FORMVVORK P.S. McAdam and G.W. LeeFORMWORK a practical approach Peter S. McAdam PhD, MIEAY ‘st cP’ Geoffrey Lee BSc, CEng, MICE, CDipAF‘1:29PM Sat 25 Mar 759% mw) Published by Taylor & Francis 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA First issued in hardback 2017 Taylor & Francis is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business First edition © 1997 Peter S. McAdam ISBN 13: 978-1-138-40885-2 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-419-22820-2 (pbk) Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the ‘case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be vento the publishers atthe London adress printed on thi page The publisher makes no representation, express or impli it Contained in this book and cannot acept ey eal esponstilty or fablity for any eros or omissions tat may be made, ‘A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright Page 3.0f 200 y‘1:29PM Sat 25 Mar TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS General principles, quality, safety, construction (design and management) regulations, structural requirements, strength, stability, stiffness, sliding, overturning, uplift, sdesway; Expected loading and construction effects, concrete pressure, material loads, construction Joading, impact, environmental loads; The construction process, load action, exenticiy, load limits and failure, failure mode, progressive collapse, Economy, learning curve, construction joints, care and maintenance, information from project documents Material properties, strength, stiffness, impact resistance, durability, weight, ‘accuracy, compatibility, insulation, staining, damage; Framing materials, solid timber ‘manufactured sections, stel, aluminium; selection, solid timber, steel, GRP, GRC, foam plastic, particle board; Release ‘agents, types, uses; Fixings, nals, screws, bolts: Proprietary equipment, devices and components. CHAPTER 3: GROUND FORMS Problems of ground forms; Edge forms, keyed, dowelle, reinforcement continuity, \watersops, cantilevered; Footings, isolated, pedestal forms, strip footings, eccenic footings, kicker forms, CHAPTER 4: WALL FORMS Contents General, single faced forms, Double faced forms, loading, hoisting, climbing, horizontal walr forms, load pats, veical waler forms, form type selection; Wall tying systems, he-bots, coll ties, she-olts, through tis, snap tes, bar tis, installation; Wall form fabrication and selectlon, bracing wall forms; Construction etals; plywood fixing, fame fixing, sop ends, consruction joins, kickers and kickerlss constriction, spaniel wall, comer details, form junctions, surface features, saoove forms, recess forms, cast-in features, penetration fonns, controling the top of the pour, access platform, hoisting forms, pilaster piers, separate construction of pilasters, wall thickness variations, access panels Proprietary systems, details types for large forms; Curved walls, plywood radii, large radius walls, stripping, Propritary systems, use of straight sections, Single faced forms, overtuming, anchorage, tie backs, sloping, comer tying. 16 26 36 = 59% ml) 40f 200 y‘1:29PM Sat 25 Mar CHAPTER 5: COLUMN FORMS General, concrete pressures, accuracy requirements, stripping problems; Rectangular ‘columns, proprietary, column clamps, purpose-made column forms; Conventional forms, use of clamps, comer details, aris forms, erection, horizontal walers, other clamping systems, perimeter strapping; Two-part column forms, edge connections; Hinged forms, details, eccentic hinge; Large rectangular forms, intemal ties; ‘Circular column forms, types, stripping; General form detalls, kickers, kickeress construction, starter bars, base sealing, marking the top, bracing, hoisting, access platforms; Gang forming, principles, details; Spectal column shapes, examples. CHAPTER 6: SOFFIT FORMS Design principles, stages of construction and loading, consttion philosophy, causes of collapse; Conventional sofMt forms, use of plywood, framing, joists, bearers, eccentricity, lapping; SofMt form footings, multi-storey, on blinding slab, footing deals, footing stiffess; Support systems, props, frames, types and fitings, multi-storey frames, modular systems, details of erection; Construction etal, junction to walls edge forms, construction joints, top-step forms, penetrations, minor set-downs, sloping forms, horizontal tolerances, tolerance gap; Stripping types, undisturbed supports, back propping, reshoring, removing components; Aluminum beams, use of; Floor centres, loading, twisting, end support, stripping: Quick strip systems, examples, procedures for use CHAPTER 7: BEAM FORMS General, loading, pressures, transmitting loads, a dangerous case, instability, load paths, stripping principles; Beam form bases, plywood deflection, wide beams; Beam form sides, floor ceatre softs, joists to beam sides, separate support systems, plywood support, tolerance gap; Deep beams, tes for deep beams; Junction of beams of difering depth; Edge beams, instability, safety, buil-in anchors; Upstand beams; Proprietary beam support sysicms; Conerete encasing steel, precautions, problems; Multiple Tee beams, principles, techniques; Walle slabs, CHAPTER 8: STAIR FORMS Principles, loads; Detalls, strutting, riser forms, connection to walls, improved riser forms, metal edge riser forms; Precast stairs, forms. CHAPTER 9: PERMANENT FORMS Definition; Materlals, timber, galvanized steel, concrete, GRC, fibre reinforced sheet, foam plastic, cardboard; Examples: Ground forns, Wall forms, precast concrete, Column forms, Sofi forms, void forms, fibrous plaster, cardboard tubes, precast concrete, Beam forms, Star forms. BIBLIOGRAPHY Contents 86 112 152 172 176 187 759% mw) 5 of 200‘1:29PM Sat 25 Mar * FOREWORD Formwork costs are a significant part of the total price of a concrete structure. The value of materials and equipment used in formwork may represent 60% of the builder's on-site invest- ment, and formwork is often the critical activity that controls the total time of construction of the project. To optimise formwork costs and minimise its construction times, the contractor needs knowledge of the guiding principles of safe and efficient formwork construction, insight into the relative merits of the many available methods, and knowledge of practical details for its efficient construction. This book, which is intensely practical, addresses these areas. In many cases more than one solution is given for a particular construction problem. The text is clear and readable, and the multitude of diagrams show both principles and practice in great detail. This book is aimed at the hands-on people of the construction industry, the carpenters, the foremen, the supervisors and the inspectors. As a result itis also a basic text for the building educators and their students, apprentices, building cadets and construction management trainees. It belongs in the work kit of every one of them. KJ. Lyngeoln Executive Engineer Plywood Association of Australia Contents 6 0f 200 y‘29PM Sat 25 Mar oe = a « PREFACE ‘Amongst the many trades on a typical building site, the role and responsibilities of the formworker are unique. There are few restrictions placed on his choice of working techniques. In contrast, other trades are constrained by the most precise directions, For the structural steelwork all sizes, connections, fixings and painting are defined in detail. Reinforcement grades, sizes, positions, laps and tolerances are all predetermined, Joinery is exhaustively detailed, colour schemes are prescribed, and furnishings selected. Compared to this, the formworker is almost permitted to be a free spirit. Most times, the only constraints are mandatory requirements on the concrete surface quality and accuracy, together with the builder’s demands on cost and time. Outside this, he chooses his own formwork system, selects his ‘materials and components, and devises the general arrangement and the details of construction. With this much freedom of choice it is not surprising that there has been so much innovation in formwork construction. The formwork industry has always been quick to adapt new products to its own purposes. Sadly, however, very few of these details have been recorded so others can leam. As a result, many of them have been reinvented, perhaps many times. One of my aims in writing this book has been to record this information, to show the ‘tricks of the trade’. All of the techniques described have been seen on sites, and been seen to be practical answers to a problem. Some older techniques have also been included where I have thought they can still be useful. The use of fibrous plaster for permanent forms is an example of this, With the other trades on the site, the responsibility for the success o failure of what they do can be said to be shared between them and the designers of the building. The formworker does not have that protection. The latitude of action that he has in all that he does, brings with it the full responsibility for the quality and safety of the formwork. The formworker must understand all the matters that affect quality and safety, and devise the formwork accordingly. To aid this understanding this book generally approaches formwork from this viewpoint, the function, the forces and the consequences. After this, each area deals with details of construction. This book is not concemed with the structural design of formwork; that is another and separate topic. Few sizes of members or fixings are given. This book is intended as a practical guide to efficient formwork construction. It is confined to the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of formwork. However, no book can cover every detail and every situation. The formworker must look at every particular case and be sure that it will produce the required quality with safety at all times. If he is not certain, he should seck expert advice. The causes of collapse are many and the things that initiate them can often be subtle. One of the messages within the book is the need for continuous vigilance in construction, at formwork inspection and during the concrete placement. Further, not every type of formwork has been described. Constraints of size and cost have limited the range of the book. More advanced and exotic types of formwork, like self-climbing wall forms and table forms have been left for another volume, Also, there is only a limited amount of information given on scaffolding, guard rails, access ways and ladders. These are usually the subject of regulatory requirements, Their absence from the text or the illustrations must not be taken to mean that they are unnecessary; indeed they are vital. It is the formworker's responsibility to ensure that all these safety requirements are met. In writing this book I have received help and encouragement from my friends at the Plywood ‘Association of Australia and the Cement and Concrete Association of Australia. My sincere thanks to these people. Another major factor in the completion of the book has been the continuous encouragement I have received from my wife Wendy. She has endured this seemingly perpetual distraction with equanimity and forbearance. 7 f iti don a Contents 759% mw) Q 7 of 200‘1:29PM Sat25 Mar oe CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW ‘A number of fundamental principles apply to all formwork. They relate to the use of appropriate materials and standards of workmanship, construction for ease of erection and stripping, and care and maintenance of the formwork so that the maximum number of re-uses can be achieved. Even though formwork is usually only temporary construction, as much care must be taken with this temporary work as is taken with permanent work. Indeed, because it is @ work area as well as a mould for the fluid ‘concrete, the requirements are more stringent and the responsibilities of the formworker often much greater. The skilled and experienced formworker has knowledge that could contribute much to the optimisation ‘of building costs and speed of construction but is rarely involved in either. The decisions that control formwork efficiency are usually made by others. The formworker is usually presented with a fait accompli. The formwork must then be designed to suit the dictates of the building design, the restrictions of the construction documents. and the builders decisions. ‘Although this book is directed principally towards the ‘how-to’ of basic formwork construction, some of the matters that relate the shape of the concrete to formwork efficiency, reduced costs and enhanced speed of construction are covered in the relevant chapters. ‘Three general principles govem formwork design and construction: QUALITY SAFETY ECONOMY. ‘These three matters are not separate and unrelated Experienced formworkers know that itis a false economy to reduce quality. Further, if the formworker feels safe, this will lead to more production and thus reduced costs. ‘Throughout this book, even if they are not specifically mentioned, these three principles are fundamental to all the matters described. In this chapter their further discussion will relate ‘Quality’ to the quality of the concrete structure being produced, ‘Safety’ to both personal safety and formwork loading, and ‘Economy’ to the matters that affect the total effective cost of formwork and the contribution of this 10 the total cost of the concrete structure. ‘The activity of formwork construction, its concreting and. subsequent stripping, can also have a significant loading effect on the permanent concrete structure being built. “The design engineer for the permanent structure may place restrictions on the formworkers activites. The formworker must ensure that full INFORMATION has been supplied on these and any other requirements. that will influence the materials, methods of use and quality of the formwork. A general list of the range of matters that should be included in the information given to the formworker is the last topic covered in this chapter. CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW QUALITY Quality, as it relates to the formed faces of the permanent concrete structure, refers to two aspects: the ‘accuracy of the concrete shape and the quality of the surface. Surface quality refers to texture and can, where specified, include consistency of colour. For accuracy in the concrete, the starting point is formwork which must remain acceptably accurate when loaded. The loads come from the fresh concrete and the work in placing and compacting that concrete. Stiff formwork, that has a limited and predictable deflection under load, is essential. However, formwork deflections are not the only source of deviations in the lines and planes of concrete faces. ‘The permitted deviations (tolerances) in the materials and components used, and the expected innaccuracies in ‘workmanship, also contribute to the total deviations. For ‘example, minor steps can occur in the concrete face at positions where sheets of plywood abutt. These can be caused by the permitted variations in the manufactured thickness of plywood of the same nominal thickness. Face Step in the Concrete Surface Codes of practice and the contract documents give ‘maximum permitted values for these total deviations. By definition these are called TOLERANCES. In the design and construction of the formwork care must be taken to ensure that the anticipated total deviations are smaller than the tolerances by a significant margin. To minimise deviations, all formwork must have adequate means of alignment and adjustment both at the construction joints and throughout the formwork. In the following chapters, on the various categories of forms, the ‘means of achieving this will be shown. They include such devices as simple wedges, screw adjustments on supports, and camber adjustments. Lack of stiffness in the formface can also affect surface quality of the concrete in two ways. Firstly, flexible form faces will often fluctuate in response to the ‘vibrators used to compact the concrete. The release agent, applied to the formface to prevent adhesion, may become ‘emulsified and react with the cement. The result will be unacceptable dark patches on the concrete. Secondly, formwork that deflects excessively will usually leak’ at its joints, and this in tum can have two 8 0f 200 y129 PM Sat 25 Mar 2 FORMWORK effects. In the first instance the grout and moisture loss will result in honey-combing and dark hydration staining of the concrete face. Beyond this, the escaping grout will fill gaps in the form structure and between the edges of the plywood sheets of the formface. By effectively locking up these gaps, this grout loss makes stripping of the formwork more difficult The formwork is not the only factor that influences the achievement of quality in the conerete surface. Other important matters are the details of the concrete shape, the quantity and disposition of the reinforcement, the quality of the concrete used, the efficiency of its placement and consolidation, and the final acts of stripping. the forms and curing and protecting the concrete. The production of high quality concrete surfaces is a special and extensive area of study in itself. It is a minor part of this volume, which is directed towards the achievement of accurate, safe and efficient formwork for general construction work. SAFETY CONSTRUCTION (DESIGN AND. MANAGEMENT) REGULATIONS. In Europe the responsibilities of the designers, supervisors and operatives concerning worksite safety have been defined and formalised in recent years following the Temporary and Mobile Worksites Directive adopted by the European Union ‘Council of Ministers in 1992. In Britain these became law by introduction of the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations implemented in 1995 and similar legislation is in force throughout the European Community. There are a num: ber of subsidiary sets of regulations relating to workplace safety, use of equipment, personal protection and handling of loads ete, which are all relevant to formorking operations In essence the CDM regulations, as they are widely known, seek to ensure that all hazards associated with a con- struction operation are identified and that all risks are assessed and reduced as far as is practicable before the oper- ation commences. This is done in two stages Firstly, a worksite policy and procedure concerning all aspects of safety planning is implemented. The client appoints 8 Single individual or a company as Panning Supervisor. One Of the responsibilities of the Planning Supervisor is the compi- lation of a Health and Safety Plan which incorporates sa procedures developed by the various organisations on the worksite. This Health and Safety Plan has a permanent role in determining both how the structure is built and how it should be maintained during its life span Secondly, at a more detailed level, a procedure and risk assessment are prepared for each individual operation, such as ‘erection of formwork for wall pour in eastern bridge abutment” ‘or “concreting second storey floor slab’ Inthe early stages of a ‘worksite these assessments can be quite time consuming but ‘once a routine is established many of the operations are repeti- tive and previous assessments are update for local or particular hazards such as the proximity of live electricity cables or hand- ling problems caused by the limits of a crane’ lifting capa The formwork supervisor will liaise with the safety supervisor concerning the design of the formwork, method of handling, erection and concreting, and will decide the construction sequence and safety precautions needed. ‘Manufacturers’ instructions will be needed for all proprietary ‘equipment. Input from individual formworkers familiar with certain aspects of the work should be invited. Following the risk assessment the agreed procedure is then communicated CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW 759% mw) to the formwork team and the supervisor and operatives must ensure that the procedure is followed and that any necessary amendments are similarly evaluated before their adoption Safety has two major aspects: the personal safety of people, both the formworkers and the public, and the safety of the formwork structure Formwork assemblies, such as soffit forms for slabs, are a work area as well as a mould for the fresh concrete When the formworkers have finished, steel fixers will place reinforcement and conduits and piping will be placed by electricians and plumbers, For efficiency itis necessary that workers feel secure, and be secure, while working on this formwork. To this tend, not only must the general form structure be safe, but the perimeter of the form must have effective guard rails with toe boards, access ladders and stairs, all secured in position. The formworkers should be equipped with safety helmets and boots. For special cases on high work, safety hamesses and secunty screens may be needed. ‘Working in Salty The safety of the formwork structure starts with its design. This must include the evaluation of all. the probable combinations of load at each of the stages of formwork use. In summary these are: STAGE 1: before the placement of the concr This can be while it is being built, or while it is being relocated from another position, eg. table forms. STAGE 2: during the placement of the concrete, STAGE 3: after the concrete placement when it continues to provide support until the jeoncrete can suppor itself. 901 200 y733 PM. Sat 25 Mar Example of Stage 2 Loading ‘The formwork structure must not become unsafe al any time during any of these three stages. None of the components should be dislodged, become loose or unwind under the influence of the construction work. For example, the vibration from immersion vibrators may tend to cause the screw jacks on frames to wind down. ‘This docs not usually occur with well designed equipment. Similarly, vibration can loosen wedges; they should be nailed to prevent movement STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS. There are two important aspects to structural safety: STRENGTH and STABILITY, and a further one needed so the form can produce ' an accurate structure: FFNESS. STRENGTH simply means that the formwork structure rust be able to safely carry the anticipated loads. This does not only mean being safe when all the loads are applied, (Figure 1.01) but also being safe when the siructure is only partly loaded and when the load is rogressively increasing. (Figure 1.02) ‘CONCRETE POUR COMPLETED Figure 101 - FORM FULLY LOADED a CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW Figure 1.02 - LOADING PROGRESSING The illustrations show a simplistic example which does not have any apparent problem in catering for the increasing loading. Other examples where this situation can be quite critical are given later in the book. Movement — Lt fomq Figure 1.03 - SLIDING OF THE FORM. For STABILITY four cases are examined: Sliding, ‘Overturning, Uplift, and Sidesway, These problems are most often found in'soffit form structures. Sliding is the movement of the total form sideways (Figure 1.03) This can occur by wind or water action. Sliding can also occur in a pan of a formwork arrangement ‘THRUST FROM FLUID CONCRETE EXISTING BUILDING Figure 1.06 - BRACING AGAINST MOVEMENT a 10 of 200 y‘1733 PM. Sat 25 Mar 4 FORMWORK Figure 1.04 shows a soffit form where the edge beam is poured against the wall of the adjacent property. The pressure of the concrete against the wall causes that part Of the formwork to slide with resulting misalignment of the inner beam face. A row of extra diagonal braces is needed to resist the sideways movement of the beam formwork and its suppor. Overtuming of a soffit form is shown in Figure 1.05. Tall, narrow form assemblies with the lightly loaded formwork of Stage 1 are vulnerable to wind loading. Guy ropes are usually needed until the weight of the concrete improves the stability in Stage 2. (Figure 1.06) For very tall forms the guys may have to stay in place until the concrete has developed strength and it can provide the bracing effect movement Figure 1.06 - GUY ROPES ON A TALL FORM Figure 1.05 also shows the form uplifting on one side. ‘Cases of uplift can occur, in a wide range of situations, to whole form assemblies ‘and within form assemblies. A Figure 1.07 - UPLIFT OF THE END OF A BEARER CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW simple example is shown in Figure 1.07 where the ‘overloading of one span of a two span continuous beam causes the unloaded end to lift up. If the prop is not secured it will fall over. Figure 1.08 shows Sidesway. This is simply the result of inadequate bracing. Because horizontal forces can act from any direction, bracing must be provided in at least two directions at’ right angles to each other. Where permitted, connection to previously constructed permanent ‘work can be a most efficient form of bracing. Otherwise the formwork assembly must be braced by effective framing within the formwork assembly. MOVEMENT Figure 1.08 - SIDESWAY Stiffness of the formwork is its ability 10 resist deformation under load. Design for stiffness means more than just catering for the deflection of the various members when fully loaded. It also includes consideration ‘of progressive increases in deflection with increasing load. nes LONG SPAN BETWEEN WALL TIES fa ‘PROGRESSIVELY INCREASING DEFLECTION Figure 1.09 - PROGRESSIVE WALL FORM DEFLECTION Figure 1.09 shows an example of a wall form where the wall ties have been specified to be a large distance apant vertically, perhaps even 4 metres. ‘The most important design aspect of this form is progressive deflection. As the pour progresses up the form, the bending effect on the form will increase with resultant increases in deflection. This will only be a minor problem while the full depth of the concrete remains fully fluid. ‘The mass of fluid concrete will move the very small amount to remain in contact with the form face. However, when the initial set of the lower concrete commences "before completion of the pour, then any Mof 200 y1795 PM Sat 25 Mar further progressive deflection of the form will move the formface a very short distance away from the stiffened ‘concrete. Surface discolouration of the concrete will result. ‘Very stiff formwork framing is needed to minimise this effect. ‘The deflection limitations for such cases must be much smaller than those permitted for wall forms where the wall ties can be closer together. AA similar situation has to be guarded against in tunnel forms. (Figure 1.10) As the concrete placement progresses the forms are subject to uplift and bending actions that tend to distor the shape. Stiffness is @ paramount design criterion. Figure 1.10 ~ TUNNEL LINING FORMWORK Every part of the formwork assembly has a requirement for an appropriate level of stiffness. Footings, critical part of soffit. forms, also have stiffness requirements. These must be constructed to give a uniform, predictable and small movement under load. Differential movement as shown in Figure 1.11 is not acceptable. DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT v SOLE PLATE HAS SUNK ‘Figure 1.11 - DIFFERENTIAL SUPPORT MOVEMENT Further, foundation soil movement over a period of time, known as creep, is totally unacceptable. This is not only’ results in more’ deformation of the form but also deformation of the concrete while it is setting. Such movement can make the concrete structure unserviceable, In that case, demolition is the only course of action. The problems of footings to soffit formwork are covered in much more detail in Chapter 6, Expected Loading and Construction Effects. ‘This book is concemed with the practical aspects of devising and constructing formwork, and not with the structural calculations of formwork desion. Nevertheless. CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW ‘FseK mr) OVERVIEW 5 it is important that the nature and sources of the many loads that act on the formwork be understood, 30 that & safe and workable formwork assembly can be’ built ‘The total loads that act on the formwork should not be thought to be limited to the precise sum of the load of the documented concrete shape, the formwork, the building equipment and expected environmental effects (e.g. wind). In the real world of formwork, things do not always go 10, plan; concrete can be temporarily overpoured, the wind ‘can exceed expectations and equipment use can cause bigger loads than anticipated, ‘Care_must be taken when estimating loads, and reasonable and realistic overloads must be considered. ‘Allowance must be made for the reasonably forseeable abuse of equipment as well as normal procedures. 1. Self weight Al formwork systems carry theit own weight at all stages. Most reusable formwork is relatively light, such as, that made from plywood and timber, but there are a few ceases where the self weight can be significant. Examples of this are large structural steel forms for civil engineering projects and precast concrete permanent formwork units. (Refer to Chapter 9) ‘These loads act in Stages 1 and 2 and for at least part of Stage 3. 2. Concrete loads on vertical forms. Formwork for vertical concrete elements, such as ‘columns and walls are subject to pressures on the formface from the fluid action of the fresh concrete. This is a Stage 2 load. The pressure of the fluid concrete on the vertical faces increases proportionately with the depth of concrete; the maximum pressure being at the bottom of the form. PRESSURE AGAINST FORM INCREASES WITH DEPTH HyoROsTATIC ‘PRESSURE DEPTH OF POUR vnc PRESSURE PRESSURE DIAGRAM FLUID CONCRETE PRESSURE ‘This maximum value for the pressure for the full depth fluid concrete is the hydrostatic pressure for concrete and usually occurs when the concrete is placed very quickly. However, with slower pours the concrete at the bottom will gain it initial set and this maximum pressure reduces. ‘The bottom concrete is no longer fluid. Figure 1.13 shows, the pressure graph at four points in time during a ‘continuous pour. As the pour progresses towards the top of the form, the lower concrete is getting older and its active neessie i redhicino fie Y20f 200 y1795 PM Sat 25 Mar 6 FORMWORK \, LINE OF HvOROSTATICL Figure 1.13 - CONCRETE SETTING REDUCES PRESSURE If the pouring rate is very fast, then the concrete will have less time to set before the pour is completed, and the hydrostatic. pressures on the forms will not be reduced very much. (Figure 1.14) DEPTH OF POUR Figure 1.14 - PRESSURES WITH A FAST POUR Conversely, a slow pour gives more time for setting of the concrete with resulting lower pressures. (Figure 1.15) DEPTH OF PouR onessune Figure 1.15 - PRESSURES WITH A SLOW POUR Variations in the basic rate of setting of the concrete will also affect this maximum design pressure. A fast setting rate would give a lower design pressure, and a slow setting rate, which will result if the concrete temperature is low, will give a higher pressure. ‘The factors that have been found to control the design pressure are the concrete density, the pour height, the vertical rate of pour, the height of the discharge of the concrete, the concrete temperature, the cement type, the admixtures in the concrete and the plan dimensions of the concrete element being poured. The effect of these is summarised in Table 1.1, below. CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW ‘FseK mr) TABLE Ll FACTORS CONTROLLING CONCRETE PRESSURE ON FORMS. ‘A. Conese density Al presresare proportional tothe density of the concrete wth normal compacted concrete having a density of 200 ky’ 1B. Pou height Higher forms ave proportionately rater tryosatic pres. C. Vertical pour rte Faster pours lead to less pressure reduction effect from he iia sof the concrete D. Height of dicharge Where the concrete is discharged at « height greater than the top of the form there is an impacting effect from the drop ‘which can increase the presues ear the top ofthe form. . Concrete temperature Cement hydration, an therefore concrete seting, takes place more qucly at Aiher temperatures. The chemical process sererates heat and this may be lost (00 quick if he ar temperature is ver Tow, or too slowly to prevent racking if the concrete pour is ey thick F. Cement ype ‘Cements blended with mates such at Ayath or slagsash st slowly and thus do sot limit the pressure as much as eatly ting pure cements G. Adeixtures Both retarers and supefowing adtines Slow down cement Iydaton and concrete satin, prolonging the prod of fll ydo- static pressure H. Plan dimensions Where BOTH the width and the length of an clemeot are fess than 2 metres (6 columas and short wall) higher than ‘oral preanres have been observed to ‘ccut, Tis is believed to be eased by the reflection of the vibrations from the fonfaces. (Figue 1.16) [VIBRATION 15 LESS THAN 2 matres TESS THAN 2 metros Figure 1.16 - PRESSURE IN CONFINED SPACES ‘The formworker should note that none of these pressure modifying factors are under his control ‘Therefore, the wisest and safest course of action is to assume that the concrete will be placed very quickly and 18.01 200 y1796 PM Sat 25 Mar build the forms to cater for the full height hydrostatic pressure. It is noted above, that, for normal concrete placing techniques, the maximum pressure that can occur is full height hydrostatic pressure. However, where the placing technique is different then higher pressures can sometimes ‘occur. There are at least two cases of this. ‘The first is full depth revibration. Here the concrete is poured full height without any vibration. ‘The pour is done very quickly So that initial set of the concrete has not ‘occured when the vibrators are inserted full depth into the concrete and then slowly withdrawn. ‘This can result in pressures that are up to one and one half times the full height hydrostatic pressure. This pressure increase is caused by the entrapment of the large ‘energy input from the vibrators by the weight of the full height of fluid concrete above it “The second case is the pumping of the concrete into the base of the formwork. (Figure 1.17) Here the pressure is far greater than the hydrostatic pressure expected from the same height of fluid concrete. The pressure increase comes from resistance to the rise in the concrete level as it is forced past the reinforcement and from friction between the rising concrete and the form faces. ‘CONCRETE PUMPED IN AAT BASE OF FORM Figure 1.17 - PUMPING UP INTO THE FORMWORK 3. Conerete loads on horizontal forms. ‘The concrete load applies for all of Stage 2 and Stage 3. With the exception of very deep beams, which ‘additionally have horizontal pressures similar to walls, the Figure 1.18 - ACCIDENTAL MOUNDING OF CONCRETE CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW concrete loads on slab and beam formwork relate only to the depth of concrete placed on the form. This depth of concrete will often temporarily exceed the intended slab depth. Malfunction of the discharge gate to a concrete skip can easily cause mounding. (Figure 1.18) Even more common is the case where the concrete pump operator does not respond to signals to stop the pour, ‘The load from this excess concrete is only a short term load, usually less than five minutes. This is significant for timber framed forms. The duration of the load is an important factor in timber design. Checking the structural adequacy of framing members for this short duration load from the mounded concrete can be done against a small increase in permissible stress. ‘The mounding of concrete from concrete boom pumps and skips may even be deliberate. If the boom will not reach the far corner of the slab then the concretor may mound the concrete as near as possible to the corner. From there itis shovelled into position. (Fig 1.19) ‘CONCRETE SHOVELLED LumrT OF BOOM PuMP RADIUS || FROM MOUND TO CORNER 1 ‘gure 1.19 - DELIBERATE MOUNDING OF CONCRETE 4, Material loads on horizontal forms. Horizontal formwork for slabs and beams is often the work and storage area for its_own progressing ‘construction. Completed parts of the form will be used to stack materials, plywood and timber or formwork components, for the construction of the next section of the formwork. These are generally Stage 1 loads. = 58%) 14 0f 200 y1796 PM Sat 25 Mar “3 < ‘Materiah Sacked on Ste ‘When the surface of a form is finished, material for the next trade, the reinforcement fixing, is often stacked on it If the support structure is not complete then care must be taken in selecting the position for placing the reinforcement bundle. Figure 1.20 shows a section through such a structure. INCORRECT PLACE FOR ‘STACKED MATERIALS. CORRECT LOCATIONS eae cS Figure 1.20 - LIMITATION ON PLACING MATERIALS When completed the form will have a row of props and bearers between cach pair of lines of frames. Steel fixing ofien stars before these rows of props are in position, Obviously the heavy bundles of reinforcement must not be placed over the long unpropped spans. In such cases the permitted locations for stacked material must be clearly marked on the formwork surface. ‘Another dangerous loading problem can come from stockpiling materials. for later tradework in multi-storey buildings. (Figure 1.21) Figure 121 - POTENTIALLY ae {EROUS LOADING CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW = 58% To avoid difficult lifting problems, materials, such as bricks or blocks for partitions, are often stacked on newly poured top slabs before the’ next level of formwork is, ‘constructed. Most of the extra loads are carried down through the formwork system to lower levels of the structure and are therefore Stage 3 loads. ‘The formwork supports are carrying the imposed loads of this material as well as accu- mulated dead load of the floors, which are equal to at east two slabs. The load capacity of the formwork supports must be a least equal to this greater loading. These additional loads have the potential to overload most normal multi-storey concrete structures. Material placement of this type should not occur without careful ‘consideration and the permission of the design engineer for the building structure 5. Formworkers and tools. The loads of workers and their equipment can occur at all foading stages. When the workers are on the formwork and are building it, it is Stage 1, when they are placing the concrete it is Stage 2, and when they are on a newly poured slab and are starting to build the form for the next level of the multi-storey building it can be Stage 1 and Stage 3. (Figure 1.22 ‘STAGE 1. STAGE 2. STAGE 1. STAGE 3. Figure 1.22 - CONSTRUCTION LOADING. 6. The work process - Impact On most projects there is crane handling of bundles of material, concrete skips and large formwork components, Although the probability may be small, there is always the possibilty of collision between these erane loads and parts of the formwork. The crane loads can horizontally strike the tops of wall or columns, and the edges of soffit forms. Vertical impact loads can shatter the formface of soffit forms, The effect of these impact loads must be « the formwork system. These thre in Figure 1.23. 15 0f 200 y1796 PM Sat 25 Mar a IMPACT FROM CONCRETE SKIPS WALL FORMS. Figure 1.23/1 - IMPACT WITH WALL FORMS ‘Figure 1232 - HORIZONTAL IMPACT ON SOFFIT FORMS VERTICAL IMPACT FROM Figure 1233 - VERTICAL IMPACT ON SOFFIT FORMS Only where the formwork is a very heavy structure, or where the weights being hoisted are quite small, can the formwork be assumed to be able to withstand the impact without significant damage. For normal formwork, columns, walls and soffit forms, ‘major damage and failure will most probably result from the impact from heavy weights. If there is a pour in progress in the damaged formwork, then the pour must be terminated and rectification work undertaken. ‘The most important aspect of ths failure is that the site personnel and the general public must not be endangered as the formwork fails und’r impact. It is essential to ‘ensure that the form, even though badly distorted and damaged, does not generate dangerous debris. This topic CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 9 Of the "Failure Mode’ is discussed later in this chapter. Not all impact loads are major forces with such dramatic effect; many of them are quite minor. These can be materials, e.g. planks and timber, being stacked against the form, or the loads occasioned when tools and equipment are manhandled into place. In short, the normal activities of building. ‘The bracing that must be provided for wind and other horizontal loads must also cater for these minor construction loads. 7. The work process - The sequence of the pour. Unless appropriate provisions are made, the direction and sequence of the pour can often determine whether the pour will be a success or a failure, At the leas, if control fs not exercised, there might be excessive deformation of the form. One example of this is a circular wall form. If the pour proceeds uniformly up the form for the full perimeter then the deformation will be minimal, usually insignificant. Figure 124 - UNEVEN POUR OF CIRCULAR WALL However, if the wall pour is brought up to near full height at one point before proceeding to be poured at other parts of the wall, then the wall form may well distort out Of the circular shape. This incomect pouring sequence is shown in Figure 1.24, To resist the distortion caused by this procedure, adequate and extensive bracing and tics ‘would be needed to maintain the circular shape. Of a mote serious and dangerous nature are cases ‘where structural stability is involved. Figure 1.25 shows formwork for a slab that cantilevers beyond its base of Figure 1.25 - IMPORTANCE OF DIRECTION OF POUR If the pour starts from the right-hand side then the situation will be STABLE. The load of the fresh concrete = 58%) 16 of 200 y1796 PM Sat 25 Mar 10 FORMWORK will increase the stability ofthe formwork assembly. When the last concrete is placed out on the cantilever its overtuming effect will be resisted by the weight of the ‘concrete placed earlier on the right hand end. But if the pour commences at the left-hand side then the weight of the empty form of other end wall not be able to resist the overtuing. The form will be UNSTABLE ‘and failure will result. Safety, in this case, can only be assured ifthe right hand end is adequately anchored down. ‘The formworker must always remember that he, wil rarely have any control over the concrete pour. He should always assume that the pour will procede in the most potentially hazardous way and construct the form accordingly. In this case anchors, a8 noted above, or ‘counterweights. are needed on the right hand side of the formwork. 8. Environmental loads - Wind All formwork must be braced to cater for wind loads ‘The extent of these loads will vary according to the local climate and the degree of exposure of the formwork, Figure 1.26 shows the contrasts that can occur in the ‘exposure of formwork to the wind. FORMS ATA’ HAVE HIGHER WIND LOADS THAN FORMS AT 8! ul. * Figure 1.26 - DIFFERENT EXPOSURES TO WIND FORCES Forms on the top of tall buildings or located on high positions will have less shielding than those on level areas and located between existing buildings. The wind pressure ‘on formwork in high exposed positions, ‘A’, can be up to three times that acting on sheltered formwork, "B' 9. Environmental loads - Water. Both rain, and the runoff that can result from it, can have a detrimental effect on the formwork structure. In the first instance rain can soften the soil of the foundation, and the formwork footings may sink causing misalignment and even instability of the formwork structure. Secondly, ifthe quantity of water is considerable, there is the potential for the water flow to scour out the ‘soil at the formwork foundations. Where this possibility exists, diversion drains and protective levee banks should be constructed. This situation can occur during any of the three stages of loading. Load Action ‘The next, and equally important, matter related to loads on the formwork structure is ‘How do they act on the formwork support structure” and the answer is "Eccentrically’. Figure 1.27 shows a simple example of eccentric action, that is, off-centre loading. Because the CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW ‘FseK mr) load is not directly in line with the prop there are two reactions to the load. That is, two types of resistance to the load. The first is compression in the prop and the second is bending, BEARER ECCENTRIC LOADING WILL CAUSE BENDING OF THE PROP Figure 127 - ECCENTRIC LOADING OF A PROP Even if great care is taken to load the prop axially there will always be some eccentricity. This may occur because the timber bearer is not quite square and it will tend to sit on one comer. (Figure 1.28) ‘TWMBER OUT OF SQUARE eccentnicr'Y Figure 128 - ECCENTRICITY: BEARER OUT-OF-SQUARE In other cases the prop may not be quite straight Figure 1.29) The tubes that it is made of were never perfectly straight, the welding in its manufacture can cause small distortions ‘and the manner ofits use, and abuse, can cause small bends in the prop. BULT INTO IT Figure 1.29 - ECCENTRICITY: BENT SUPPORTS Care should be taken to minimise all eccentricities but there are many causes: out-of-plumb props, Figure 1.30, uneven concrete slabs, Figure 1.31, hard spots under the footing system, Figure 1.32, or simply poor construction methods, Figure 1.33. 17 of 200 y1796 PM Sat 25 Mar ane = eK) OVERVIEW 11 in Figure 1.33 is inherently hazardous and should never be used. ‘This topic of eccentric load action will be discussed again, and in more detail, in later chapters. Load Limits and Failure ‘The statement has been made several times that ‘AN OUT OF PLUMB’ PROP overloads can and do occur. They can be overpouring 18 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED ‘concrete, high winds or simply the result of human error. Good construction practice calls for the formworker to build formwork that can withstand reasonably forseeable | ‘amounts of overload and levels of abuse of equipment and construction procedures. ‘The discussion on IMPACT loading showed that loads, greater than the strength of the formwork might well ‘occur. Consideration must be given to controling the way in which the form will fail, the FAILURE MODE. ‘igure 130 - ECCENTRICITY: OUT-OF-PLUMB PROPS. “This aprosch to designing forms to lave 8 predetermined FAILURE MODE must not be confined to those that might be subject to impact; it must be apply to all formwork. Formwork failure can occur from many causes. In devising a formwork system, thought must be given as to how it will collapse if any of the types of Toads become large enough for failure to result, In general, there are two types of failure: gradual and ECCENTRICITY ; precipitate. A simple example of three storey formwork meted frames canying a slab soffit form can illustrate the difference Ree eee aee, It is recommended practice that the successive stories of frames be connected to each other, at all legs, with the special pins or bolts and nuts. The reason for this becomes obvious when the failure of these frame towers is observed ECCENTRICITY| during product testing. Q ceerme toHs Figure 132 - ECCENTRICITY: UNEVEN FOUNDATION ‘CONNECTOR FRAME ig 133 - ECCENTRICITY: DANGEROUS CONSTRUCTION ‘The last example, Figure 1.33, is especially dangerous. t ft While the eccentric effects of the examples shown in /ECCENTING REACTIONS Figures 1.27 to 1.32 inclusive can be minimised by care in ‘construction and component selection, the method shown Figure 14 - GRADUAL BUCKLING FAILURE CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW 18 of 200 y1796 PM Sat 25 Mar 12 FORMWORK As the frames fail, the buckling action tends to pull these ‘connections apart. (Figure 1.34) Ifthe connecting pins are in place, the failure will be ‘serpentine’ and relatively ‘gradual. Without the pins the frames, whose leps were sleeved one into the other, will move ‘apart as the frame buckling commences. Figure 1.35 illustrates this. The failure will be precipitate; a rapid and dangerous collapse. Figure 138 - RAPID FAILURE, The rapid action of a precipitate collapse usually causes a ‘Shock’ load transfer to the other parts of the formwork structure immediately adjacent to the arca of first failure. PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE is often initiated. This is where the additional toad, on the members adjacent to the first one that collapsed, is sufficient to cause it to fail. In turn, this member collapses under the excessive load and the area of failure rapidly spreads across the formwork assembly ‘Reval of Progressive Formwork Collapse Two examples of progressive collapse can be given. Figure 1.36 shows a soffit form assembly. Figure 1.36 - SOFFIT FORM: PROGRESSIVE FAILURE Ifthe prop at the outside fails, and this could be from impact or excessive eccentricity of loading, then the formwork framing of joists and bearers will transfer the oad to the adjacent props. Atthe same time, the deflection of the formwork beares or joists, which Rave become a cantilever, will twist the head of the prop and it is also liable to fail. If this happens it will be the stan of a Progressive failure ‘The other example is more common, the progressive failure of wall ties, This usually starts with the failure of one tie. Wall forms are rigid structures and the load that was carried on the failed tie is rapidly transferred to the adjacent ties. The shock transfer of the load to these ties often results in their failure, ‘The sequence of failure may proceed along the whole length of the wall form, Wall tie failure is most common where deep revibration of the concrete is done. In summary, the formwork constructor must think beyond the case’of the formwork being able to doing only the calculated. structural task, Overloads do occur, and ‘occasionally they can cause failure. Often this failure is initiated by minor defects, or minor mistakes in construction. To ensure that any failure that occurs causes only the rminimum damage and hazards, the formwork should be arranged with the failure mode in mind; a failsafe structure, one that does not readily tend 10 2 progressive collapse if overioaded, ECONOMY In building construction it is usual for the structural frame, even for buildings of only one storey, to be the ‘most ‘significant cost component and a dominant and critical factor in the time of construction. When seeking the “best™ method of construction the four components of the cost of a concrete structure must be considered. These REINFORCE ' FORMWORK and TIME. The details of the concrete shape and the reinforcement design are rarely under the control of the formworker, but the formwork design and the time effects of that design are, Time effects are more than just the total man-hours of fabrication, erection and stripping of the forms. They also include the cost effects of the total number of days that the formwork activity adds to the whole building program. ‘This latter aspect includes, in its often considerable costs, the expenses of site administration, plant hire and the cost effect on the cash flow of financing the building Where formwork is a repetitive activity, such as in the construction of a multi-storey building, a small reduction in the repetitive cycle time can result in large overall savings. For a single use of a formwork system, there can be four components in its total cost, The first is the cost of fabrication of the formwork, its materials and labour, The second cost involves erection and completion of the formwork, labour costs and some hoisting. After the concrete pour the next activity is stripping, repairing and cleaning the formwork. This also involves labour costs and hoisting CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW 19 0f 200 y1796 PM Sat 25 Mar Ifthe formwork is stripped in large units, such as wall forms, then there will be the fourth cost. This involves dismantling these units to recover materials’ and ‘components for later reuse. The more often we can re-use materials, the less their unit cost of use in each form becomes. If the same formwork assembly is to be repetitively used there can be large savings. The fabrication costs, increased slightly by some maintenance work, are spread ‘over the number of uses. Erection costs and stripping. costs will reduce with each successive re-use due to the ‘Leaming Curve’ effect. As Figure 1.37 shows, at each repetition of the task, the time spent lessens, especially at the early repeats. ‘TIME TO PERFORM TASK => 2 [NUMBER OF REPETITIONS OF TASK Sees mrer emery Figure 1.37 - A LEARNING CURVE ‘As the graph indicates the improvement in times with each repetition is more pronounced with simple tasks than complex ones. ‘The savings from repeated uses can be considerable and, in cases where there is a large number of repeat uses, consideration should be given to using a more sophisticated formwork system. Even though the first cost of fabrication may be high, the better system may require less maintenance, and may also afford faster construction cycles and so achieve a net cost saving. ‘The circumstances that can make the use of a special formwork system viable are: a Q @) @ Ifa large number of re-uses is planned If the concrete shape is too complex for satisfactory site fabrication of the forms If the specified spacing of the wal tes is large and requires long span wall forms If concrete placing techniques or the type of concrete used are likely to result in very high pressures If there are difficulties with hoisting and the formwork unit has to incorporate its own means of movement If the tolerances called for are unusually stringent If the economics of the contract are such that the value of time saved more than offsets the increased cost of the formwork. 6 © o ‘Whether it is used once or many times, the formwork system must have ease of fabrication, erection, adjustment and stripping. The size of each unit must not exceed the available handling capacity, crane or manhandling. A Form) OVERVIEW 13 ‘200d, simple, rugged formwork system with the minimum Of parts, components and fixings usually gives the most ‘economical arrangement. For formwork which is to be fabricated for use in large units, the designing of the formwork arrangement starts with the planning of the sequence and parts of the pour. Usually this involves deciding where the construction joints are to be located. Rarely does the formworker have the authority 10 ‘determine the position of the construction joints. This is the responsibility of the design engineer for the structure. ‘When planning the work sequence the formworker must confer with this engineer. ‘COMPLEX FORMWORK DETAILS AT CORNERS YA Figure 1.38 - EXAMPLE OF WALL TO BE BUILT Figure 1.38 shows a wall to be constructed. If no construction joints are permitted, it must be poured in one piece. The various parts of the formwork will have 10 be fabricated to suit, and there will be complex formwork construction details at the comers. (CONSTRUCTION JOT ae Figure 139 - CONSTRUCTION JOINT LOCATIONS ‘When construction joints are permitted at the comers, the three walls can be constructed separately. (Figure 1.39) WALL 1 FORMWORK WALL 3 FORMWORK LOCATION OF WALL 2 Le uae Le ao CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW 20 of 200‘1537 PM_ Sat 25 Mar 14 FORMWORK ‘These construction joint locations permit the use of ‘existing forms which may be much longer than the ‘concrete walls. Further, WALLS | and 3 can be poured at the same time. (Figure 1.40) was FORMWORK WALL 2 waus Figure 141 - POUR OF WALL 3 After stripping these forms, WALL 2 can be formed and poured. (Figure 1.41) Although this sequence may take longer than the time taken to form and pour this complex wall in one stage, has the advantage of using less formwork, and incurs less formwork material costs. As the diagrams imply, forms from other work can often be used and this further reduces, costs In almost every project, the formworker must carefully analyse how the total structure can broken down into separate elements to achieve the most economical formwork construction procedure. Looking now at 2 suspended structure. Figure 1.42 shows asimple example of a suspended floor supported on a wall and columns with a ground slab and simple footings. BEAM 8 SLAB, ‘CONSTRUCTION JOINT ‘igure 1.42 - EXAMPLE OF SUSPENDED STRUCTURE, Construction joints are shown at the tops of footings, walls and columns. One important decision will concer the time to pour the slab on the ground. Obviously, it must be placed after the columns and wall; but should the suspended slab be formed and poured before it? If the suspended slab precedes the ground slab then ‘other trades can work on this upper area while the ground slab is being done. However, it will be easier, and cheaper, to seat the forms to the suspended slab on a concrete rom) surface rather than install soleplates on the rough ground. Clearly, if the overall time of construction is not important, then the ground slab should be built before the suspended slab. The ground slab will provide an accurate rigid base for the formwork supports. If they are to stand fon the ground, then there will have to be adequate soleplates provided. However, if other construction considerations apply then the more costly formwork decision may be the best for the overall project. Care and Maintenance of Formwork Formwork is usually the most costly part of the concrete construction process. To minimise its cost, do not treat it as an expendable item. It is plant, even though it ‘often has only a short life. Fundamental to getting the longest effective life out of it is proper care and appropriate maintenance. Details of the factors controlling efficient formwork removal (stripping) are covered in the relevant chapters, For maximum formwork life, stripping must be done with care. Of equal importance are the actions that immediately follow stripping: handling, storage and maintenance. After stripping, either as large form units or as individual components, the formwork should be moved away from the work area. If left there, it can be damaged and will be an obstruction to other trades. It should be stored where it will not deteriorate, preferably out of the weather. To avoid surface damage, large wall forms should be stood in racks, facing away from direct sunlight. (refer to Figure 4.115) ‘All formwork assemblies and components become encrusted with some concrete. There with be, at the least, dust on the formfaces, hardened slurry on’the edge of sheets and ‘concrete in the mechanisms of ‘equipment. All this must be removed before it hardens further. Mechanisms and locking devices of equipment must be cleaned and oiled. Fixings must be checked and repaired ‘on large. formwork assemblies. Hardened slury on the edges of plywood sheets should be removed, the surface cleaned and given one coat of release agent. Care must be taken not to damage the prescaled surface of the plywood. Only a soft brush is suitable for dust removal. If larger particles of concrete have adhered then don’ remove them with a metal tool. A softwood timber wedge is best; use it carefully 30 the surface is not broken. In summary, care of formwork will prolong its useful life and, thereby, greatly reduce formwork costs. INFORMATION Many formworkers believe that the only interest that the design engineer takes in the formwork process is to place restrictions on how early the formwork can be stripped. They know that to remove the forms before the ‘concrete has developed the appropriate strength is to court failure or, at the least, excessive deflection. However, the effects of the formwotkers actions on the structure are not just limited to this obvious case. For example, the loads from his stacks of materials and ‘equipment often pass down through previously constructed ‘work, and this accumulated load can often exceed the ‘working load of parts of the building. More commonly, the locations of the construction joints may be compatible with CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW 21 of 200 y‘37 PM Sat 25 Mar oo 57% OVERVIEW 15, the structural action of the permanent concrete structure or they may cause dangerous secondary effects (On the subject of tolerances and surface finishes, full information must be provided. It is essential that the specification is clear and unambiguous. In short, there are many constraints on the formworker’s decision making and it is vital that the ‘project documentation covers all matters that affect them. ‘This includes a clear definition of the concrete shape and its surfaces, and limitations on formwork activities that can affect the strength, stability and serviceability of the permanent structure. ‘On the topic of the concrete shape and is finishes this would include: (1) All dimensions, tolerances, and lines. and faces for the assessment of tolerances @) Details relating to surface finish, colour control, surface treatment (e.g. sand- blasting), and rules on repairs 3) Requirement on the protection of finished concrete surfaces from damage. On the topic of limitations on the formworker's activities this would include: (1) Minimum and maximum stripping times and stripping procedures i (2) Procedures. for the determination of the location of construction joints 3) Precautions 10 be observed to avoid any detrimental effects of post-tensioning procedures on the formwork () Any limitations on the extent of stacked ‘materials either on the formwork or previously poured and stripped slabs (5) Minimum “and maximum requirements, procedures and precautions to be adopted in the forming, support and stripping of floors in multi-storey construction (6) Any restrictions on the use of the previously poured permanent structure for bracing of the formwork (1) Procedures and requirements for propping ‘composite construction (8) Guidelines on the sequence and method of ‘concrete placement if this is critical to the structure ‘The lists given above are not exhaustive. Each structure may have its own unique features. If any of them affect the formworkers actions and decisions then that information must be available. ‘This chapter has only been an overview of the broad field of formwork for concrete buildings. Many important topics have been addressed, but none exhaustively. In the following chapters further’ information is given on the principles and practices of the main areas of building formwork. Even this is not a total statement. Formwork is ‘an ever evolving and innovative industry. This book aims to cover the basics of ‘why’ and ‘how’. CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW 22 0f 200‘38 PM Sat 25 Mar CHAPTER 2: = 57%) MATERIALS & COMPONENTS Like the completed formwork, the materials of its construction must play their part in providing an accurat ‘mould for the fluid concrete, carrying its weight and that of the workers and their equipment, and simultaneously resisting the forces from construction activity In the selection of materials for formwork, the three general principles of QUALITY, SAFETY and ECONOMY must be paramount. Material quality can ensure safety, and significantly contribute 10 the achievement of economy. Formwork failure can result in loss of life, and always causes catastrophic financial loss A Formwork Failure Some general guidelines can be given for formface and framing materials, and for the associated components. These can be covered under the headings of Strength, Stiffness, Impact Resistance, Durability, Weight, Accuracy, Compatibility and Insulation. 1, Strength. The material strength must be adequate to resist the forces amicipated. ‘This is not only a structural design requirement, but also an essential safety aspect 2. Stiffness. ‘The structural movement under load must be small and predictable. These deformations and deflections can be a significant pan of the total deviations in the formed concrete surface. When the formwork designer is planning the formwork system, decisions must be made oon the total deviation that will be acceptable, and to what extent’ workmanship errors and structural deformation will each contribute to this. To ensure that the total deviations do not exceed the tolerances, the ‘material stiffness and the workmanship accuracy must be consistent Impact Resistance. ‘The possibility of major formwork damage occuring due 10 impact loads was brefly described in Chapter 1. As discussed, the forms must be built to ensure that the damaged form, although unserviceable, does not generate falling debris. It follows, that the way in which the formwork material fails, will determine this To comply with this important safety aspect, materials exhibiting ductile failure are far superior to those that fail in a precipitate and brittle manner. 1. Durability. In the interests of economy, and the achievement of a quality concrete product’ at each re-use of the formwork, its materials must be durable. Formwork is almost always built and used out in the open. Between re-uses, its materials and components are commonly stored out in the weather. Ideally, framing, components and formface materials should be resistant to the ravages of the environment. ‘They should have a slow rate of deterioration under the effects of sun, wind and rain. Their resistance to deterioration can be enhanced by proper care and maintenance. Material durability is not only imponant for the achievement of good quality concrete surface finishes, but also to ensuring that formwork structures are always safe 5. Weight. Inthe assembly of formwork, most individual members and components are moved into position by hand. This ‘occurs even when the completed formwork assembly is so heavy that it can only be moved and positioned by crane. Ideally, for efficiency and economy, framing members, formwork components and formface materials, should be sized such that their weight is within the lifting ability of one formworker. If the weight exceeds that which can be carried by two personnel, crane handling is called for. The next level of formwork weight restrictions is set by the lifting limitations of the on-site crane. 6, Accuracy. For economy, it should be possible to assemble formwork with the minimum of fitting and cutting of materials. Consistency of size of materials, plywood sheets and framing members, is important to this aim. The accuracy of plywood sheets and the ‘sizing’ of timbers for consistent dimensions are discussed later in this chapter. 7. Compatibility. The materials of the formwork must not be incompatible with cither the fluid concrete or the hardened concrete. At the formface the constituents of the form materials must not react with the hydrating cement of the concrete, For example, some timbers contain wood sugars that break down the cement. After CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 23 of 200‘38 PM Sat 25 Mar the concrete hardens some timbers, such as cucalypts, can severely stain the concrete. When water runs over this timber and onto the concrete, dark brown stains usually result - Insulation, Extremes of heat and cold present problems in the choive of form materials and their protection. The rate of setting of concrete and subsequent strength gain is slowed by low temperatures, and if the water in the mix becomes frozen, the formation of ice will destroy the chemical bonding within the concrete matrix. In situations where concrete has to be placed at low temperatures, aggregate storage bins and mixing water can be heated to produce warm concrete that will nt coo! during the intial setting period, whl its own internal heat buikls up. Subsequently, newly poured slabs and wall tops can be covered with insulating blankets, but the soffit and the wall forms must not allow freezing air temperatures to penetrate the concrete surface behind. Plywood formfaces provide quite good insulation, provided they are free of ce when the eonerete is first poured, but steel forms will rapidly conduct heat from the concrete. Steel frame panels with plywood faces offer poor insulation around the perimeters. The concrete around ste! tie positions in any type of form will gain strength more slowly than the bulk of the pour. Insulated formwork panels are available and lagging of steel forms can help but the lagging is susceptible to damage and it is very difficult to adequately insulate the comers of the form where heat can be lost in two dinec- tions. Columns and walls are best protected by movable enclosures with heating. AL the other extreme the formworker may have to allow for placement of cooling water pipes in thick concrete pours where heat loss is slow. Forms exposed to strong sunlight can also become extremely hot and cooling by water sprays or covering with wetted sheeting is often For formface materials, two further general considerations can be added. Firstly, they should exhibit abrasion resistance, especially for soffit forms. Formworkers walk on them, and reinforcement and other formwork components are stacked on them. For all forms, the placing of the fluid concrete, particularly with crushed rock ageregate, can cause some abrasive damage to the formface at first use and each re- use. When the concrete has hardened, the forms are ‘Components. Stacked on the Formwork CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS rom) stripped, and this can contribute to surface damage. Abrasion will occur if the forms are permitied to slide on the concrete face Secondly, moisture absorption at the formface must be minimised. Moisture loss ftom the conerele into the formface causes hydration staining of the concrete, with severely darkened surface patches. For high quality ‘concrete surfaces, where colour control is specified, this is, totally unacceptable. For any concrete surface, hydration staining means poor cement hydration, weak concrete and low surface durability In summary, it can be said that for economy of construction, better, more consistent and accurate materials Jead to faster construction and a longer material life Further, formwork is most often built from materials that are held in stock. It is economic to limit the range of sizes of held in stock. This may lead to the use of some larger sizes than those dictated by minimum strength requirements. But this not a cost problem, as all the materials are recoverable. However, high quality materials and components, even it very durable, cannot be re-used indefinitely. With each uuse there is some deterioration. For this reason, their quality and suitability for the intended task must be carefully re-evaluated at every use Plywood surfaces must be inspected for imperfections, edges assessed for delamination and damage, and the stress grade checked, The rough handling that can occur with stripping can cause splits in timber framing members. Components may have nisted excessively in storage and their locking mechanisms may no longer operate 24 of 200 y‘38 PM Sat 25 Mar 18 FORMWORK ‘No complete list of matters to be checked could be given; formwork materials and techniques are too diverse. In summary, at each use, every aspect of formwork materials and components must assessed for their suitability for the surface finish, structural and operational requirements. FRAMING MATERIALS. Almost all the structural materials used in general ‘construction work are used in formwork construction; even reinforced concrete has a place in permanent formwork. Re-useable forms are mostly made of timber, steel or ‘aluminium. Timber encompasses solid timber sections, ‘general manufacture products such as plywood, laminated ‘veneer lumber, and a range of special manufactured sections. Some of these special sections are shown in Figure 2.01. All those shown are a combination of plywood webs and solid timber flanges. IU Figure 2.01 - MANUFACTURED SECTIONS FOR FRAMING The following is an overview of materials used in the framing of re-useable formwork. Materials for permanent formwork are covered in Chapter 9. Further information ‘on framing techniques used in the various types of formwork, is given in the relevant chapters. 1. Timber - Solid Sawn Sections. Solid rectangular timber sections for formwork should be light, strong, stiff, durable and non-staining. The strength requirements include good resistance to lateral grain crushing, as well as consistent flexural and shear strength. They should be available in long straight lengths, with only a small amount of knots, splits and shakes. Usually formwork timbers are at least partially seasoned when milled. The further seasoning of the member should not result in warping or excessive shrinkage. Species of Douglas Fir of North American origin have been found best to meet these criteria, but species of pine are also suitable. Where timber sections are to be used in support, to the formface they should be bought ‘stress-graded" to ensure that the appropriate design strength requirement is fulfilled. However, there is no advantage in over-specifying timber, since the formworker is seldom concerned with long. term structural performance. “General structural’ grades to strength classification SC3 in ‘BS $268 - The Structural Use ‘of Timber’ are usually adequate, but lower grades tend to be knotty and should be avoided. ‘A. number of practical considerations gover the selection of the size and proportions of solid timber sections for formwork. To prevent lateral buckling under bending loads, timber sections that are relatively tall and narrow require lateral restraint at frequent positions. Figure 2.02 shows this in principle, LATERAL RESTRAINT NEEDED NARROW TIMBER BEAM Figure 202 - LATERAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS With wall forms, the nailing of the form face to the studs, and the stud to other framing members achieves this lateral restraint. This is not the case with soffit forms. Frequently, joists are laid loose on the bearers, and the nailing of the plywood to the joists is very limited. As a result there is no effective resistance to the lateral buckling Of the top of the joists at mid-span. To limit the tendency buckle laterally, the timber sections should be wide in relation to their height. Two safety considerations must also be taken into account, Firstly, when soffit forms are being constructed, the formworkers often move about on them. Narrow bearer or joist sections would readily roll over, wide sections would have less tendency to do this. For the roll-over characteristic alone, it is recommended that the minimum proportions be a depitvwidth ratio of 2:1 with a minimum width of 45 mm. This information is restated in Chapter 6. The safety aspects of this roll-over problem are well understood in the formwork industry and some formworker use square section joists to minimise the hazards. ‘Secondly, formworkers may fall when the sections roll, fr fall due to other causes. If the narrow joists were lying, ‘on their wide face they may not have sufficient strength t0 cary the impact load of a falling formworker. This consideration will determine a minimum width of joist relative to span. ‘The size recommendations given here, and in Chapter 6, cannot be taken as a guarantee that the sections will not buckle laterally. The need for lateral restraint is also determined by span, loading and material stress grade. For each case, the formwork designer must determine the Jateral restraint. requirements. AAs noted carlier in the general principles, the cross- sectional accuracy of the timbers is important for the speed. ‘of constriction, economy and accuracy of the formwork. Unfortunately,” sawn timbers are often supplied with unacceptable ' size variations. To cater for this, it is common practice for timber to be uniformly ‘sized smaller than the nominal size. This can be as much as 5 mm undersize, ¢.g. nominally 150 mm joists would be sized to 145 mm. This reduction in material should be 7K) CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 25 of 200 y‘38 PM Sat 25 Mar taken into account in the formwork design calculations. ‘Accurate sizing is essential in those timbers that directly support the formface material. To have variations in joist or stud sizes would inevitably lead to a wavy line in the finished concrete face. The plywood would deflect under the fluid concrete pressure until it made contact with the face of every member. Finally, 10 limit the cost of the stock of formwork materials, the range of timber sizes held in stock should be few as practicable. 2. Timber - Manufactured Sections. Laminated veneer lumber is a manufactured laminated material of solid rectangular section which is produced by process similar to that for plywood. Its. principal difference to plywood manufacture is that all the veneers are laminated with their grain in the same direction, along the length of the member. The high level of quality control ‘on the process results in a consistent and accurate member of a proven stress grade. The techniques of its use in formwork are similar to that used for sawn solid timbers. Examples of manufactured sections that are made from plywood webs and solid timber flanges were shown in Figure 2.01. In most cases these are more expensive than solid timbers and are only used in special long span formwork situations. For structural efficiency they have cross-sections that are tall and narrow. Accordingly, they usually require fixing at all supports and the restraint of the compression flange within the span to prevent lateral buckling. Manufactured sections are widely used on larger wall panel and soffit work because they are very durable and dimensionally stable. Surface coating and the use of lami- nated plywood or diagonal lattice web plates enable them to resist extremes of humidity with little distortion; further- ‘more, their bending strength and deflection properties are as {good as similar size timbers but at only 70% of the weight. ‘The most common manufactured joist sizes are 200 mm or 240 mm deep, at which sizes dimensionally stable timber sections are very difficult to obtain. 3. Steel. All the normal hot rolled solid steel sections are used for formwork framing: angles, channels, universal beams and universal columns. Their use is dominantly for long span framing members in large formwork units. All these sections are available in the normal grade and some in higher yield grades. Hollow sections, round, square and rectangular, are used in formwork. Round tubes are used in the raw form for bracing and, when equipped with suitable end fittings, for soffit supports. Round tube is the base material for the fabrication of most proprietary frame systems, modular support systems and telescopic props. Square and rectangular hollow sections are fabricated into some proprietary products, but their main use is in purpose built formwork. Folded sheet metal sections have gained wide acceptance in the formwork industry. Standard cold rolled sections, lipped channels, Zeds and top-hat sections, made for general building use, are incorporated in wall and soffit forms as a substitute for solid timber members, Made of CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS = 7K) MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 19 high tensile galvanized steel sheet they are usually lighter than the equivalent timber member. Folded sheet steel members for formwork are not limited to existing industrial products. Special sections can be folded for purpose built formwork. 4. Aluminium, One of the great advantages of aluminium is its facility to be extruded in an almost limitless range of shapes. The principal restriction is the high cost of the extrusion die. ‘This usually excludes the use of aluminium for special purpose made formwork. However, aluminium proprietary beam sections, and modular soffit systems are marketed. Here the prodiction quantities are suficient to justify the high die costs. Aluminium is available in stress grades roughly equivalent to normal structural steel. Unfortunately, aluminium has an elastic modulus approximately 40% that ‘of steel and, section for section, the deflection of aluminium is proportionately greater than the stee! beam, Nevertheless, its lightness and durability make it an attractive formwork framing material. FORMFACE MATERIALS. ‘The general principles applicable to the selection of satisfactory formface materials were given previously. A number of types of plywood, solid timber and steel sheet can provide suitable formfaces. All of them require the application of release agents to prevent them bonding to the concrete. 1. Plywood. Plywood suitable for formfaces is available in a wide range of stress grades, veneer arrangements, thicknesses and bond types. It can be used unsurfaced (known as rawform), or purchased with the surface presealed with materials such as phenolics or aluminium. Altematively, for very high quality surfaces the raw structural plywood ‘ean be faced with GRP fibreglass). Formwork plywood should have veneer bonding which ‘can withstand at least two years exposure. If a longer re- use life than this is anticipated, such as with forms faced with GRP, plywoods with the fully permanent bond should be used. This is recommended so that the life of the plywood more closely matches the potential durability of the GRP. Only ‘plywoods that have a known and marked stress ‘grading should be used. The stress grading of plywood is ‘based on the allowable stress values of the particular ‘veneer species and quality. The stress grade defines the basic allowable veneer working stresses and is associated with an elastic modulus. Together these enable a reliable prediction of the strength and stiffness of the plywood sheet, ‘Thickness-forthickness there can be @ wide range in the available arrangements of veneer numbers and thicknesses. Formworkers need to understand the ‘importance of this. Price alone should not decide purchase decisions. The strength and stiffness of a particular plywood is determined by the thickness and stress grade 26 of 200 y‘38 PM Sat 25 Mar 20 FORMWORK Of its veneers and their arrangement (construction). ‘The construction determines the moment of inertia (1) and the section modulus (Z). Figure 2.03 - TYPICAL SECTION OF PLYWOOD So that the outer veneers will always have their grain parallel to each other, plywood is always constructed with ‘an odd number of veneers. A typical section of a plywood sheet is shown in Figure 2.03. Veneers ‘A’ would all be parallel to one another and veneers 'B' are also parallel to each other but at right angles to veneers ‘A’. For most formwork plywoods, these outer veneers have their grain parallel to the length of the sheet In determining. the bending strength of a plywood only the veneers parallel to the direction of bending are considered. So, for bending along the length of a typical sheet of formply, only the veneers ‘A’ would be counted. For bending strength across the sheet only the veneers ‘B’ ‘would matter. Formwork plywood with thick face veneers is very much stronger in the longitudinal direction than the ‘ross direction. However, if the plywood has thin outer vencers, then the first cross veneers are close to the surface, and the cross strength can be very similar to the longitudinal strength. This is a very useful construction for a formwork. plywood. It enables the formworker to cut and fit plywood sheets, without reference to the face veneer grain direction, Knowing that it will not be detrimental 10 the formface strength. Plywoods with thin face veneers also have advantages, when quality concrete surfaces are specified. The thin veneer only responds with a small amount of swelling if there is any moisture penetration. The resultant ‘grain imprint’ on the conerete face is thus less obvious. ‘The amount of moisture penetration will be minimised by the surface sealing. For rawform, this will need to be three or more applications of surface sealer and release agent to achieve some degree of success in limiting moisture penetration. Rawform should not be used for forming quality concrete surfaces. Plywoods with presealed surfaces give the best results, and even these need the site applications of release agent to limit moisture penetration and inhibit adhesion. For high quality concrete surfaces three combinations of facings and surface vencer have been found to be suitable: 1. Asolid face veneer of maximum nominal thickness of 1.3 mm with a surface with a phenolictype impregnated paper of minimum paper weight of 40 gsm and total weight 120 gsm (40/120). Assolid face veneer of maximum nominal thickness of 1.3 mm surfaced with a liquid finish to give a durable wear resistant non-absorbent finish. A solid face veneer of maximum nominal thickness of 1.6 mm (unsanded) or 2.5 mm (sanded) with a surface = 57%) with a phenolic-type impregnated paper of minimum paper weight 60 gsm and total weight 150 gsm (60/150), For general use, where good visual quality is required ‘on work which is to be viewed as a whole, two combinations of facing and surface veneer have been found to be suitable. 1. A solid face veneer of maximum nominal thickness of 25 mm with a surface with a phenolictype impregnated paper of minimum paper weight 30 gsm and total weight 90 gsm (30/90), ‘Assolid face veneer of maximum nominal thickness of 3.2 mm with a surface with a phenolic-type paper of minimum paper weight 40 gsm and a total weight 120 gsm (40/120). For concrete surfaces which are to have an applied finish, such as render or tiles, these two types of facings are also the minimum that should be used. To have less effective surface sealing, will result in hydration staining, ‘AS a product of poor hydration, it results in weak concrete and ineffective adhesion of the applied finish. However, applied finishes readily cover minor defects and older plywood, that has had a number of uses, is usually suitable.” The less expensive unsurfaced — plywood (rawform) can also be used provided that it meets these conditions: A solid face veneer of maximum nominal thickness of 2.5 mm with the surface well sealed with multiple pretreatment applications and afurther treatment before each use with a suitable release agent. For much structural formwork the finished concrete will be obscured by external cladding, internal linings or earth backfill. Holding tanks, silos, marine structures, bridge soffits and the like, although exposed, are seldom subject to critical examination. In these circumstances unsurfaced (raw- form) plywood is cost effective up to about 20 re-uses Sanded plywood ‘good one-side’ offers good striking qualities after mould oil treatment, and ‘good two-sides’, although i , ean be turned to prolong its working q sanded plywood such as ‘sheathing’ or “select tight-face’ is used in buried structures where few re- uses are possible In wall formwork 19 mm thick plywood is most popular, but thicknesses down to 12 mm are used in soffits and 6 mm in steel frame panels and curved formwork. ‘The initial cost of 19 mm thick plywood can vary as much as four-fold, depending on quality, finish and coating. ‘Appropriate Selection is critical to the overall formwork cost. Abrasion resistance was listed as one of the desireable characteristics of formface materials. For normal soffit and wall work, the pine faced plywoods will give satisfactory use. They have adequate resistance to normal foot trafic. Surface damage usually only occurs from bundles of reinforcement and pallets of equipment. This can be avoided with appropriate care. However, where there is the possibility of the formface sliding on the concrete surface during stripping and relocation, then harder face materials are needed. Example of this are found with some roprictary mechanised ‘climb form’ systems. CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 27 of 200 y‘38 PM Sat 25 Mar In the first instance, a harder timber for the outer vencers of the plywood can be used. These are available in the formwork industry. Alternatively, harder plywood facings can be used such as aluminium or GRP. Plywoods faced with aluminium are commercially available. For GRP facings the material must be applied 0 unsurfaced plywood (rawform). GRP facing to plywood can be quite costly but it can offer many advantages. Carefully handled, it can give up to one hundred uses before any maintenance is needed Maintenance involves sanding back and recoating with resin. For more extensive damage, such as that from impact, the affected section of the GRP is cut out and relaid. ‘Careful sanding is needed to hide any differences in texture between the repair and the older GRP facing. The durability of GRP faced forms is more related to the robustness of the formwork structure, than the formface: Ttis common practice for the GRP be applied after the raw plywood has been fixed to the formwork structure ‘The fixings of the plywood to the framing are concealed by the GRP. For success in application of the GRP there must be correct selection of materials and skill exercised in their use. The recommended techniques will be found to vary between resin suppliers but some general parameters can be set 1. The plywood face vencers must be clean and dry and should have a low resinous content so that there is an effective keying in of the GRP. ‘The formulation of the resin should be selected to suit the intended service life of the formface. This should be discussed with both the plywood and the resin suppliers. The type of glass reinforcement selected must also relate to the intended service life. Normally chopped sirand mat with a surface tissue is adequate. IF greater strength is needed then woven rovings can be used between two layers of chopped strand mat. The stiffness of the plywood is important. If the vibrator compaction of the concrete induces the formface to vibrate in sympathy, then the resultant concrete face may have serious discolouration. Further, this vibration may cause the GRP to delaminate. The effective plywood stiffness can be increased by framing the form to give a smaller than usual plywood span. Altematively, a thicker, higher stress. grade Plywood can be used The quality of the surface finish of the GRP will depend on the process adopted and the care taken in its finish. 2. Solid Timber. Although plywood is used to provide the great majority of formfaces, solid timber still has a place. Indeed, in some European countries it is still the only material used. Generally however, its use is now confined to architectural ‘concrete surfaces. Solid timber can be varied in thickness and sand blasted to accentuate the grain for architectural concrete finishes. Figure 204 shows the cross section of an example of this type of formface. = 57%) MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 21 ‘SAND BLASTED FACE ‘Wall from Timber Formface Varying in Thickness As these formface members are spanning between the framing to resist the concrete pressures, as well as forming ‘adecorative finish, they may be quite thick; commonly up to 30 mm thick, and rarely less than 20 mm. The same surface results can be achieved with thinner timbers if they are backed up with a structural. plywood To provide a satisfactory concrete surface , the timber used should have a tight surface grain to limit moisture penetration and the resultant occurrence of hydration stain- ing. Beyond this, a number of applications of sealants and release agents will usualy be required. ‘technique, sometimes called ‘pre-ageing’ can also be uused t0 good effect. This simply involves coating the untreated timber with cement slurry prior to its first use. ‘Afler drying, the surplus cement is brushed off and the first coat of release agent can be applied. The cement panicles tend to fill any open-grained parts of the surface, and are an effective vehicle for the retention of the release agent. 3. Steel Formfaces. Sheet steel is widely used for the formface of some Proprietary modular form systems and special purpose- made formwork. The smooth accurate surface of sheet steel can produce a comparable conerete surface. In carefully fabricated units it 1s common for the only imperfections to be minor undulations at the positions of the welds. Stcel has the advantages of high strength and a surface hardness that resists rough treatment. Stee! is one of the few formface materials that can totally resist direct contact with immersion vibrators. Normal concrete placement rarely damages the surface, but heavy impact, such as dropping the form on a rough surface may dent the face. These dents are often hard to repair as the metal is stretched when dented CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 28 of 200 y138 PM. Sat 25 Mar 22 FORMWORK Its principal disadvantage is its weight; modular all- steel formwork panels are made smaller than plywood faced ones to keep their weight within acceptable limits for manual movement. Repairs, if needed, usually involve welding and these facilities may not be on site, It is economical to fabricate steel items, like modular systems, for mass produced items, but expensive for fine detail such as grooves and rebates. SOFFIT FORMWORK ‘sHoRT cours SHEET METAL BEAM FORM Figure 205 - FOLDED SHEET METAL BEAM FORM Flexibility combined with strength enables steel sheet to be used for formwork in some unique ways. A typical ‘example is shown in Figure 2.05. This gives the cross section of a folded sheet steel beam form which is suspended between two soffit forms. It is fixed in position with short clouts into the soffit formface. Figure 2.06 shows this beam form being stripped after the soffit forms have been removed. LEVERS TO FLEX FORM FOR REMOVAL Figure 2.06 - FLEXIBLE STEEL FORM BEING STRIPPED Levers placed into lugs on the sides of the beam form allow the folded steel sheet to be flexed and removed. The flexibility of modem high tensile sheet steel can be used to advantage in forming many concrete shapes. Columns, pilaster piers on walls, and large groove forms are but few examples. CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 7K) 4. Fibreglass (GRP) Fibreglass, glass reinforced plastic (GRP) has already ‘been mentioned as facing material for plywood. It also is assinicurally adequate formwork material in its own right. For example, GRP is used to produce purpose made forms for multiple Tee beams and wafMle slabs. These are covered in Chapter 7. However, it is a relatively expensive formwork material, and its use is only justified if there are a number Of re-uses, usually more than ten. One of the reasons for this high cost is the slow rate of production. Each of the formwork units has to be ‘laid up’ in a mould and then cured. Even with accelerated curing techniques this is slow. More moulds can be used to speed production, at addi- tional cost. ‘One method of speeding production and reducing costs, is the combination of GRP with thermoplastics. The outer shell and formface of the product is vacuum moulded in thermoplastic sheet, usually PVC. This is normally a quick and inexpensive process. The large number of plastic moulds can then be intemally reinforced with GRP. Provided care is taken to ensure that the heat from the curing resin does not soften the plastic, a very good form product can be produced. 5. Glass Reinforced Cement. (GRO) This is similar to GRP, except that the main material is a cement sand mix, and the glass fibres are a special alkali-esistant type. GRC is used mainly for permanent formwork. This is covered in more detail in Chapter 9. 6. Rigid Foam Plastic Rigid polystyrene and polyurethane foams are available in a range of densities. The medium to heavy grades are useful as void forms and penetration forms (holes in floors and walls). Usually they have to be broken out 10 be stripped and, as result, are only partly recoverable. 7. Particle Board. Particle board (chipboard) is made from bonded wood chips. It is available in large sheets with thicknesses. from 10 mm to 25 mm. With unsealed surfaces it is quite unsuitable for formwork, the absorption of water is too great. However, specially formulated particle board bonded with moisture resistant glues and surfaced with suitable sealants can be used for formwork. Where these sheets are cut, attention must be paid to edge sealing to prevent water penetration. RELEASE AGENTS AAs noted previously, all formfaces should be given at least one coat of release agent. Its primary function is to, prevent the adhesion of the concrete to the formface. Its further functions are the sealing of the formface to limit ‘moisture absorption, and as an aid in preserving the formface and extending its working life. If adhesion between the formface and the concrete ‘occurs, then one or both of them will be damaged. If, at the time of stripping, the concrete is weaker than the formface then sealing occurs with parts of the concrete 29 of 200 y‘38 PM Sat 25 Mar surface sticking to the form. Seabbing, with some of the formface adhering to the concrete, results when the ‘concrete strength is greater than that of the form face. Common Types of Release Agents. Neat oils. ‘These are usually mineral oils; they tend to increase the number of blowholes and their use is usually forbidden. Neat oils with surfactant. Neat oils with the addition of a small amount of surface activating or wetting agent assist in minimising blowholes and have good resistance to climatic conditions. ‘Mould cream emulsions. ‘These emulsions of oil in water tend to be removed by rain but are a good general-purpose release agent that minimises blowholes. Water-soluble emulsions. ‘These produce a dark porous skin that is not durable. ‘They are not recommended. Chemical release agents. Consisting of a chemical suspended in a low viscosity oil distillate, they react with the cement to produce @ form of soap at the interface. They are recommended forall high quality work. Excessive amounts will cause retardation of the cement hydration. They only require a light spray application. They are more costly than ‘ther agents but this is compensated for by the better coverage. ‘Wax emulsions. ‘This is a stable wax suspension. They dry off completely and this aids their resistance to climatic conditions. All of these agents have some effect on the concrete, particularly coloured concrete work. Where coloured ‘concrete work is specified, test panels should be made to check this effect. ‘Care must be taken in their application. Contamination of reinforcement and concrete surfaces must not occur. ‘Any such contamination can be most efficiently removed by sandblasting. The application of release agent must be adequate 10 avoid adhesion. However, too much release agent is as bad as too little. With too much it runs to low points and puddles, and can then cause retardation of the ‘cement hydration. ‘Excessive time of exposure can result in the release agent drying out, running down the formface or being ‘washed away by rain. The shorter the time between application of the release agent and the concrete pour, the better. CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS = 7m) MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 23 FORMWORK FIXINGS Good formwork construction techniques are aimed at the production of a strong rigid form that has ease of handling, erection, concrete placement and stripping. For a form to repeatedly withstand these vigorous activities, the various components must be adequately fixed together. The fixings must: 1. hold the joints tightly together, 2. fix the formface and the framing members so that the whole assembly becomes a cohesive structure for handling and stripping; 3. enable the easy dismantling of the form and the maximum recovery of material In formwork, the fixings such nails and screws that perform these functions are not normally part of the load ‘path that carries the forces from the concrete and concrete placement. activity. In soffit formwork for slabs, the plywood sits on the joists that in tum sit on the bearers. The end reactions of the bearers are resisted by the support system which transmits the loads down to the foundation. Any nailing of the plywood to the framing is usually confined to the plywood sheets at the perimeter of the form. This is done to hold the whole formed area together. This nailing plays ‘io pan in the load path from concrete to foundation. With wall forms, the concrete pressure is carried to the studs which in tum span onto the walers where the loads are carried by the wall ties to the other face of the double faced formwork. The fixings of the plywood to the studs and the studs to the walers are there to hold the form in shape while itis being made, moved, erected and climbed on. These fixings play no part in the load path from concrete pressure to wall ties. This is not to say there is no, forces on them. They must be adequate to resist the effects of movement, erection, alignment and stripping. If movement involves crane hoisting then nailing may not be adequate, extensive screw fixings may be called for. ‘The greater the number of intended re-uses the more attention that will have to be paid to the fixings. If the fixings are to have a structural function, for ‘example, achieving composite action in a tableform or strengthening a wall form for crane hoisting, then the fixings must be arranged to cater for this situation. Information on the load capacity of the fixings must be sought from the manufacturer so that the formwork designer is able to calculate the type and spacing of fixings. ‘The fixing requirements will vary from case to case. This book can only give an overview of the more common types and their use. The frequency and type of fixings will depend on the method of use of the form. However, one minimum safety requirement applies to all forms; the fixings must be adequate for the formworkers to be able climb and move on all parts of the form in safety Types of Fixings. 1, Nails. For formface fixing to the framing, and fixings between framing members, nailing is the simplest and 30 0f 200 y39 PM Sat 25 Mar 24 FORMWORK most cost effective method. In formwork, nails should ‘only be used to locate the component parts and should not be regarded as having predictable structural characteristics Three types of nails are in general use: flat head, bull head and double headed Flat headed nails are the most common type used. The large flat head enables a tight secure fixing of the formface 10 the framing. However, the reflection of the nailbead is often visible on the concrete surface. For ‘quality concrete surfaces this is usually unacceptable. In these cases bullet head nails can be used. These are not as effective as the flathead nails in clamping the formface to the framing, and under load, the smaller head of the bullethead nail may be pulled down into a plywood formface, For plywood —formface_ fixing, practical recommendation is to use nails of 2.5 mm minimum diameter and longer than 2.5 times the plywood thickness, 50 mm for I7mm plywood. Nail sizes and lengths used for jraming fixings will depend upon the particular case. Double headed nails are specifically made for the formwork industry. They have a second flat head approximately 10mm down the nail shank from the end. ‘As shown in Figure 2.07, when driven, the second flathead. provides the tightening action on the surface of the timber. The top head of the nail protrudes for easy nail withdrawal DOUBLE MEADED MAI Figure 207 - DOUBLE HEADED NAILS IN USE Double headed nails are only used between framing members and for fixing wedges. They are quite unsuitable for formface fixings. In addition, they are significantly more costly than conventional. nails. 2. Screws Where fixings more robust than nails are needed, serews can be used. These can be wood screws, power driven screws or coach screws. Hand driven wood screws, countersunk or round head have largely been superseded by power driven screws for formwork. Power driven countersunk or buglehead screws are used for plywood fixing to the timber or steel framework. They can also be used for fixings between framing members, but this is often better done with hex- head screws, Hex-head screws are also used for fixing steel framing and fittings to timber. Coach screws, both hexagonal and square head, are used when the strongest screw fixings to timber are needed. They are normally used for fixing stee! framing or fitings to timber, TTF courtesy Buldex ‘Types of Serems Uied in Formwork. 3. Bolts. Both mild steel and high strength bolts are used in formwork framing, These can be designed as part of the load paths discussed previously. Bolts should be hot dip galvanised for longevity and case of removal. When used with timber framing, large square washers should be fitted to minimise the crushing. of the surfaces of the timber. High strength bolts are confined to metal-to-metal joints. Their most common use is found in achieving a reliable friction grip at adjustment points. An example of this is given for column forms in Chapter 5. PROPRIETARY DEVICES AND COMPONENTS. ‘As will be shown throughout the following. chapters the formwork industry is well served by suppliers of proprietary formwork components and systems. These are in addition to the normal industrial products that are used in conventional formwork. Only 2 few of these proprietary formwork products are expendable like the two column forms shown above. The remainder are re-useable and designed for a long working life. They range from individual components, such as = t™ Propriary Qulek Strip SoM Form Sytem CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 31 of 200 y‘39 PM Sat 25 Mar a ~ = =“ - - a Proprietary Plastic Column Form Spleally Wound Proprictary Column Form props and wall tes, that are incorporated into conventional forms, through to complete modular wall, column and soffit formwork sysiems. Examples of these are given in the relevant. chapters So that formwork designers can evaluate the suitability of proprietary components for particular formwork projects, they need 10 be adequately informed. At a minimum this information, where relevant, should include: AAn illustrated description of the item, a A list of the items of equipment of the type which ate available, range of sizes, part numbers, overall dimensions, and information on cambers, A description of its functions, Its self weight, Data on is relevant working load capacities and information on its limit state capacities, 66. Instructions on its use and the safe limits of its use, points requiring special attention, parameters which indicate that maintenance is required (limits of CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS = 7K) MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 25 acceptable wear, when to reject), minimum bearing areas, anchorage requirements, requirements, bracing Other technical information, although not always needed, should be available. This includes: Whether the data was test derived or calculated, If test derived, data on the method and arrangement Of the test, place and dates of the tests, name of cenifying authority, 3. If calculated, information on the controlling assumptions used in the design calculations, 1 32 of 200739 PM Sat 25 Mar CHAPTER 3: Fork) GROUND FORMS Although concrete work in the ground is usually hhidden from view, the need for accuracy in the formwork associated with it should not be treated lightly. The lines, levels and positions of the features of footings set the starting accuracy for following work such as walls and ‘columns. Careless work at this first stage, creates the later problem of correcting levels and alignments to reach the Standard required for the exposed concrete work. This needless expense should be avoided. Work in the ground can be difficult. The workspace is often very confined, and it can be almost impossible to keep the excavations, reinforcement and the formwork clean, particularly in wet weather. Where the ground is hard, it can be difficult to drive pegs for the support of the forms. When the ground is very soft, even quite long pegs, driven deeply, may not give the needed support. It is common practice for footings to be poured against the faces of the excavation, so the plan size of the ‘excavation is usually the net size of the footing; no extra excavation being done to provide access and for the formworker. As @ result, forms for the tops of the footing and for the support of reinforcement are often suspended down from the ground surface ‘The suspended forms are usually carried on beams bridging to pegs driven into the ground. If these pegs are too close to the face of the excavation, the act of driving the pegs and the load on the pegs may make its banks ‘unstable. To avoid cave-ins, the pegs should not be close to the excavation even in firm ground. With soft ground, ‘extensive shoring may be needed for the security of the banks and the safety of the workplace. ‘The design and construction of shoring systems for the security of excavated areas requires an understanding of soil and rock mechanics. Further, the behaviour of soils ccan be seriously affected by rain and flooding. This aspect, fof construction work is outside the scope of this book. Formwork on the ground surface can also have construction problems. ‘The ground may be rocky and reasonable peg penetration and alignment hard to achieve. Like formwork in excavations for footings, wet weather can make work difficult and dirty. This topic of forms at or in the ground will be dealt with in two broad areas, forms on the surface such as edge forms and, formwork for footings in excavations. Other ‘work in excavations, for example formwork for basement walls, is covered in later chapters. EDGE FORMS ‘The basic requirements of an edge form is that it should be straight, strong and stiff. Straightness is needed to achieve an accurate line. Adequate strength is required to resist the loads that act on it. Concretors walk on them, screeds, often heavy vibrating screeds, use them as a guide and the concrete pressure pushes outwards. Under these loads an accurate line and plumb face must be maintained. For this they must be stiff CHAPTER 3: GROUND FORMS Where concrete depths are shallow, say up to 200 mm, solid timber of 50 mm width is suitable.(Figure 3.01(a)) For greater depths, forms can be fabricated with plywood faces and stiffening plates of at least 75 x 50 at the top and bottom and widely spaced studs of the same size. ‘The edge forms span continuously along a line of pegs. ‘The pegs maintain the line, level and plumb of the forms, and transmit the loads to the ground. Pegs are usually cut from 50 x 50 timber, their spacing depending on the edge form construction, the depth of concrete and the soil characteristics. For soft soils the peg spacing may need to be as close as 600 mm. In harder clays the spacing may be quite satisfactory at 1.2 metres. SouIo TIMBER ‘TOP & BOTTOM PLATES. ‘EOGe FORM AND STUS. BRACES. ' veos—>t R= ve pecs— Figure 3.01(8) Figure 3.010) SHALLOW EDGE FORM DEEP EDGE FORM Shallow edge forms, say for 100 mm slabs, rarely require bracing. The deeper edge forms, say 300 mm and over, on firm soils, or 200 mm on soft soils, usually require bracing to the pegs. Figure 3.01(b) includes an example. In workable soils, the pegs can firstly be driven to approximate line and depth. A small movement sideways for accurate peg alignment can usually be achieved by compacting the surface of the ground on the appropriate side of the peg. This is usually done with a sledge hammer. PLUMB OF FACE ‘SKEW NAILING 0m Fone SECTION PLAN Figure 3.028) Figure 3.020) 33 of 200