both limbs
 Short bones - Carpals & tarsals
 Flat bones - Scapula, ribs, sternum, skull,facial
 Irregular - Vertebrae, jaw bones
 Sesamoid bone - No periosteum, ossification after
birth
 Eg. - Patella, pisiform

 Trick for Bones

 Function of skeletal C.T –  Structure of mammalian long bone:

 Supports body- main tissue that provides structural  Epiphysis:spongy / cancellous bone ▪Ends of lone
framework to body. bones

 Helps in locomotion- interact with skeletal muscles o lamellae is irregularly arranged as thin columns-
trabeculae, filled with red bone
 Support and Protect softer tissues and organs marrow(haemopoeitic)
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 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Metaphysis:
o between epiphysis and diaphysis  Medullary cavity:
o osteoblastic activity  in centre of shaft/ diaphysis
o helps in ‗bone elongation‘  lined by endosteum
o fuses in adults  stores ‗white fat in yellow bone marrow‘
 Diaphysis: shaft of bone  Note:
o m/o compact bone‘ o Osteoblasts and osteoclasts work in balance:
o has ‗medullary cavity‘ in centre, filled with yellow  maintain proper shape of bone(Bone remodelling )
bone marrow (stores white fat)
 Calcium homeostasis of body
 Internal structure of long bone:
 Pagets disease: due to abnormal osteoclastic
 Periosteum - white fibrous C.T. activity
o Outer covering of bone except at articular  Vascular connective tissue:
surface(cartilage)
o has W.F.C.T and Osteoblast  Blood and Lymph:
 Endosteum: lines medullary cavity  Fluid C.T
o Has osteoblast and osteoclast  No protein fibres
o bone growth-bidirectional  Main function:
o cartilage growth-unidirectional o Transportation of substance, defence of body, blood
coagulation
 Matrix: organic& inorganic components
o Matrix arranged in concentric layers- ‗Lamellae‘
 Blood:
o enclose Haversian canals(longitudinal)-carry blood
vessels, nerves.  Haematology= study of blood
o Volkmanns canals-  Haemopoiesis= blood formation process
 Transverse, connects haversian canals  Colour-red
 Lacunae-  Ph -7.4 (SLIGHTLY ALKALINE),maintained by
buffers : NaHCO3-, HCO3-
o spaces in matrix, house osteocytes
 By weight- 7-8% body wt.
 Osteocytes
 By volume- 5-6 Lt.(male) 4-5 Lt.(female)
o branched (cytoplasmic processes, connects them,
through ‗canaliculi’-cracks in lamellae)
Osteon/ Haversian system-  Haemopoeitic organs-

o Structural unit of compact bone = haversian canal +  In embryonic life-yolk sac, Liver and Spleen
lamellae + osteocyte  After birth- Red Bone Marrow

 Blood is FALSE C.T:

 Protein fibres are completely absent
 Matrix of blood is not produced by it‘s cells.
 Cells of blood have no power of division

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 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Biconcave shape
o increase surface area
 Absence of nucleus and biconcave shape- more Hb
can be filled in
 Anaerobic respiration (mitochondria absent)
 Enzymes of glycolysis present
 enzymes of kreb cycle absent.
Erythrocyte (RBC)

o 5-5.5 million/dl, size = 7.5µ

o Isotonic : 0.9% Nacl
o Hypotonic : Swell & Burst
 Plasma:
o Hypertonic : Crenation
 Matrix of blood
o Life span : 120 days
 Pale yellow due to urobilinogen ( bilirubin)
o Graveyard : Spleen (Blood bank of body)
 Inorganic part of plasma:
o Shape : Round, Biconcave & non-nucleat (human)
 Inorganic Ions : Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl–, HCO3–
o oval, Biconvex & nucleated (frog)
 Inorganic salts : NaCl (Maximum), KCl, NaHCO3,
KHCO3 o Largest : Amphiuma/Proteus
 Gases: O2, CO2, N2 (in dissolved form) o Smallest : Musk deer
o Ghost RBC

 Organic part: o Donan‘s membrane

 Nutrients: glucose, aa, fatty acids, glycerol, o Rouleuxformation (Pile of RBC d/t surface tension)
cholesterol(150-260 mg%), vitamins o Erythropoiesis
 Anti-coagulant: Heparin o Erythrocytosis ( no., hillyarea)
 Waste products: urea, uric acid,creatine, creatinine o Erythropenia ( no., Anaemia)
 Hormones: transported by plasma o RBC has 33% Hb
 Enzymes o 100ml blood - 15 gm Hb
 Plasma Proteins: synthesized in Liver o < 11gm% Hb = Anaemia
o Albumin: maintains osmotic pressure of blood o Haemocritvalue
o Globulin: α and β-maintains osmotic pressure o Poikilocytosis (changed shape)
o Anisocytosis (changed size)
 -globulin/antibody (synthesized in lymphoid
organs) – defence of body
 Platelet
 Fibrinogen (largest)
o Thrombocyte in lower vertebr. (nucleated)
 prothrombin- blood clotting proteins
o 1.5-3 lac/100ml
o Size = 1.5µ
 RBC:
o Thrombocytopenia (no., Dengue)
 In mature RBC, nucleus and higher organelles like
ER, Mt., golgi body etc. absent o Thrombocytosis ( no.)

 Red color due to Hb (Fe 2+) o

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 Structural Organisation in Animals
WBC BLOOD COAGULATION

o 6000-10,000/dl – Irreg shape  3 process involved –

o Polymorphic nucleus  Formation of Prothrombin activator

o Leucocyto sis (no.)  Conversion of inactive Prothrombin into

Thrombin(active)
o Leucopenia (no.)
 Conversion of Fibrinogen into Fibrin
 ERYTHROCYTOSIS - regular exercise, hilly
region inhabitants, bone marrow tumor
 Erythropenia - leads to Anaemia  BLOOD COAGULATION FACTORS

 Anisocytosis I. – FIBRINOGEN (liver)

o Macrocytic –vit B12 & folic acid deficiencyII. – PROTHROMBIN (liver)

o Microcytic-Iron deficiency anaemia III. – Thromboplastin /Tissue Factor( injured tissue)

 Poikilocytosis- sickel cell anaemia IV. – Ca2+ions (free)

 Erythropoeisis : stem cells / myeloblast ofV.

RBM – Labile Factor/Proaccelerin

 Myeloblast→Proerythroblst (largest) VI. – Unknown Factor/Hypothetical

→Erythroblast(Hb synthesis starts) → Normoblast
VII. – Tissue Thromboplastin Antecedent/ Stable Factor/
→Reticulocyte ( immature RBC, nucleus Proconvertin
disappears) →Vit B12 & Folic acid → Erythrocyte (
mature RBC) VIII. – Anti- haemophilic Factor A
IX. – Anti- haemophilic Factor B/ Christmas
Factor/Plasma thromboplastin component
 WBC –
X. – Stuart Prower Factor
 Size – 3-20 micron
XI. – Plasma Thromboplastin Antecedent/ Anti-
 Life span – 3-30 days haemophilic Factor C
 Leucocytosis – in infections XII. – Hageman/Surface Factor
 Leucopenia – immunodeficiency (AIDS, Typhoid)
XIII. – Fibrin stabilizing / Laki Lorand Factor

 MECHANISM OF BLOOD CLOTTING :-

Platelets –

 Thrombocytes-non mammalian vertebrates

 Stem cell-megakaryoblast of BM—
megakaryocyte— bud off — platelets( non
nucleated, cell fragments, pseudo blood cells)
 Irregular shape  Serum = Plasma – Fibrinogen
 Plasmin protein shrinks fibrin clot after 20-24 hrs),
 Produce ‗thromboplastin‘, which initiates blood
coagulation clear, pale yellow, straw colored fluid, cannot clot
 Clot / coagulum – clot in oozing blood vessel(
injured)
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 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Purpura – clot underneath skin  Study= Myology / Sarcology
 Thrombus – clot inside blood vessel
 Anti coagulants - Difference between Striated, Non-striated &
Cardiac Muscles –
 Heparin –
o Mucopolysaccharide in plasma S.No Strated Non- Cardiac
. Muscle striated Muscle
o Secreted by mast cells & basophils Muscle
o Natural blood anti-coagulant (keeps blood in fluid 1 Occur in the Occur in Occur in the
state)
limbs, body posterior walls of
o Increase effectiveness of Anti- Thrombin III wall face, part of heart
neck, etc. oesophagus,
 Hirudin – in Leech (Natural blood anti coagulant ) urinogenital
 Warfarin ( plant) – vitamin-K antagonist tract, iris of
eye etc.
 Dicoumarol (plant & fungal) – vitamin K
antagonist 2 Cylindrical in Spindle Cylindrical
shape shaped in shape
 Chelating agents – bind with free calcium ions
3 Multinucleate Uninucleate uninucleate
o Eg-Sodium citrate/oxalate/EDTA(Ethylene Diamine
d muscle muscle muscle
Tetra Acetic acid)
fibres fibres fibres
 Vitamin K required in Prothrombin (II), VII, IX, X
synthesis 4 Nuclei are Nucleus Nucleus is
peripheral central central
 Vit K deficiency = Haemorrhage
5 Myofibrils Myofibris Myofibrils
 Lymph – middle man between tissue fluid & show alernate are without show faint
venous blood light and dark light and light and
 Vascular / fluid C.T bands. dark bands. dark bands.

 Mesodermal 6 Fibres are Fibres are Fibres are

unbranched unbranched branched
 Colorless fluid( no RBC/no platelet/ few plasma
proteins/Ca/P/abundant WBC) 7 Intercalated Intercalated Intercalated
discs are discs are discs are
o Can clot absent absent present
1. Defence of body
8 They soon get They do not They never
2. Transport of C02 & Waste material fatigued get fatigued get fatigued
3. Absorption & transport of fat & fatsoluble vitamins 9 Voluntary in Involuntary Involuntary
( Lacteals in intestinal villi) action in action in action
 Muscular tissue : 10 blood supply blood blood
 Mostly mesodermal abundant supply poor supply
abundant
 Exception – iris & ciliary muscle of eye,erector pili
muscle of skin, mammary gland muscle – 11 Mt. abundant mitochondri mitocondria
ectodermal a fewer abundant
 Comprise of Muscle cell ( = muscle cell ) 12 myoglobin myoglobin myoglobin
abundant poor abundant
 st
1 originated in phylum coelenterate
13 contract contract rythmic
Special property –
quickly slowly contractions
o Excitibility * Contractibility 14 red & white single unit not
o Extensibility muscle &multi unit differentiate
muscle d
o Elasticity
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 Structural Organisation in Animals

 Nervous tissue (Ectodermal)

 Greatest control over body's responsiveness to
changing conditions
 Originated in phylum Cnidaria
 Reception of stimulus & giving a proper response
 Sp. property – Excitibility and conductivity
 Two kinds of cells :
o Neuron – 33% (structural and functional unit)  Dendrite – centripetal
o Neuroglia – 67% (protect and support neuron)  Axon - centrifugal
 Myelinated nerve fibres -spinal & cranial nerves
 Unmyelinated nerve fibres-ANS & Somatic
nervous system
 No Centriole (or immature) in neuron, hence do not
divide
 Least regenerative power – nervous tissue
 Maximum regenerative power – eithelial tissue
 Nissl’s granules –
o RNP particles (fragments of RER & Ribosomes )
o Basophilic Granular
o Protein synthesis
o Present in soma& dendrites
o Absent in axon & axon hillock

 Axon hillock-
o neurons trigger zone (AP triggered)

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Axon terminals/Telodendria –
o branching of axon at distal end  NEUROGLA CELLS / Glial cells :
o more mt. - synthesize neurotransmitter  Astrocytes –
 Synaptic knobs- o Most abundant
o bulb like structure at axon terminal o Large cell, numerous process
o synaptic vesicles, filled with neurotransmitter o Support & insulate neurons
 Axoplasm- cytoplasm of axon, also present in o Hold blood vessels (provide nutrition to neuron)
synaptic knobs
o Repair of neuron
 Myelin sheath –
o Forms ‗Blood-Brain–Barrier‘(tight junctions)
o Phospholipid Sphingomyelin
 Microglia –
o Secreted by plasma membrane of Schwann cells (in
o Smallest with branching
PNS) & Oligodendrocytes (In CNS)
o Scavenger cells of CNS
o Acts as insulator/faster impulse conduction
o Phagocytic in nature
 Nodes of Ranvier –
o Mesodermal in origin
o gaps between myelin sheath
 Oligodendrocyte –
o Jumping / Saltatory conduction
o Formation of myelin sheath in CNS
 Schwann cells –
o Formation of myelin sheath in CNS
 Trick for neuroglia :
 Nerve is Glued to -Neuroglia
 SOMA – Schwann, Microglia, Oligodendrocyte,
Astrocyte

 Ganglion – Group of cytons in PNS

 Nuclei – Group of cytons in CNS
 Nerve – Groupof nerve fibre (Axon) in PNS  TYPES OF NEURON

 Tract– Group of nerve fibre in CNS  Basis=function

 Synapse – junction between two neurons o Sensory/ Affarent – sensory organ – CNS

 Ependymal cells : o Motor / Efferent – CNS – effector organ

o ciliated cuboidal epithelium o Mixed neuron

o lines the brain cavity

o pushes CSF forward
Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Breeds in rainy season

EARTHWORM COCKROACH & FROG  Oviparous

 External fertilization & Direct development in
cocoon, deposited in soil (avg.4 baby worms in 3
 Taxonomy (EARTHWORM) :
weeks)
 Phylum – Annelida
 EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY:
 Class – Oligochaeta
 Long, cylindrical body
 Order – Opisthopora
 100-120 segments / metameres
 Family – Megascolicidae
 True segmentation
 Genus – Pheretima
 First segment / buccal segment-PERISTOMIUM
 Species – Posthuma (contains mouth)
 Common name – North Indian earthworm  PROSTOMIUM- fleshy lobe overhanging 1st
segment (burrow formation & sensory)
 South Indian earthworm – Pheretima megascolex
 Last segment- PYGIDIUM (contains Anus)
 European earthworm – Lumbricus
o Pre-clitellar region –segment 1st to 13th
 Earthworm (Pheretima posthuma)
o Clitellar region- segment 14th to 16th (circular band
 Friends of farmers:-burrow & makes soil porous,
of glandular tissue, cocoon formation)
helps in respiration & penetration of developing
plant roots. o Post- clitellar region-segment 17th to last
 Vermicompost(manure)
 Vermicomposting (technique of increasing soil
fertility by earthworms)
 Vermiculture : Rearing of earthworms
 As bait in fish catching
 Terrestial(gardens,lawns, parks)-wet soil containing
rich organic matter( Humus)
 Fossorial-in burrow in upper layer of soil (made by
boring & swallowing soil)
 Noctural/Night crawlers –to feed & breed
 Rainy worms-come out even at day during monsoon
 Detrivorous-feed on dead organic matter &
decaying leaves  Dorsal surface – upper, dark mid-dorsal line( dorsal
blood vessel beneath skin)
 Worm casting(fecal deposits)- manure property
 Ventral surface – lower, several genital apertures
 Omnivorous
 Reddish brown due to Porphyrin Pigment
 Openings on surface of earthworm
 No special respiratory organ (cutaneous respiration)
through moist skin  Mouth- segment 1st
 Blood carries Hb (dissolved in plasma/  Anus-last segment
Erythrocruorin/ intercellular HB)& WBC like cells  Male genital pore-1 pair, ventro-lateral part of
(amoeboid cells) segment 18th (release sperm)
 Body fluid acts as hydraulic skeleton  Genital/ copulatory papillae-2 pair, ventro-lateral
 Bisexual part of segment 17th & 19th (hold worms together
during copulation)
 Cross fertilization (protandrous)

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Female genital pore- single, mid-ventral part of  Locomotion in earthworm :
segment 14th ( lay unfertilized egg)
 Setae-
 Spermatheca pore- 4 pair, ventro-lateral part of
o locomotory organ
inter-segmental groove of 5/6, 6/7, 7/8, 8/9 (receive
& store sperm from other earthworm) o S-shaped, chitinous
 Nephridiopores- absent in first 2 segments o Embedded in setal sac in epidermis (in rows)
(excretory openings)
o Present in all segments except segment 1st, last and
 Mid-dorsal pores- from inter-segmental septa 12/ clitellar regio
13, except last groove (ooze out body/ coelomic
fluid)  Body fluid-as Hydraulic skeleton

 Skin/Integument/Body wall - 4 layers(outer to

inner)
 Cuticle – thin, delicate Non cellular
 Epidermis – single layer of columnar epithelial
cells (glands&sensory cells), setal sac embedded
 Muscular layer (smooth) – outer circular
(Porphyrin) & inner longitudinal layer
 Pharynx- ingestion of food/sucking, by muscular
 Coelomic epithelium – lines body cavity
action
 Porphyrin – protection against UV Rays
 Gizzard- grinds food (thick muscular)
 Stomach- digest protein & neutralize Humic acid of
soil (calciferous glands)
 Intestine- main digestion & absorption of food
 Intestinal caecae- 1 pair
o lateral conical outgrowths from segment 26th upto
22/23th segment
o Secrete digestive juices
 Typhlosole
o median fold of mucus membrane, suspended from
intestinal roof
o Increase surface area of absorption
o From 26/27th segment except last 23-25 segments

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
o Ammonotelic in monsoon

 Nephridia regulate volume & composition of body

fluids
o A nephridium starts out as a funnel that collects
excess fluid from coelomic chamber.
o The funnel connects with a tubular part of
nephridium which delivers the waste through a pore
to surface in body wall or into digestive tube

 3 types of nephridia : location in body

o Integumentary –
 attached to body wall from 3rd to last segment
 Smallest
 200-250 in each segment
 2000-2500 in clitellar region ( FOREST OF
NEPHRIDIA)
 Exonephric
 Respiration o Pharyngeal :
 Cutaneous respiration –  3 pair of tufts of nephridia in 4, 5, 6th segments
o through moist skin  Enteronephric
o by epidermal cells-mucus & mid dorsal pores-  Excreted out as feces
coelomic fluid
o 3. Septal :Largest
o During monsoon-come out of burrow for respiration
(burrow becomes water logged)  On intersegmental septum from segment 15th upto
last segment
 Numerus (80-120 in each septum) on both sides
 Enteronephric

 Chloragogen cells –
 Yellow, star shaped, lipid deposits
 In coelomic fluid
 Formation of urea
 Formation & storage of glycogen
 Analogous to vertebrate liver

 Excretory system –
 Nephridia-
o main excretory organ
o Excretion & osmoregulation
o Main excretory product- urea (ureotelic)
Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals

 BLOOD VESSELS:
 Dorsal blood vessel-
o mid-dorsal line, above alimentary canal
o Largest BV of body
o Collecting from last to 14th segment
o Distributing in first 13 segments
o Thick walled
o Valves present

 Circulation in earthworm :  Ventral blood vessel-

 Closed C.S o Main distributing vessel, below alimentary canal

 Heart & loops o Runs from ant to posterior end of body (2nd to last
segment)
 Blood vessels
o No valves
 Blood
o Supply to alimentary canal, nephridia, reproductive
 Blood – organs etc.
 Hb (dissolved in plasma, red color to blood) –  Sub-neural –
erythrocruorin / intercellular Hb
o Below nerve cord
 Amoeboid cells ( WBC like, phagocytic, colorless)
üNo RBC & Platelet o From last segment to segment 14th

 BLOOD GLANDS- secrete Hb & blood cells o Collects blood from body wall, nerve cord
üSegment 4th, 5th, 6th (dorsal side)  Lateral-esophageal –
 Lymph glands– secrete phagocytes (=lymphocytes) o 1 pair on each side of alimentary canal
into body fluid
o Collects blood from segment 13th to 2nd
o From segment 26th upto last segment
o Formed by bifurcation of subneural blood vessels
 HEART( aortic arches) –
 Commissural –
 pumping,thick,muscular,pulsatile,valvular
o Connect sub neural to dorsal blood vessel
 4 pairs-
 Supra-esophageal-
 Lateral hearts –
o Collects blood from segment 9th to 13th (wall og
o 2 pair ( 1 pair each in segment 7 & 9) gizzard, stomach )
o Connect DBV TO VBV  Nervous system –
 Lateral – esophageal hearts-  Metamerically segmented
o 2 pairs (1 pair each in segment 12 & 13)  2 parts
o Connect DBV & Supra-esophageal BV to VBV  Nervous Ring
o One Pair of suprapharyngeal/cerebral ganglion
 ANTERIOR LOOPS- =Brain

 Non- pulsatile, thin, less muscular, non- valvular o One pair of subpharyngeal ganglion

 2 pairs ( 1 pair each in segment 10 & 11) o Circumpharyneal connectives

 Connect lateral esophageal BV to Surpa-esophageal

BV

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 A double, solid, ventral, nerve cord  Reproduction in earthworm:
o Segmental ganglia & segmental nerves  Bisexual / Monoecious / Hermaphrodite
o Arise from subpharyngeal ganglion  Cross fertilization due to Protandry (earlier
maturation of male gonads)
 Breeding- rainy season, at night
 External fertilization
 Direct development-no larva
 Male reproductive system :
 Testis-
o 2 pair, inside testis sac
o Segment 10th & 1 th
o Produce immature sperms (spermatophores)
 Seminal vesicle
o 2 pair
o Segment 1 th & 12th
 Receptors o Store & mature sperms
 Photoreceptors (light sensitive organ) – on dorsal  Vas deferens
body surface, max in first 2 segments (intensity &
duration of light) o 2 pair,From testis sac to segment 18th

 Gusto taste/olfacto/chemoreceptors : wall of  Prostate gland

pharynx o 1 pair
 Tactile/touch/epidermal receptors: on body o Segment 17th to 20th
surface in epidermis of skin (feel vibration in
ground) o Secrete prostatic fluid, activate sperms
 Male genital pore-
o 1 pair
o ventrolateral segment 18
o Release sprems & prostatic secretions into
spermatheca of another earthworm
 Accessory glands- Glandular
o 2 pair
o ventrolateral segment 17 & 19
o Bind two earthworm during copulation
 Each Male genital pore recieves 3 openings –
 2 vas deferens & one prostatic duct
 Female reproductive system
 Ovary –
o 1pair
o Intersegmental septum of segment 12/13
o Produce ova

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Genus – Periplanata
 Oviducts-  Species – americana
o 1 pair  Smallest cockroach – Blatta germanica
o Carry ovum from ovary to female genital pore
 Female genital pore-
o single, mid-ventral part of segment 14
o lay unfertilized egg


 Spermatheca –
 Habits and habitat :
o 4 pair, ventro-lateral part of inter-segmental groove
of 5/6, 6/7, 7/8, 8/9  Nocturnal, omnivorous

o receive & store sperm from other earthworm  Size – ¼- 3 inches (0.6 – 7.6 cm)

 Clitellum-  In dark damp places with organic matter

o form cocoon  Cursorial – limbs adapted to run

 Cannibal

 Copulation, fertilization & development :  Cosmopolitan

 Mating of earthworm – through ventral surface,  Unisexual, oviparous, sexual dimorphism

head opposite ( juxtaposition)  Spiral & determinate cleavage
 Mutual Exchange of spermatophores between  Residents of human homes & serious pests &
male genital pore & spermatheca vectors of diseases.
 Release of egg through female genital pore
 Clitellum secretes albuminous fluid & form ‗slimy  TRICK COCKROACH :-
tube‘
 Habits & Habitat :-
 Earthworm wriggles backwards & tube forwards
 Slimy tube meets sperms in spermatheca
 Slimy tube moves out of body of earthworm (called
COCOON-mature sperm, egg cells & nutritive
fluid)
 Cocoon deposited in moist, cool soil
 Periplanata americana:
 External fertilization inside cocoon
 Common / American / Ship Cockroach
 Direct development (2-20 baby worms, average 4,
produced after about 3 weeks)  Shape- narrow, elongated body
 Size- 3.4 – 5.3 cm
 Color- brownish-red
COCKROACH :
 Exoskeleton / cuticle : Chitinous, all over body
(impervious to water), brown color
 Taxonomy :
 Sclerite – chitin plate of each segment
 Phylum – Arthropoda
 Class – Insecta / Hexapoda
 Order – Orthoptera / Dictyoptera
 Family - Blattidae

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Antennae (1 pair) –
o long, filamentous, segmented, freely mobile, arise
from dorso-lateral side of head, just near eye
o Tactile & olfactory receptors( food identification)

o Longer in male cockroach

 Eyes-
o Simple (1 pair) – fenestrae/ocelli –
 vestigeal,detect light, no image formation
o Compound eye(1 pair)-
 Large, dark, kidney shaped
 On dorso-lateral side of head
 Organ of vision
 Functional unit – OMMATIDIA ( 2000 in each)-
Detect movement, even in dim light,Functionally
independent

 BODY –
o Apposition image/Mosaic image/vision
 External segmentation – 20 segment (embryo) & 14
 Percieve several images of an object.
segment (adult)
 More sensitivity & less resolution .
 3 parts :
 Nocturnal vision( common during night)
1.Head–segments6(embryo) & 1 (adult)
Mouth parts :
2. Thorax–segments3(embryo) & 3 (adult)
3.Abdomen–segments11(embryo) & 10 (adult) o Chitinous, around mouth
o Biting & chewing type
 Head – triangular, anterior body part  LABRUM(1) – upper lip, cover mouth from dorsal
side
 Orthognathus / Hypognathus- bent downward at
right angle to long axis of body  LABIUM / fused 2nd maxillae (1) – lower lip,
cover mouth from dorsal side
 Covered by 6 sclerites( chitin plates)
 MAXILLAE / 1st maxillae (2) - cheek, prevent fall
 Head Plates :- of food during mastication
o C – Clypeus (1) o Palp -pick up food & put in preoral cavity, clean
o E – Epicranial (2) antenna & wings
o F – Frons (1) – largest  MANDIBLE(2)- jaws, serrated margins (
DENTINE),chew & bite food
o G – Gena (2)

 HYPOPHARYNX – tongue, median flexible lobe

 Flexible small NECK – (non chitinus) within cavity enclosed by mouth
o short extension of Prothorax parts, common efferent salivary duct opens at base

o connects head to thorax

o great mobility of head in all directions

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals

 Mouth Parts :-
 Last tarsomere-called Pre-tarsus
o Bears 1 pair ‗Claws‘(rough surface)
o Bears ‗Arolium pads / Pulvilus (large adhesive pads)
– climb on wall (smooth surface)
 Plantulae - smaller adhesive pads, at each joint of
 THORAX – 3 Segments tarsus-climb on wall
 Prothorax – largest, carry neck, Pronotum (dorsal
tergum of thorax-Notum)
 WINGS – 2 TYPES
 Mesothorax – Mesonotum
o Protective / Forewing/ Tegmina / Elytra /
 Metathorax – Metanotum Mesothoracic wings – 1 pair
 Thick, dark, opaque, leathery, narrow
 1.LEG – 3 PAIR OF JOINTED LEGS, arise from  Protects / covers flying wings when at rest
each segment
o Prothoracic / Mesotharacic / Metathoracic legs
o Flying / Hindwing / Metathoracic wings-
o Each leg – 5 types of segments (total 9 segments)
 1 pair
 Coxa – broadest
 Thin, delicate, membranous, transparent, bilobed
 Trochanter – smallest
 Used in Flight
 Femur
 Tibia – longest
 ABDOMEN –
 Tarsus – consist of 5 tarsomeres (sub-segments)
o Longest & broadest body part
o Segments 11 ( embryo) & 10 ( adults)
 LEG SEGMENTS :
o Each segment has 4 sclerites
o Tergites- 10 in male & female
o Sternite - 9 (male) & 7 ( female)
o Visible segments- 9 (male) & 7 ( female)

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Structures in abdomen-  Genital pouch / Brood –
o Stink glands- between 5 & 6th segment, repel  Female – formed by 7th, 8th & 9th segment /
enemy & attract opposite sex sternite (7th sternum broad, long, boat shaped)
o Spiracles- 8 pair in abdomen on pleurite, act as  Male – formed by 9th,10th tergite (dorsally) & 9th
nostrils sternum (ventrally)
o Appendages- Anal cerci, Anal style (male) &  Anus –
Gonapophysis
 In 10th segment, just below 10th tergite
o Genital pouch
 Removal of fecal matter
o Openings- Anus & Genital openings
o * Anal cerci –
 Genital openings / Gonopore –
 In both male & female
 Male – just below anus, between 10th Tergum & th
 1 pair Sternum
 Long, segmented / jointed (15 segments)  Female – opens into genital chamber
 Arise from 10th tergum  ABDOMEN (Cockroach) :-
 Phonoreceptors ( percieve sound) Shahid gave 3G Sim –Spiracles (=Nostrils)
–G.Pouch, G.Aperture, Gonapophysis,Stink glands
And AC–Anus, Anal Cerci (Phonoreceptor)
 Anal style –
AS gift to Meera– Anal
 Only in male
Style in Males
 1 pair
 Small, thread like, unsegmented / unjointed
 Digestive system – Omnivorous
 Arise from 9th Sternum
 Alimentary canal
 Helps in copulation
o 3 parts-
 Foregut – Stomodaeum – Ectodermal-mouth, oral
cavity, pharynx, esophagus, crop & gizzard
 Midgut – Mesenteron- Endodermal
 Hindgut – Proctodaeum-Ectodermal –ileum, colon,
rectum, anus

 Digestive glands – Salivary gland

o 1 pair
o Attached to esophagus
o Bolus formation
o Carbohydrate digesting enzymes (Amylase,
Chitinase, Cellulase etc)
o 2 parts-
 Gonapophysis / Phallomeres-  Glandular part – secrete saliva
 In both male & female  Reservoir part - store saliva
 Chitinous plates surrounds genital aperture o Common efferent salivary duct opens at base of
Hypopharynx


Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Foregut – lined by Cuticle ----mouth, preoral  Air exchange through simple diffusion between
cavity, pharynx, esophagus tracheoles & body cell
o Crop – sac like, largest part of foregut, used for  No role of blood in respiration
storing food & 80% digestion
 Tracheal spiral rings ( Taenidium)- made of chitin
o Gizzard / Proventriculus – thick outer circular prevents collapsing
muscle & thick inner cuticle forming 6 highly
 Opens outside by 10 pairs of spiracles(valved) (2
chitinous plates - teeth, grinding of food
pairs thorax + 8 pairs of abdominal)
 Spiracles = nostrils ( air entry), on pleurites, cilia
 Stomodial valve – between foregut ( gizzard) & for air filtration
midgut
 1st & 3rd pair always open (valves non-functional)
 Midgut –
o 20% digestion & complete food absorption
 Mechanism of respiration –
o Secrete Peritrophic membrane around food, protect
 By rythmic contraction & relaxation of Tergo –
midgut wall from friction with hard food particles
Sternal Muscle
 Hepatic / Gastric caecae-
 Muscle relax→abdomen expand → inspiration ( air
o junction of foregut & midgut entry)
o 6-8 finger like blind tubules  Muscle contract → abdomen compress →
expiration ( air exit)
o secrete digestive juice

 Excretory System –
 Hindgut – broader than midgut
 Malpighian tubules –
o Ileum-spine break peritrophic membrane
o Main excretory organ
o Colon (longest, broad, coiled part of hindgut)
o At Junction of Midgut & Hindgut ( ileum)
o Rectum-absorption of water from undigested waste,
feces semisolid o 100-150 in no.
o Anus o Yellow, filamentous
o Lie in haemocoel
o Lined by glandular & ciliated cells
 Collect metabolic waste ( Potassium urate from
hemocoel, convert it into uric acid, release UA into
hind gut, excreted out with feces)
 Main excretory product – Uric Acid (
URICOTELIC)
 Fat body / Urate cells – in Peri-visceral sinus
 Nephrocytes – large ovoid cells attached to heart
wall ( binucleate )
 Uricose glands – only in male
o 2, 3, 4 : Storage excretory organs (store uric acid for
a longer time )
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM :
 Tracheal system – network of tracheal tubes,
subdivided into tracheoles
 most efficient

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Excretory System :  Alary muscle contraction → Peri-cardial sinus →
Ostia open → Heart

 Circulation in earthworm –
 Open type
o Blood vessels are poorly developed and open into
space ( haemocoel)
o Visceral organs bathed in blood (haemolymph)
o 3 sinuses & 2 partitions
 Peri-cardial sinus (contain Heart)
 Peri-visceral sinus (contain Gut)
 Peri-neural sinus (contain Nerve cord)
 NERVOUS SYSTEM :
 Blood- haemolymph  Nerve ring:
o Colorless Plasma & haemocytes (phagocytic, blood o Supra – esophageal ganglion = (brain) – supply
clotting) nerves to antennae & compound eyes
o No respiratory pigment o Circum – esophageal / Lateral connectives
o No role in respiration o Sub – esophageal ganglion
o transport nutrient, hormones
 Double, solid,ventral Nerve cord :
 Heart – o Arise from Sub – esophageal ganglion
o Elongated muscular tube, lying along mid dorsal o Fused segmental
line of thorax & abdomen o Ganglia & nerves
o 13 funnel shaped chambers with Ostia on either o 3 thoracic + 6 abdominal ( =9 segments)
side
o All nerves – mixed type
o Valvular opening between 2 chambers
 If head of cockroach is cut off, it will still live for as
o Alary muscles – 12 pair, fan shaped, contract long a one week ??
responsible for blood flow
 Head holds a bit of nervous system, while the rest is
situated along the ventral ( belly-side) part of its
 Blood from sinuses enter heart through ostia and is body
pumped anteriorly to sinuses again
 Anterior Aorta – continuation of 1st chamber of  SENSE ORGANS : -
heart, long tubular, opens into head sinus
 Photoreceptors – Compound eyes
 Blood ciculation :
 Thigmo / Tactile & Olfactoreceptors – Antennae
 Heart → anterior aorta → head sinus → Peri-neural
sinus → Fenestrae in ventral diaphragm → Peri-  Chemo/taste receptors – Maxillary&Labial Palps
visceral sinus → Fenestrae in dorsal diaphragm /  Auditory / Phonoreceptors – Anal cerci

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM :-  carry sperm from testis to ejaculatory duct, through
seminal vesicle
 Prothoracic gland (1) –
o Moulting hormone/ecdysone
o Seminal vesicle (1) –
o Help in moulting (shedding off exoskeleton /
cuticle)  at junction of vas and ejaculatory duct
o only in nymph  mature, store & glue sperm as sperm bundles called
‗spermatophores‘ (discharged during copulation)

 Corpora allata – 1 pair

o Ejaculatory duct (1) –
o Juvenile hormone / neotinin
 release sperm out trough male gonopore (ventral to
o control metamorphosis (keep nymph stage for long
anus)
period of time)
 secrete 2nd layer of spermatophore
o In adult- secrete Gonadotrophins ( control
reproductive activity )
o Mushroom gland / Utricular gland(1)
 Corpora cardiaca- 1 pair  6th-7th abdominal segment, associated with seminal
vesicle
o Control heart beat ( adult )
 Accessory reproductive gland
o Growth hormone ( growth of nymph)
2 parts of Mushroom gland –
 Urticular brevores – Small, inner tubes, secrete
nutritive fluid for sperm
 Utricular majores – large, peripheral tubes, secrete
1st layer of spermatophore

o Phallic / Conglobate gland (1) –

 club shaped, opens through separate pore,near male
gonopore
 Secrete 3rd layer of spermatophore, just at
copulation

 Endocrine System :-
o Genital pouch –
 9th & 10th tergite & 9th sternite
 Reproduction in cockroach :
 Receive opening of anus (dorsal), male gonopore
 Unisexual / dioecious (ventral ) and phhallic gland
 Sexual dimorphism ( anal style in male)
 Male reproductive system o Gonapophysis / Phallomeres –
o Testis ( 1 pair) –  Chitinous asymmertical structures, surrounding
 4-6th abdominal segment (lateral side) male gonopore

 produce immature sperm  External genitilia

 Help in copulation

o Vas deferens ( 1 pair) – Anal style

 arise from both testis

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
Left phallomere – largest, hooks, titillator,  Genital chamber –
pseudopenis small, anterior part
Right phallomere – hooks receive vagina through female gonopore, anus,
Ventral phallomere – hooks spermathecal opening, collaterial gland
 Oothecal chamber / vestibulum – ootheca is
formed

o Spermatheca ( 1 pair)
 In 6th abdominal segment
 Receive spermatophore from male
 Opens into genital chamber

o Collaterial glands( 1 pair)

 Branched (left larger)
 Secrete wall of Ootheca, around fertilized eggs

o Female gonapophysis / Ovipositor ( 3 pair) -

 Male Reproductive System :-  Chitin plates
 TVS→Testis, Vasa def, Seminal vesicle  Arrange eggs into 2 rows of 8 eggs each
 Mopad is→Mushroom gland  OOTHECA –
 Easy & Good→Ejaculatory duct, Gonapophysis  Dark reddish to blackish brown capsule
 Powerful Gaadi→Phallic Gland, Genital pouch  3/8 inches ( 8 mm) long
 Female reproductive system –  Contains 16 fertilized eggs ( in 2 rows)
o Ovary ( 1 pair)
 2-6th abdominal segment (lateral )
 Each ovary- 8 ovarioles (contain chain of
developing ova)
 Each ovary produce 8 eggs
 Both ovary Produce 16 eggs

o Oviduct (1 pair)
 Carry eggs from ovary
 join to form single median oviduct (= vagina)

o Vagina (1)
 posterior wider part of single median oviduct
 Female Reproductive System :-
 Copulate with male cockroach
 O2 is→Ovary, Oviduct
 Opens into genital pouch (genital chamber)
 Very Strong→Vagina, Spermatheca
 Component Of→Collaterial gland, Ovipositor

o Genital pouch – formed by 7, 8, 9th sternite  Gas mixture→Genital pouch

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Division–Gnathostomata
 Process of Reproduction –  Super class –Tetrapoda
 Copulation –  Class–Amphibia
o At night (March- September)  Order–Anura (tail less)

o Female release pheromones (volatile sex  Family–Ranidae

attractants)  Genus–Rana
o Male receive pheromone through antennae  Species–tigrina
o Insemination of spematophores into female body  Common name–Common Indian bull frog
o Male partner separates away
 Fertilization –
o Internal
o Between eggs from ovary & stored sperms from
spermatheca
o Inside genital chamber (genital pouch)

 Ootheca formation ( 16 fertilized eggs)

 Laying of ootheca by female – at cool, moist, dark
space ( usually in a crack or crevice of high relative  Habits and habitat :-
humidity, near a food source)  Amphibious-live on both land & water
 Early development inside ootheca  Fresh water bodies
 Hatching of ootheca – 14 – 16 Nymph ( larva )  Carnivorous (larva – herbivorous)
comes out
 Feed on moving animals (eyes sensitive to
 Indirect development/Paurometaboly or
movement)
Incomplete metamorphosis – development through
nymphal stage  Feed with long, protrusible, sticky tongue
 Nymph after 13 moultings – Adults  Near sighted vision
o Lacks wings  Walking, Jumping, leaping (jumping to shorter
o Lacks Mature reproductive organ distance)-land & swimming (water)
o The next to last nymphal stage has wing pads but  Neck absent (helps in swimming and jumping)
only adult cockroaches have wings  Hibernation ( winter sleep) & Aestivation(summer
 Eggs are Centro-lecithal sleep)
 Stadium – Time between 2 moultings  Croaking – sound by vocal cord (male -louder ),
 Instar – Nymphal stages mating call

 Female cockroach produce 9-10 ootheca in lifetime,  Metachrosis/Camouflague/Mimicry – due to

each containing 14 -16 eggs chromatophores in skin dermis, protection against
enemy
 Nymph into adult – 1 year
 Poikilothermic (cold blooded)
 Cranial nerves 10 pairs
FROG :
 Sexual dimorphism - in male

 Taxonomy : o Vocal sacs-

 Phylum–Chordata  1 pair

 Subphylum–Vertebrata / Craniata  croaking louder

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 balloon like pouches of skin o Membranous
 On floor of throat o receive sound waves
 Act like resonators
o Amplexusary / Nuptial / Copulatory pads  External nares / nostrils – 1 pair, at tip of snout,
above mouth
 Unisexual
 Eyes – 1 pair, large, spherical, protruding / bulged,
 External fertilization in water
dorso lateral on top of head
 Indirect development (larva - tadpole)
 Eyelids – 3 ( protection)
 Oviparous ( mesolecithal & telolecithal eggs)
o Upper – thick, pigmented, almost immovable
o Lower- thin, semi-transparent freely movable
 FROG TRICKS :-
o 3rd eyelid / nictitating membrane –
 Arise from lower eyelid
 Thin transparent
 Protect eye while in water and keep it moist in air
 Brow spot- vestigial pineal eye (mid dorsal between
eyes)

 Trunk – Flat, ovoid

 Limbs – 2 pair – unequal sized
 Morphology of frog : o Forelimbs – 1 pair, from anterior trunk, 4 digits
o Ovoid shape, dorso-ventrally flattened body (thumb rudimentary)
o Almost triangular head o Hindlimbs – 1 pair, from posterior trunk, longer &
stronger, more muscular, 5 webbed digits
o Dorsal- olive green with dark, irregular spots (swimming)
o Ventral –uniformly pale yellow surface  Note – Copulatory pad in male
o pads formed at base of index finger / 1st digit of
 Skin – forelimb

o glandular ( mucus glands), thin, moist, scale less o in breeding(rainy) season

( smooth), slippery o for clasping female

o Helps in respiration  Digestion in frog :

o Absorbs water ( frog never drink water) o Alimentary canal –

 Mouth to Cloaca

 Body – 2 parts  short because they are Carnivores

o Head & trunk ( neck & tail absent)  Length of Intestine reduced

o Larva- tailed
Head –

 Snout – short, blunt anterior

 Mouth – slit
 Tympanum / ear drum –
o 1 pair
Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Esophagus – short ( neck absent), no digestion
opens into stomach
 Stomach – left side of body cavity ( cardiac &
pyloric part)
o digestion starts, protein digestion
o Oxyntic cells- HCl
o Peptic cells – Pepsinogen ( activated by HCl into
Pepsin)
o Chyme – partially digested acidic food in stomach


 Intestine – longest part
Mouth – Opens into buccal cavity, which leads to esophagus
through pharynx o Deudenum & ileum – villi & microvilli increase
absorptive surface area
o Buccopharyngeal cavity –
 digestion completes (P, L, C, NA) & absorption of
Immovable upper jaws with teeth food
Movable lower jaw  Final digestion in intestine
 Deudenum receive Hepato -pancreatic duct
 Tongue –  Alkaline food = chyle
o fixed anterior end
o free posterior end  Rectum –
o long, protrusible, sticky, bilobed o receive & store undigested waste
o capture moving objects o absorption of water from undigested waste
o Protractor & retractor hypoglossal muscles o Opens into cloaca through anus
 Food is captured by bilobed tongue
 Cloaca –
 Teeth – o excrete feces through cloacal aperture
o Maxillary teeth – Only on upper jaw Digestive glands :
 Homophyodont ( similar)
 Liver – largest gland
 Polyphyodont (appear many times in lifetime)
o Reddish brown, multilobed gland
 Acrodont (fixed with adhesive -cement)
o Close to heart & lungs
 Not masticatory, injure prey & prevent fall off
o Secrete Bile – greenish alkaline fluid (fat
o Vomerine teeth – 2 patches, one on each Vomer Emulsification / digestion & absorption no
bone, near internal nares enzymes)
 Opening of internal nares o Hepatic ducts
 Opening of vocal sacs
 Opening of eustachian tube  Gall bladder – store bile, cystic duct
 Glottis o Common bile duct = hepatic ducts + cystic duct
 gullet
 Pancreas –
o Branched flat elongated pale yellow gland

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
o Located in loop between stomach & deudenum  Circulatory system :
o Secrete pancreatic juice ( digestive enzymes) o Lymphatic system –
o Hepato – pancreatic duct = common bile duct +  Lymph vessels & lymph capillary
Pancreatic duct
 2 pair lymph hearts
o Opens into deudenum
 Lymph – colorless - no RBC/ Platelet,more WBC
o Bulging of eye balls & raising up the throat help in (protective), slow clotting
pushing down the food towards esophagus (frog
 Lacteals – lymph capillaries in SI, transport of fat
blinks or closes eyes while swallowing)
 Closed type
o peristalsis
 Blood = plasma + RBC (nucleated with Hb) + WBC
+ Thrombocytes
 Respiration In Frog :
 Blood – red
 Cutaneous (thin, vascular, moist skin)-always (land
Hb inside RBC, oval biconvex Nucleated RBC
and water / hibernation/ Aestivation) by diffusion
WBC ( amoeboid, protective)
 Buccopharyngeal – only on land, through vascular
epithelium of buccopharyngeal cavity Platelet / thrombocyte ( spindle shaped,nucleated,
blood clotting)
 Pulmonary (lungs – alveoli )-only on land, in
Adults when O2 need more ( gills in tadpole)  Blood vessels- artery, vein, capillary
 On land – all above 3
 In water – cutaneous respiration  Heart –
 Respiratory System :-  Enclosed in pericardium ( double layered sac)
 Myogenic, auto-excitable
 Pumping muscular organ
 In mid-ventral thorax between 2 lungs
 3 chambered
 Lungs – o 2 atria + 1 ventricle
 1 pair  2 accessory chambers
 Elongated, pear shaped, pinkish, thin walled, o Sinus venosus, truncus arteriosus
elastic,sac like
 Present in upper part of trunk region  Atria –
 Air enters through nostrils into buccal cavity & then o receiving chamber (AIR)
into lungs  Ventricle-
 Sternohyal & Petrohyal muscles helps positive o pumping chamber (VIP)
ventilation
 No ribs  Sinus venosus-
 No role of chest muscles & diaphragm  Triangular bag like
o Mouth closes  On dorsal surface of heart
o Sternohyal muscle contracts → buccal cavity lowers  Receive deoxygenated blood from body through
→air enters through nostrils vena cava (2 precaval & 1 postcaval veins )

o Nostril close  Open into right atrium

o Petrohyal muscle contracts →buccal cavity elevates

→ air pushed into lungs

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Truncus / conus arteriosus-üConical sac - like
 On ventral surface of heart
 Arise from ventricle ( mixed blood)
 Divide into 2 aortic arches ( carotid artery, systemic
artery, pulmo-cutaneous artery)
 Distribute mixed blood to body
Endocrine system : Ductless glands üSecrete
Hormones

 Pineal, Pituitary ( master gland)

 Thyroid – thyroxine control metamorphosis
 Parathyroid, Thymus, Pancreas, Adrenal, Gonads

 Nervous system :
 Central nervous system = Brain + spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system=
 Incomplete double (Single )circulation
o Cranial nerves- from brain, 10 pair
 Renal & hepatic portal system seen
o Spinal nerves- from SC, 9 pair (10th reduced/absent)
 Hepatic portal system –
 Autonomic nervous system – control involuntary
 Characteristic feature of all vertebrates activity of viscera
 Hepatic portal vein o Sympathetic ANS – in emergency
 Bring deoxygenated blood (with absorbed nutrients) o Parasympathetic ANS-in relaxed state
from intestine( GIT) to liver
o Glucose → glycogen (stored)
 Brain –
o Ammonia → urea ( excretory product)
 Forebrain-
o Blood proteins added
o Olfactory lobes – 1 pair, control smell sense
o Detoxification
o Cerebral hemispheres-1 pair, control voluntary
activity
 Renal portal system- o Diencephalon-1, pituitary & pineal gland, control
ANS
 Renal portal vein
 Midbrain –
 Bring deoxygenated blood from hind / lower part of
body into kidney o Crura cerebri – Connect fore & hindbrain
 Offload deoxygenated nitrogenous waste rich blood o Optic lobes –2 ( Corpora Bigemina ),involved in
from lower parts of body into kidney visual
 Hindbrain-
 Renal portal system: o Cerebellum-maintain body balance
 Well developed in fish and amphibia o Medulla oblongata- control involuntary activities
(HR, RR, Peristalsis etc)
 Reduced in reptiles and birds
 Absent in mammals(human)
 Spinal cord-
 Continuation of medulla oblongata trough Foramen
 Imp. Points about C.S. Magnum
Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
 Enclosed in vertebral column o Structural & functional Unit – Nephron /
Uriniferous tubules (about 2000 in each ) – form
 Control reflex action
urine
o Adrenal gland – on ventral surface, 1 pair,
endocrine gland
o Fat body – at apex of kidney, finger like yellow
colored, store fat (used during dormancy)

 Ureter – 1 pair
o Carry urine from kidney to cloaca (dorsal wall)
o Urino-genital duct in male(carry both urine &
sperms)
 Sense organs –
 Organ of sight (photoreceptor) – Eyes -1 pair,  Cloaca –
monocular vision
o Single, Posterior median chamber
 Organ of smell (olfactoreceptors)-Nasal chamber
o Receive feces, urine & gametes
epithelium
o Opens outside body through a single cloacal
 Organ of taste (gustatoreceptor) –Taste buds on
aperture
tongue
 Organ of touch ( tangoreceptor)-sensory papillae /
Nerve endings in skin  Urinary bladder –
 Organ of hearing & balance (stato-acoustic o single, large, thin walled, transparent, elastic,
receptor) - Ear, represented by Tympanum ( IE + bilobed
ME, 1 columella auris bone)
o Opens into ventral wall of cloaca
o Stores urine temporarily
 Excretion in frog :
 Excretory wastes are carried by blood to kidneys,
 Main excretory product – where it is separated & excreted
o Adult – urea
o Tadpole – ammonia  Excretory System :-
 Kidney-1 pair
 Ureter-1 pair
 Urinary bladder-1
 Reproductive system :
 Cloaca – 1
 Unisexual
 Sexual dimorphism
 Kidney-1 pair
o Main excretory organ
 Male reproductive system :
o In posterior side of body cavity on either side of
vertebral column  No copulatory organ
o Mesonephric kidney Testis –
o Shape – Oval bean, dorsoventrally flattened o 1 pair
o Color – dark red o ovoid, pale yellow

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
o adhered to upper part of kidney by Mesorchium (  Oviducts – 1 pair
double fold of peritoneum)
o Pick ova from body cavity & carry into cloaca
o sperm formation (in seminiferous tubules)
o 3 parts-
o Functionally related to kidney
 Oviducal funnel-anterior broad cliated (pick eggs)
 Body-middle, long coiled
 Vasa efferentia –
 Ovisac- posterior, sac like, store ova & open
o 10-12 tubules from each testis dorsally into cloaca
o Run transversely through mesorchium
o Enters kidney & open into Bidder‘s canal
o Carry sperms into Bidders canal in kidney

 Bidder’s canal –
o 1 pair
o Pour sperms into urino-genital duct

 Urino-genital duct/ureter –
o 1 pair
o Carry sperms & urine into cloaca

 Cloaca –

 Cloaca –

 Process of reproduction-
 Breeding – rainy season
 Mating call ( croaking) by male
 Amplexus / pseudo-copulation:
o Male climbs over female to grasp female with
copulatory pads
 Female reproductive system –  Induced ovulation :
 Ovary – 1 pair, near kidneys o Due to stimulus by male, female release ova into
water (2500-3000 ova at a time)
o Irregular shape
 Simultaneously male release sperms into water
o Form ova
 Male releases grip & leaves the female
o Connected to kidney by mesovarium  External fertilization inside water
o No functional or internal connections with kidney  Indirect development – free swimming aquatic
o Ovarian wall ruptures & release eggs into peritoneal larva called ‗Tadpole‘
cavity  Metamorphosis into adult –
o Quick growth

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
 Structural Organisation in Animals
o Limbs appear gradually
o Tail shortens
o Formation of eyelids
o Formation of skin glands
o Thickening of skin
o Development of ear drum to lock middle ear
o Disappearance of tail at higher thyroxine level
o After reabsorption of tail, it is ready to leave water

 Tadpole :
o Aquatic
o Fish like tailed
o Respiration by gills & skin
o Herbivorous
o Excretory product ammonia

 Importance to mankind –
 Eats insects which are harmful for crops, Saves
expenditure on insecticides
 Eats mosquitoes, vectors for disease causing
parasites
 Maintain ecological balance in nature, an important
link in food chain & food web
 Leg muscles as food
 Experimental material for teaching & researches

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005