Control Sheet

Issued Purpose and/or Changes Version Approved

30-03-11 Initial release for critique Draft 1 – CA.Henderson

Version
15 CJ.Marcyniuk

Permanent Way Handbook for Use on Heritage Railways Written by: HENDERSON, MARCYNIUK
Checked by: CRAPPER – U of E
Draft 1 – Version 15 – 30/03/11 Written under the supervision of the
University of Edinburgh for the HRA.
Permanent Way Handbook for
Use on Heritage Railways
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

FOREWORD
Since the first platelayers installed the rails on the Middleton Railway in 1758, the permanent way
has evolved and developed to present day 200m lengths of Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) and
ballast-less High Speed Rail. The Heritage Railway (HR) movement aims to preserve railways
themselves as well as items of rolling stock and provide tourist services. Their railways have a wide
variety of permanent way and methods of maintenance and many include museums to the age of
steam or diesel. This handbook aims to produce a Permanent Way reference for use on Heritage
Railways to fill a current deficit in documentation.

Mainline railway maintenance in the UK is conducted by Network Rail (NR) and its contractors. In
order to maintain levels of quality and safety, Network Rail produce standards for maintenance and
repair. These standards are highly technical and detail the necessary tolerances and procedures
required to allow safe passage of trains travelling at up to 125mph. Heritage Railways, on the other
hand, are in effect subject to Light Railway Orders and so are restricted to maximum speeds of
25mph. This low speed, coupled with very low annual cumulative tonnage, means that Network
Rail standards are well beyond what is required for the safe running of heritage lines.

Maintenance of the permanent way for Heritage Railways is conducted, predominately, by

volunteers with varying levels of knowledge and expertise. For new members of Heritage Railways,
with no previous experience of the Permanent Way, becoming conversant in the maintenance
standards and practices associated with the permanent way can be a challenge. Generally a period
of time, as a form of apprenticeship, is spent working alongside experienced members to gain
knowledge as to ways and standards of working. If outside reading is sought then often ‘British
Railway Track: design, construction and maintenance’1 written by the Permanent Way Institution is
recommended for its ‘bible’ like level of detail. This publication is of a very technical nature, and
whilst it is useful for those experienced in planning the maintenance of the permanent way, its
technical nature makes it confusing and unhelpful for those of novice level.

Despite the maturity of the heritage movement within the UK, no publication exists specifically
detailing the permanent way of Heritage Railways. Network Rail standards are thought to be too
technically detailed and not suitable for the working practices and resources of Heritage Railways.
Whilst a great deal of technical knowledge is held by senior members of Heritage Railways, younger
members- the future of these organisations- struggle to gain sufficient background knowledge to be
able and confident to engage in the planning and coordination of maintenance. This handbook
seeks to rectify this with the formation of a Permanent Way handbook for use on Heritage
Railways, which details specifically relevant technical information and methods of working.

1 th
Coombs. D.H / PWI. 1971. British Railway Track: design, construction and maintenance. 4 Edition. Permanent Way
Institution, London.
Permanent Way Handbook
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Purpose ............................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Scope ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Disclaimer............................................................................................................................ 2
1.4 Terminology ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.5 Units of Measurement ........................................................................................................ 2

2. SAFE WORKING ............................................................................................................................. 3

2.1 Lineside Safety .................................................................................................................... 3

2.1.1 Slip / Trip Hazards ............................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Movement of Trains ............................................................................................................ 3
2.1.3 Place of Safety ..................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Manual Working.................................................................................................................. 4
2.2.1 Responsibility for Safety...................................................................................................... 4
2.2.2 Training ............................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.3 Manual Handling Technique ............................................................................................... 4
2.3 PPE....................................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Health & Safety Regulations ............................................................................................... 5
2.4.1 Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 .......................................... 6
2.4.2 The Railways and other guided transport systems (Safety) Regulations 2006 (ROGS) ...... 6

3. PERMANENT WAY ........................................................................................................................ 7

3.1 Subgrade ............................................................................................................................... 7

3.2 Ballast .................................................................................................................................... 7
3.3 Sleepers ................................................................................................................................. 7
3.3.1 Concrete ................................................................................................................................ 7
3.3.2 Timber ................................................................................................................................... 8
3.3.3 Steel....................................................................................................................................... 8
3.4 Rails ....................................................................................................................................... 9
3.4.1 Bullhead ................................................................................................................................ 9
3.4.2 Flat Bottom ........................................................................................................................... 9
3.4.3 Table of axle weights vs. rail weights .................................................................................... 9
3.4.4 Fishplates ............................................................................................................................ 10
3.4.5 Expansion Joints .................................................................................................................. 11
3.5 Rail Fixings ........................................................................................................................... 11
3.5.1 Bullhead .............................................................................................................................. 11
3.5.2 Flat bottomed ..................................................................................................................... 11
3.5.3 Concrete .............................................................................................................................. 12
3.5.4 Steel..................................................................................................................................... 13
3.5.5 Timber ................................................................................................................................. 13
3.6 Checkrails ............................................................................................................................ 13
3.7 Switches & Crossings (S&C)................................................................................................. 14
3.8 Curves.................................................................................................................................. 15
Permanent Way Handbook
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
3.9 Transition Curves................................................................................................................. 15
3.10 Cant ..................................................................................................................................... 15
3.11 Ties & Stretcher Bars ........................................................................................................... 16
3.12 Mileposts ............................................................................................................................. 16

4. QUICK REFERENCE STANDARDS ................................................................................................. 17

5. INSPECTION................................................................................................................................. 18

5.1 Levels of Inspection ............................................................................................................. 18

5.2 Inspecting the Line .............................................................................................................. 19
5.3 Duties of the patroller ......................................................................................................... 19
5.4 Inspection Kit....................................................................................................................... 19
5.5 Inspection Procedure .......................................................................................................... 19
5.5.1 Line possession.................................................................................................................... 20
5.5.2 Movement along the line .................................................................................................... 20
5.6 Basic Visual Inspection – Running Line ............................................................................... 21
5.6.1 Rails ..................................................................................................................................... 21
5.6.2 Fastenings ........................................................................................................................... 24
5.6.3 Sleepers ............................................................................................................................... 26
5.6.4 Ballast .................................................................................................................................. 29
5.7 Basic Visual Inspection – S&C.............................................................................................. 30
5.8 Basic Visual Inspection – Level Crossings ............................................................................ 31
5.9 Basic Visual Inspection – Off Track...................................................................................... 31
5.10 Gauge and Geometry Inspection ........................................................................................ 32
5.11 Immediate actions during and following inspection........................................................... 34
5.12 Marking Defects .................................................................................................................. 35
5.13 Inspection reports and records ........................................................................................... 35
5.14 Frequency of Inspection...................................................................................................... 36

6. MAINTENANCE ........................................................................................................................... 37

6.1 Planning of maintenance .................................................................................................... 37

6.1.1 Routine ................................................................................................................................ 37
6.1.2 Non-routine ......................................................................................................................... 37
6.2 Routine Maintenance Practice ............................................................................................ 38
6.2.1 Formation & Drainage ......................................................................................................... 38
6.2.2 Cuttings & Embankments.................................................................................................... 38
6.2.3 Ballast .................................................................................................................................. 38
6.2.4 Sleepers ............................................................................................................................... 39
6.2.5 Chairs................................................................................................................................... 41
6.2.6 Joints ................................................................................................................................... 45
6.2.7 Rails ..................................................................................................................................... 50
6.2.8 Switches & Crossings........................................................................................................... 57
Permanent Way Handbook
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
6.2.9 Effects of hot weather and appropriate actions ............................................................... 60
6.2.10 Effects of cold weather and appropriate actions.............................................................. 60

7. TRACK STANDARDS .................................................................................................................... 62

7.1 Track Gauge....................................................................................................................... 62

7.1.1 Standard ............................................................................................................................ 62
7.1.2 Gauge Variation ................................................................................................................ 62
7.1.3 Gauge Widening ................................................................................................................ 62
7.2 Track Geometry................................................................................................................. 62
7.2.1 Horizontal Alignment ........................................................................................................ 62
7.2.2 Vertical alignment ............................................................................................................. 63
7.2.3 Switches and Crossings (S & Cs) ........................................................................................ 64
7.2.4 Subgrade ........................................................................................................................... 64
7.2.5 Ballast ................................................................................................................................ 64
7.2.6 Sleepers ............................................................................................................................. 65
7.2.7 Rail ..................................................................................................................................... 65
7.2.8 Check Rails......................................................................................................................... 66
7.2.9 Joints ................................................................................................................................. 66

ANNEXE A: INSPECTION PROFORMA ................................................................................................. 67

ANNEXE B: TRACK PANEL INSPECTION PROFORMA ......................................................................... 70

ANNEXE C: PROCESS DIAGRAMS ....................................................................................................... 73

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................... 77

GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................................................... 79

INDEX .................................................................................................................................................. 92

Permanent Way Handbook

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose
This ‘Handbook for the Maintenance of the Permanent Way of Heritage Railways’ is intended as
an introduction to the Permanent Way of Heritage Railways (HRs) for those with little or no initial
knowledge. It aims to give a broad background to the Permanent Way whilst detailing standards
specifically relevant to Heritage Railways. Its purpose is to afford an adequate level of knowledge
to new volunteers allowing them to become aware of the ways of inspection and maintenance for
HRs.

The handbook may also prove useful as a reference document for those with an existing general
knowledge of railways. The standards contained within this handbook are specific to Heritage
Railways and so may enable quick reference of relevant values.

Heritage Railways, in general, run infrequent services at speeds of no more than 25mph. Network
Rail’s mainline standards are therefore not applicable for use on Heritage Railways due to their
high speeds and high annual cumulative tonnage. Further, the detailed and technical nature of
the Network Rail standards means they are difficult to access and understand for those with no
prior knowledge of the Permanent Way. This handbook aims to provide an alternative source of
literature to that previously available and address a deficit in Permanent Way guidelines for the
Heritage Railway sector.

It is trusted this handbook shall prove to be useful for those new to the railway sector and shall
enable knowledge to be quickly and rapidly gained by those looking to help maintain the
Permanent Way.

1.2 Scope
The notes which follow are intended to assist in the undertaking of inspection and maintenance
by those with little or no knowledge or experience in this field. Individual railways differ greatly in
their circumstances and so certain notes or methods of working may not be applicable for all
railways. This is in no way intended as a definitive rulebook rather a selection of relevant
information specifically suitable for the Heritage Railway sector.

Due to the complex and wide ranging nature of railways in general, the scope of this handbook
focuses on the Permanent Way only. Due to time constraints on this project, off track structures
have not been covered and it is intended these shall be covered in a subsequent publication.

Heritage Railways employ fishplated joints as the predominant method of joining lengths of rail
track. There are few instances of continuous welded rail (CWR) track due to the specialist
equipment and skilled labour required for its installation. For this reason this handbook covers
only the maintenance requirements for jointed rail.

Permanent Way Handbook 1 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
This handbook is predominately focused on standard gauge and the geometry that comes with
this. Narrow gauge lines may be able to utilise the methods of working and inspection within this
document, however, tolerances need to be tighter for narrow gauge lines and more specific
standards shall need to be sourced specific to their Permanent Way.

This handbook is no substitute for experience and hands on working and is not intended to be so.
Its aim is to be a useful document for those with little experience of the Permanent Way or those
looking to increase their knowledge in specific areas.

1.3 Disclaimer
The Authors have used their best endeavours to ensure that the content of this handbook is
accurate, complete and suitable for its stated purpose. However they make no warranties,
expressed or implied that compliance with the contents of this document shall be sufficient to
ensure safe systems of work or operation. Accordingly the Authors, The University of Edinburgh
and the Heritage Railway Association will not accept liability for its content or any subsequent use
to which this document may be put.

Further, this document is neither endorsed nor guaranteed by the University of Edinburgh or the
Heritage Railway Association.

1.4 Terminology
Throughout this handbook the following words have been used with the following specific
definitions:

 ‘should’ – verb that suggests guidance to be followed

 ‘may’ – the suggested guidance is an option of a possible course to be followed
 ‘could’ – verb that gives a possible suggestion of guidance
 ‘must’ - verb used where there is a legal or safety critical requirement to be followed

1.5 Units of Measurement

This handbook displays units of measurement in both Imperial and Metric units. Permanent Way
measurements traditionally have been Imperial and the historic nature and processes employed
by Heritage Railways represent this. Below are detailed conversion figures for the units employed
in this text.
1 inch = 25.4mm
1 foot = 304.8mm
1 yard = 914.4mm
1 chain = 20.1168 m
1 mile per hour = 1.61km per hour
1lb = 0.45kg
Permanent Way Handbook 2 of 93 pages
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

2. SAFE WORKING
It should be noted that local, railway specific, forms of safe working and documentation exist and
that these should be consulted and followed in the first instance.

2.1 Lineside Safety

When inspecting the line it is essential for those involved to be alert at all times. Awareness
during patrolling, or maintenance works, is critical since the most common form of fatal accident
involving rail workers involves workers being struck by trains.
The following actions and points should be considered:
 Use of mobile phones is prohibited.
 Headphones should not be worn.
 Patrollers should face and proceed in the predominant direction of traffic.
 Avoid distraction by those at the edges of the line.
 Do not rely on others to warn of the approach of trains.

2.1.1 Slip / Trip Hazards

When progressing along the line, workers should be aware of the various trip and slip hazards
present in addition to the uneven surface of the ballast.
Signalling equipment, tie bars and stretcher bars all occupy space in the four foot impeding
progress and posing a trip hazard.
The polished rail surface should not be stood on due to the slip risk. Sleepers are slippery all year
round however in autumn and winter snow/ice and leaf litter can exacerbate this issue.

2.1.2 Movement of Trains

If during the walking of the line, a train approaches, the following procedure must be followed:
1. Carefully but immediately move clear of the line, taking any equipment obstructing the
line with you.
2. Acknowledge warning whistle by raising arm fully above head.
3. Place any equipment being carried in a safe place.
4. Remain in the “Place of Safety” until the train has passed and it has been established that
there are no further trains approaching.

2.1.3 Place of Safety

A place or position of safety is an area that provides a safe area more than 2 metres away from
the nearest rail of the track on which trains may approach. It should be designated and identified
by all before work is started

Permanent Way Handbook 3 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

2.2 Manual Working

When work is required to be carried out on the line it should, where possible, be conducted out
with the running season to minimise the risks the workforce are exposed to.

2.2.1 Responsibility for Safety

Individuals
It should be understood by all that each and every member of the permanent way team has a
responsibility to ensure safe working practices are maintained. Where unsafe methods are
observed, individuals should halt work since the result of not doing so could be the injury of
friends and fellow volunteers.
Before work starts workers should ensure they are made aware of the following:
 Running lines which remain open.
 Positions of lookouts and methods of warning.
 Limits of safe working area.
 Positions of safety.
 Known traffic movements during working hours.
Workers should be aware of their own limitations and not over exert themselves since injury is
likely to cause more delay to works than an individual being unable to complete a task.

PICOW
Works should be supervised and managed by one person only, termed the “Person in Charge of
Works” (PICOW). This individual is responsible for the safety of those taking part in maintenance
works and should be listened to and their instructions followed immediately. Work on the line
should not take place unless there is a suitably experienced individual acting in the role of PICOW.
Those using machinery or even simple hand tools should be aware of those working around them
to prevent injury caused by the swing of excavators or picks.

2.2.2 Training
Individuals should not use equipment which they are not familiar with. Instruction should be
carried out on the safe usage of each item of equipment used during works and precautions to be
taken to avoid injury.

2.2.3 Manual Handling Technique

The Health and Safety Executive offers advice on good practice for a number of tasks. The
following advice is based on the HSE short guide to manual handling.

 Plan before lifting

Think and plan how to handle and lift the object by ascertaining where it is to be moved to,
the path to be taken and removing possible obstructions.

Permanent Way Handbook 4 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

 Stable Position
If it is not possible to get close to the object, try sliding it into a more accessible area. Before
lifting ensure feet are shoulder width apart with one slightly in front of the other to help
maintain balance.

 Posture
Hips and knees should be bent with a slight bend in the back to pick up the item.
Do not allow back to bend further upon lifting the load.
Avoid twisting back or leaning sideways, turn by moving feet rather than shoulders.
 Ensure a good, firm hold
Holding the load against the body is preferable to gripping since hands can easily tire under a
heavy weight.
 Lifting aids
Trolleys, jacks, ratchets etc. can be used to minimise the manual effort required for lifting
and movement of items.

2.3 PPE
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) should be worn as a last resort measure to prevent or
reduce injury caused by accidents. PPE should not be relied upon, methods of work should be
planned so as to minimise the risk of accidents occurring and the need for PPE.
All personnel on or around the railway must wear at all times:
 Orange high visibility clothing: as a minimum this should consist of a high visibility vest
 Protective footwear: as a minimum this should include a protective toe cap. Steel sole
plates and non-slip grips are also important.
The nature of work being carried out may demand further equipment as stated below:
 Gloves: manual handling or when handling harmful chemicals (such as creosote
substitute).
 Ear defence: when using vibrating hammers or other power-tools.
 Eye protection: during use of cutting equipment, rail drills or sleeper drills.
 Face masks: during use of cutting equipment, rail drills or sleeper drills.
 Safety apron: during use of chain saw.
The personal protective equipment mentioned must be worn at all times during which workers
are exposed to risk – no matter how short the task.

2.4 Health & Safety Regulations

In 2006 the Office of Rail Regulation (ORR) took over responsibility for health and safety policy
and enforcement on UK railways from the Health and Safety Executive. The ORR offers guidance
to heritage railways and other minor rail operators on safety requirements, through the
publication and maintenance of the publication: “Railway Safety Publication 5: Guidance on Minor
Railways”.

Permanent Way Handbook 5 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Heritage Railways are considered by the ORR to pose a lower risk when compared to the mainline
network due to the limited speeds on heritage lines. For this reason inspections only occur if a
serious complaint is made, an incident occurs or if there is a statutory requirement. Therefore the
responsibility for ensuring safe operations is placed on the individual railway management teams.
There are still, however, regulations which must be complied with.
Many heritage railways are run as charities with volunteer workforces. However, where an
organisation has one or more paid employees, it is considered as an ‘employer’ in terms of the
regulations defined in the Health and Safety at Work Act.
Irrespective of regulations or legal duties it is good practice to apply the same health and safety
standards to volunteer workers as would be to paid employees exposed to similar risks.
Operators should be aware of and consider the implications of the regulations detailed below.

2.4.1 Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992

These regulations are not specific to any industry, but place a duty on all employers to examine
the risks to employees and volunteers who may be exposed to hazards due to the work activities
taking place.
As a result of this assessment, appropriate preventive and protective measures have to be taken
to reduce the risks identified if they are not being adequately controlled at present. Some of the
regulations listed later describe specific protective and preventive measures that have to be taken
in certain circumstances or when undertaking particular activities.
A mandatory requirement of the act is risk assessment to ensure action is taken to assess and
reduce risks.

2.4.2 The Railways and other guided transport systems (Safety)

Regulations (ROGS) 2006
In response to the requirements laid down in the 2004 European Railway Safety Directive the
Office of Rail Regulation implemented ROGS to regulate the mainline railway network. The ROGS
were used as a “regulatory framework” for safety on heritage railways and guided transport
systems.
The framework includes safety verification processes for the introduction of new or altered rolling
stock and infrastructure to heritage railways. Guidance on compliance is available from the ORR.

2.4.3 Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences

Regulations (RIDDOR) 1995
All dangerous occurrences, such as a broken rail, or work related deaths or major injuries must be
reported to the Health and Safety Executive through their RIDDOR portal, either online via the
website or by telephone – 0845 300 99 23.

Permanent Way Handbook 6 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

3. PERMANENT WAY
3.1 Subgrade
The subgrade of the railway is the section beneath the ballast; it is out of sight but still plays an
important role in the Permanent Way. It acts as an intermediary between the ballast and the
natural subsoil carrying the loads transmitted by the ballast and also draining water away from
the track structure. In certain cases a blanket may be required between the Ballast and the
subgrade, this is detailed in section 5.4.4.

Figure 1. Cross section of Permanent Way

3.2 Ballast
Ballast is placed between the formation and the sleepers. It acts to support the sleepers laterally,
longitudinally and vertically. Ballast shoulders restrain lateral movement of track whilst ballast
between sleepers prevents longitudinal movement. The ballast also provides a free drainage
environment to remove water from the track bed, for this reason it should be ensured that there
are no fines present in the ballast. Any variety of crushed stone can be utilised as ballast as long as
it is free draining and resilient to the loading and unloading experienced from the passage of
trains, generally the deeper the ballast the better.

3.3 Sleepers
Sleepers carry out two tasks on a railway; to maintain the gauge of the rails and to transfer the
loads from the passing train to the ballast. In order for sleepers to evenly distribute the loads to
the ballast it is important that the ballast is correctly tamped beneath the sleepers.

3.3.1 Concrete
Pre-stressed concrete sleepers have become more prevalent than wooden sleepers on mainline
railways due to their longer life spans and ability to carry heavier loads. Sleepers are commonly
available pre fitted with fixings for flat bottom rail. Concrete sleepers are utilised on Heritage
Lines however timber sleepers are still more popular.

Permanent Way Handbook 7 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
3.3.2 Timber
Timber sleepers still prevail over concrete on Heritage Lines due to their cheaper unit cost and
also lighter weight making manual handling easier. Timber will either be softwood coated with
creosote or creosote substitute, depending on age, or hard wood which does not require pre
treatment.

3.3.3 Steel
Steel sleepers consist of plate steel that is rolled to form a hollow sleeper shape with spade ends.
Steel sleepers are bought pre fitted with rail fixings and maintain accurate rail gauge throughout
their lifetime. The spade ends prevent lateral movement of the sleeper, however require
thorough tamping of the ballast. Without a tamping machine it can prove difficult to adequately
pack the ballast into the hollow of the sleeper and so steel sleepers can only be utilised where
there access to an automated tamping locomotive.

Figure 2. Bundled steel sleepers

Permanent Way Handbook 8 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

3.4 Rails
There are two possible types of rail to be found on Heritage Lines, ‘Flat Bottom’ and ‘Bullhead’. As
illustrated in figure 3 the two types of rail are distinguished by their different profiles.

Figure 3. Rail Types

3.4.1 Bullhead
Bullhead rail was the standard rail laid by British Rail (BR) up until the 1950’s, consequently there
was, and still is in sidings, large volumes of bullhead in use. When many Heritage Lines were first
laying or renovating their track, donations of Bullhead Rail were made by BR and so it is widely
used on Heritage Lines.

3.4.2 Flat Bottom

Flat Bottom rail is the now the standard in use by National Rail and again donations of used track
have been made, meaning it in use on Heritage Lines. Any brand new track purchased by HRs is
likely to be Flat Bottom and it is slowly becoming more widespread on HRs.

3.4.3 Table of axle weights vs. rail weights

Higher axle loads require a heavier weight of rail in order for the steel to be able to adequately
carry and transfer the load. Table 1 details advice offered by the Office of Rail Regulation on the

Permanent Way Handbook 9 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
required weight of rail to carry certain axle loads; axle weights range from 7 tonnes for small
engines up to 23 tonnes for a large locomotive. Rails capable of carrying axle loads up to 25
tonnes include 98lb Bullhead and 113A Flat Bottom rail. Steel is an expensive commodity and so
having the correct weight of rail for expected usage can save money when purchasing new track.

Table 1. Axle Weights vs. Rail Weights

3.4.4 Fishplates
The traditional ‘clickety-clack’ noise of a train running on tracks arises from the joints between the
lengths of rail. Rail comes in a variety of lengths dependant on its weight and origin and can be
between 30ft up to 350ft for that currently being installed by Network Rail on the UK mainline.
The method Heritage Railways use to join lengths of rail together is called ‘Fish Plating’ and it
consists of shaped sections of steel that are bolted into pre drilled holes at the rail ends. This
method is the same that has been employed since the early days of the railways and is as suitable
for HRs now as it was for the early railway pioneers then. Figure 4 details a typical fish plate and
the bolts that hold it onto the rail. The holes in the fishplate are elliptical and the bolts
correspondingly shaped so that the nuts can be tightened from one side only.

Figure 4. Fishplate and bolt.

Permanent Way Handbook 10 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 5. Fishplate in situ on rail.

3.4.5 Expansion Joints

Figure 5 details the positioning of a Fish Plate between two rail ends. The gap between the rails is
an expansion joint which is a necessary part of the rail configuration. Expansion joints allow the
rail to expand and contract with changes in temperature and the fishplates are greased to aide
movement.

3.5 Rail Fixings

The methods of securing rails to sleepers are varied and dependent on both sleeper and rail type.
Over the years many different styles and variations have developed and are too numerous to list
here. The general principle for all rail fixings is a hard fixed metal baseplate or chair which is either
bolted or pre fitted to the sleeper. The rail then sits within this metal holder and is usually affixed
by a type of sprung clamp or ‘key’.

3.5.1 Bullhead
Bullhead rail fixings consist of a chair in which the rail sits and is held in position by a sprung key
which is hammered in to place. The chairs are usually cast iron and have changed little in over 130
years; an example in use on a HR dates from 1881 and is still performing its intended function.

3.5.2 Flat bottomed

Currently the preferred method to secure flat bottomed rail is to use baseplates with Pandrol
clips, although many obsolete methods are still in use on HRs. As illustrated in Figure 6 and 7,
these clips are sprung pieces of steel which fit into either pre fitted base plates in the case of steel
and concrete sleepers or retrofitted baseplates for timber sleepers. The Pandrol clips are
hammered into the holding sleeves on the baseplate and grip the foot of the flat bottom rail. They
provide constant loading to the rail foot and are extremely durable and remain fixed throughout
their lifetime.

Permanent Way Handbook 11 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 6. Baseplate and Pandrol arrangement.

Figure 7. Pan-puller fitting Pandrol clip

3.5.3 Concrete
Concrete sleepers usually have pre fitted baseplates or bolts to enable chairs to be attached, as
such they are accurate and quick to achieve the required gauge and also maintain the gauge well.

Permanent Way Handbook 12 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
3.5.4 Steel
Like concrete sleepers, steel sleepers have prefitted rail fixings. They are usually only suitable to
carry flat bottomed rail and predominantly utilise Pandrol clips to secure the rail.

3.5.5 Timber
Timber sleepers are able to carry a variety of rail fixings and rail types. Either baseplates or chairs
are secured by coach screws, similar to that in figure 8, and require holes to be predrilled into the
timber sleeper. It is important that this is done accurately as it shall affect the rail gauge and is
difficult to adjust once fitted.

Figure 8. Coach screw.

3.6 Checkrails
Checkrails are extra, short sections of rail that are placed between the running lines to help
prevent derailment. The checkrails act as a guide to ensure the wheel cannot come off the track
as it is restrained by the flange. Checkrails are found on switches and crossing where there is a
risk of the train wheels coming away from the running line and also on corners where the flange
could ‘climb’ the rail leading to derailment. Figure 9 details the configuration of a check rail, the
check block serves the purpose of maintaining the correct gauge between the running line and
the check rail.

Permanent Way Handbook 13 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 9. Check rail and flange interaction.

3.7 Switches & Crossings (S&C)

Switches and Crossings combine to form a ‘Turnout’ which enables a train to cross from one track
to another. A turnout consists of three items:
 A set of movable points known as a switch which guides the train in the direction of the
selected track.
 A crossing that allows the wheel flanges to cross the path of the running line.
 A curve that separates the two tracks and takes the train in the required direction.
Figure 10 details a simple turnout and shows the three constituent elements of the turnout.

Figure 10. A simple Turnout.

Permanent Way Handbook 14 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

3.8 Curves
Simple curves consist of straight sections of track meeting a corner of fixed radius to transport the
train around a bend. Simple curves are generally utilised within sidings, whereas for a running line
a transition curve is normally utilised.

Figure 11. Transition curve

3.9 Transition Curves

A transition curve is a change in direction of the track where the radius of the curve gradually
changes and tightens as the train moves to a fixed radius curve. Transition curves allow greater
safety and ride comfort as the train travels around the bend. Figure 11 shows comparison of the
path of a simple and transition curve.

3.10 Cant
Cant or Super Elevation, as illustrated in figure 12, is the difference in height of sleepers
longitudinally across the track. It is found on bends to compensate for the centrifugal force
experienced by the train as it traverses the corner. It allows trains to go around corners at greater
speeds and with greater comfort for the passengers as the centrifugal forces cancel out the tilting
experienced.

Permanent Way Handbook 15 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 12. Illustration of Cant

3.11 Ties & Stretcher Bars

These are utilised to ensure the gauge of the track is maintained. They are used as a tool for
maintenance where the sleepers are no longer maintaining the gauge. They are intended as a
quick fix to ensure the line can remain operationally safe, however, should not be used as a long
term fix. Although, they may remain in place for an extended period of time if resources are not
available to repair the track to a condition in which it can maintain the gauge by itself.

3.12 Mileposts
Mileposts are numbered posts beside the track at regular, usually quarter mile intervals. They
mark distance usually from the main station and their function is as a measuring and location tool.
If an issue is found to occur on the track during an inspection the number of rail lengths to the
nearest mile post is recorded and this is used to locate to issue.

Permanent Way Handbook 16 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

4. QUICK REFERENCE STANDARDS

Standard Imperial Metric

Track Gauge (Standard Gauge) 4ft 8 ½ in 1435 mm

Gauge Widening
(on Curves of less than 200m)
Radius of 200 – 140 m ¼ in 6 mm
Radius of 140 – 110 m 15/32 in 12 mm
Radius below 110 m ¾ in 19 mm

Horizontal Alignment
Cant Varies from curve to curve, see section 7.2.1
Cross Level Error 13/16 in 20 mm
Twist (over 3m length) 13/32 in 10 mm

Rail Joint Expansion Gaps

0
Below 10 C 13/32 in 10 mm
0 0
Between 10 C – 24 C ¼ in 6 mm
0
Above 24 C 1/8 in 3 mm

Rail Wear on guiding face 3/8 in Maximum 9 mm Maximum

Rail dip at joint ½ in Maximum 12 mm Maximum

Table 2. Quick Reference Standards

Permanent Way Handbook 17 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

5. INSPECTION
Critical to ensuring trains run smoothly and safely is the inspection of the Permanent Way. The
importance of a detailed, effective and suitably stringent inspection regime must not be
underestimated since the consequences of not addressing this issue could cost money,
reputations and lives.
Regular inspection allows the identification of faults before they pose a threat to the safe running
of trains. Through early identification, timely maintenance intervention can take place:
 Minimising the risk of derailment.
 Reducing correction costs.
 Lengthening the life of the track.
 Minimising track down-time.
Thorough and co-ordinated inspection allows cost-effective work implementation through
planning and prioritisation.
A base level of knowledge is required to undertake line inspections, once an individual possesses
this knowledge, practice and experience will improve the quality of inspections undertaken.
The following sub-sections guide the novice track worker through the preparation, process and
subsequent actions involved in inspection. It will assist the Patroller in the correct identification
of faults and course of action needed.

5.1 Levels of Inspection

There are a number of different inspection types involving the Permanent Way, which include:
 Basic Visual Inspection: visual inspections focussed on identifying defects and urgent
maintenance work, which could affect the safety and reliability of the railway.
 Gauge and Alignment Inspection: consideration of the geometry of the Permanent Way.
 Long term strategy inspection: such an inspection focuses on the long term maintenance
and renewal / replacement requirements of the track
 Specialist Inspection: including the inspection of major pieces of infrastructure such as
bridges and tunnels, by relevant qualified professionals.
This handbook is limited in its scope to focusing on the most relevant areas to the novice track
worker. For this reason, although there are a number of different types of inspection, the focus
must remain on Basic visual inspections and Gauge and Alignment Inspections, areas a novice can
easily become involved in.
It should be noted that train crews can supplement formal inspections by being aware and
reporting unusual or new movements of the train due to the geometry of the line. These may
have arisen due to defective Permanent Way and so should be further investigated with a basic
visual inspection.

Permanent Way Handbook 18 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

5.2 Inspecting the Line

Inspecting the line is also known as “walking the line” or “line-walking”. It involves a “Patroller”
walking the length of the line carefully examining each of the constituent parts of the permanent
way identifying faults. This ensures the permanent way continues to fulfil its role in supporting
movement of locomotives and rolling stock without endangering those travelling on the line.

5.3 Duties of the patroller

Individuals charged with carrying out line-walks are termed “Patrollers”.
Patrollers must be observant, methodical and conscientious in their duties to ensure that any
conditions adversely affecting the track do not escape his or her attention and endanger
operations on the line.
The Patroller, in addition to examination of the track, will be required to carry out minor
maintenance including reinstalling keys and plugging holes in sleepers.
Patrollers should be aware of their duties, which include, but are not limited to:
 Ensuring inspection is carried out in a safe and responsible manner.
 Identifying new faults/defects.
 Establishing the development speed and pattern of previously identified faults.
 Recording details of faults found.
 Taking immediate action where necessary – including closing the line if required.
 Carrying out minor maintenance where required.
 Submission of a report on completion of the inspection.

5.4 Inspection Kit

In order for the Patroller to conduct the inspection correctly, the following should be carried,
where applicable:
 Line inspection proforma.
 Previous inspection report for section of line (for reference).
 Waterproof Folder.
 Camera: very useful in communicating the exact extent of a fault to those who have not
inspected it.
 Key Hammer.
 Permanent marker paint

5.5 Inspection Procedure

A line can be inspected in one line-walk or the line can be divided into sections for different
patrollers. Where the line inspection is divided, effective communication is vital to ensure no
length of track is missed. Records should note accurately the start and finish points of each.

Permanent Way Handbook 19 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Where possible it is advisable to safely observe the behaviour of the track under traffic. This is
particularly important where there is a suspect condition, such as a poorly supported joint.
Observing the joint can allow identification of the root cause of the problem.

5.5.1 Line possession

Safety is critical during any operation carried out on or close to the line. For this reason it should
be ensured that those operating the line are aware of scheduled inspections.
Some railways operate a token policy. By ensuring a member of the inspection team holds the
token; no trains can use the line, thereby protecting the inspection party.

5.5.2 Movement along the line

When patrolling it is important that all keys, fastenings and sleepers are visible allowing any
defects in top, line and cross level to be seen.

Figure 13. Patrollers view point as they walk the line.

Where there is more than one line running parallel then the distance between the lines governs
the approach to be taken. Where the distance between adjacent rail running edges is greater than
3 metres or 10 feet the tracks shall be inspected individually.
If the distance is less than 3 metres then two plain line tracks may be inspected concurrently
during a single inspection however:
 Where either of the lines goes through S&C, the lines shall be inspected separately.
 The second track must be clearly visible.
 Between successive inspections the track walked must be alternated.
Strict safety procedures must be adhered to when inspecting the line. Please refer to Section 2.1
Lineside Safety for further safety information.

Permanent Way Handbook 20 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

5.6 Basic Visual Inspection – Running Line

When “walking the line” the entire installation that is the “Permanent Way” must be examined.
The figure below indicates the approach to be taken to ensure all aspects are inspected. This
method, working from the top down - from the rails down to ballast - taking an ordered, logical
approach is suitable for this safety critical task.

Figure 14. Inspection order

The following sub sections give guidance on the types of defects to be observed during visual
inspection of the track. These points should be read and understood before a Patroller conducts
their first inspection and consulted during to ensure a full and detailed inspection takes place.

5.6.1 Rails
As the upper most section of the Permanent way it is logical to start an inspection examining the
running rails. Broken down into three sections, common defects are listed.
Note that where a broken or cracked rail is found in the running line, the first priority and duty of
the patroller is to protect traffic. Immediate actions are described in Annex C.1.

Permanent Way Handbook 21 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Running Surface
 Sidewear
The total lateral reduction in the profile of the rail head, if observed during the visual
inspection the issue should be recorded and investigated further during the Gauge and
Geometry inspection. See section 4.10.
 Rolling Contact Fatigue (RCF)
Damage due to overstressing caused by wheel-rail contact. RCF describes a family of faults
including: spalling, flaking, shelling and squatting.
 Wheel-burn
In the event of a wheel slip/skid, a small portion of the rail surface is likely to be heated and
then rapidly cooled by the metal below, resulting in the development of cracks. Most likely to
occur as a locomotive pulls away from a stationary position.
 Rail wear on top surface
Consistent, heavy traffic can result in the rail developing “top hats”. This lip, found on the inner
edge, develops through the plastic deformation of metal.

Structure of rail
 Cracked Rails
A regular inspection regime would hope to catch the early stages of cracking before the rail
physically breaks in two. Where broken rails are found, inspection shall record the type of
fracture.
Defects should be categorised in the following way:

Rail head damage

Transverse Break

Fractured rail foot

Fractured rail top

Permanent Way Handbook 22 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Fractured rail head Longitudinal Split

Longitudinal Split

Joints
 Expansion Gap
Joints should be expected to be open in mild weather; if gap is minimal, as shown in figure 15,
this should be reported for further investigation.

Figure 15. Closed joint pictured during cold weather

 Faulty Bolts
Bolts should be checked to ensure they are tight and do not contain cracks; loose bolts allow
joints to dip. Bolts may also be oiled to prevent seizing of the connection.

 Dipped Joints
Extent of dipped joint should be noted and compared with previous inspections. Dipped joints
of above 12mm are not permissible and shall require correction, until such time an emergency
speed restriction of 5mph should be placed on the section.

 Broken / Cracked Fishplates

Actioned as perAnnex C.2.

Permanent Way Handbook 23 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
5.6.2 Fastenings

Chairs
 Broken / cracked
If a chair is fractured in the vicinity of the holes for coachscrews or in the vertical segment in
contact with the rail then replacement will be required. Fractured corners, where the fracture
is not in contact with fastenings are acceptable.

Figure 16. Acceptable chair with broken corner

 Loose
Loose chairs should be reported for further attention as per maintenance schedule.

Keys
 Missing
Missing keys allow movement of the rail and are therefore unacceptable, often train
movement dislodges keys and so missing keys should be replaced during inspection with
use of carried key hammer.

 Not fully installed

For keys to perform their role correctly it must be ensured they fit tightly between chair and
rail. Where it is found that keys can easily be installed and removed without the assistance of a
hammer it may be that the key has been deformed, it must therefore be replaced.

Permanent Way Handbook 24 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Spikes / Coachscrews / Fastenings

 Loose
Loose coach screws or other fastenings could allow chairs to loosen and the gauge to spread
and so should be reported for action.
 Ferrules
Prevent vibrations of rails causing damage to sleepers and so should be present, figure 17
demonstrates presence of ferrule.

Figure 17. Correct use of ferrules

 Elongated holes
Elongated holes can be identified through the presence of loose chairs or baseplates and will
allow movement of spikes and coachscrews spreading the gauge. Should be reported for
investigation and potential sleeper replacement.
 Broken / cracked fastenings
Where a fastening is found to be defective it will not satisfactorily complete its role and must
therefore be replaced.
 Incorrect type
Fastening systems should be used only with the correct corresponding chair / baseplate.
Only one type of fastener may be used per chair / baseplate. Types should not be mixed on the
same chair and should be reported for replacement if found.

Baseplates
 Missing Coachscrews
Chairs should be attached to wooden sleepers through the use of three coachscrews.

Permanent Way Handbook 25 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

5.6.3 Sleepers
During line walking, inspection of sleepers is limited to a visual examination of the exposed
surfaces. Visual examination is satisfactory for steel and concrete sleepers, however, wooden
sleepers are at risk of wet rot which can affect any surface of the sleeper; visually inspecting the
sleepers will not establish if there is decay on the underside or within a wooden sleeper.
Correspondingly, severe weathering of the top surface, indicating poor condition, may mask
timber which may be quite sound internally.

General
 Positioning
Sleepers should be positioned perpendicular to rails. Out-of-square sleepers increase the
distance between sleepers, resulting in undue stress being exerted on the support system.
 Voids under sleepers
Voids can be detected by watching the vertical movement of the sleeper under traffic and in
the case of timber sleepers by sounding, near the chair or baseplate, with a hammer or
accurately measured using void meters.
Voids under concrete sleepers are indicated through the presence of white rounded ground
ballast and should be noted for maintenance.
 Derailment damage
Derailments can cause significant damage to sleepers, irrespective of type. Careful and
detailed inspection should take place after such incidents. Any sleepers which experience
major damage should be replaced to prevent gauge spread and ensure the rigidity of the track.

Timber
 Wet rot
Particularly prevalent in forested areas where leaf mulch allows water to gather on sleepers
and encourages decomposition, waterlogged ground also aids decomposition.
Hollow / rotten sleepers can be detected by the dull sound emitted when they are trod upon;
the sound being most apparent when the ends of the sleepers are struck.

Permanent Way Handbook 26 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 18. Badly split sleeper

 Cracking / splitting around rail seat area

Small splits occur naturally in sleepers as they season. Splitting poses a danger to running
trains when it occurs in or around chair and baseplate fastenings. A situation becomes
dangerous when the sleeper can no longer fulfil its purpose and gauge spread occurs.
A split does not necessarily mean a sleeper must be replaced. Where a split is identified,
observation and measurement of gauge must take place regularly to establish the extent of
spread.

Figure 19. Split in sleeper allowing movement of fastening

 Chair / baseplate indentation

Baseplate indentation is an indicator of a flawed sleeper. It suggests the sleeper is no longer
“sound” and is predominantly the result of internal decomposition of the timber. Where noted
sleepers should be replaced since the sleeper is no longer effectively transferring loads to the
ballast and sub-layer.

Permanent Way Handbook 27 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 20. Indented baseplate requiring replacement

 Holes from previous fastenings

The use of recycled sleepers is encouraged however to maximise asset life holes from previous
fixings must be filled with dowel to prevent the gathering of water and the propagation of wet
rot. A simple task that can be carried out during a line walk.

Figure 21. Sleeper holes requiring doweling

Steel
 Cracks in rail seat housing
Cracks within the surround of the rail seat must be investigated to ensure their presence does
not result in loose, unsecured rails which would weaken the track system.
 Broken housing / fastening
The rail fastening for a steel sleeper is pictured in figure 22 below. Missing clips or rail pads
should be reported.

Figure 22. Steel sleeper fastening

Permanent Way Handbook 28 of 93 pages
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
 Corrosion
Corrosion should be expected due to the conditions which sleepers are exposed to; however,
over time in especially damp areas rusting can weaken sleeper structure and so should be
monitored.

Concrete
 Loose cast-in housing
The housing to allow rails to be attached to concrete sleepers is predominantly cast-in during
manufacture. Sleepers - particularly older units - should be checked to ensure the housings are
still adequately secured within the main body of the concrete sleeper.
 Cracking
Sleepers should be inspected for cracks, particularly around fastenings and the rail seat, and
transverse cracks in the four-foot.
 Erosion
Erosion resulting in reinforcement becoming exposed will allow corrosion, weakening the
structural integrity of the sleeper.
 Rail pad
Rail pad should be centrally situated between sleeper and rail and should be in a suitable state
of repair, if not sleeper should be reported for maintenance.

Figure 23. Fastening of flat bottom rail to concrete sleeper

5.6.4 Ballast
 Contamination of ballast
Dirt, weeds, slurry can accumulate in the ballast and reduce drainage.
 Quality / condition of ballast
The presence of crushed ballast will reduce the efficiency of the track system.
 Ballast profile
Where the ballast shoulder profile and four foot level do not conform to the levels stated in
the specifications.
Permanent Way Handbook 29 of 93 pages
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
 Excess ballast obscuring clips
In severe cases of excess ballast it could interfere with traffic on the line and must therefore be
removed to the edges of the track.

Geometry
Basic visual inspection should involve assessing gauge and geometry by eye. It is outwith the
scope of such an inspection to accurately measure and assess conformance with the limits set in
the track standards. Where a minor issue is observed it should be noted for further investigation
during a gauge and geometry inspection. Major issues such as visible gauge widening should be
addressed immediately through the use of tie bars or similar.

5.7 Basic Visual Inspection – S&C

On inspection of switch and crossings the following areas should be examined:

Fastenings
 Unbroken and tight
The following fastenings within S&C s should be checked to ensure they are tight and fully
serviceable.
o Heel Blocks
o Stock rail blocks
o Blocks and bolt in nose of crossing
o Chair / baseplate fastenings
o Fishbolts and fishplates
 Stretcher rods
Rods should be straight, undamaged and securely fastened to rails.

Sleepers
 Packing
Sleepers should be fully supported, compacted and restrained by ballast, particularly under
chairs, within the crib and at the ends of sleepers.

 Condition
Sleepers should be inspected for faults as described in section 5.6.3.

 Orientation
Sleepers should be perpendicular to the running rails by eye.

Operation
Switches should be inspected to ensure operation is smooth and unimpeded with clear and
lubricated slideplates and chairs. It is also important to observe S&C during the passage of trains
to ensure they remain rigid throughout and do not demonstrate any movement.

Permanent Way Handbook 30 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Rails
 Common defects
Any flaw evident in the smooth surface of the rail top and running surface should be noted for
further investigation.

 Movement
Evidence of movement of the rails or of the crossing being driven ahead or out of alignment,
should be checked for. Section 4.6.1 gives further details on common defects.

 Wear
Due to the nature of switches and crossings, and their vulnerable position, they are subjected
to heavier wear than plain running line. In particular, the following areas should be inspected
for wear and damage:
o Switch blades
o Switch blade tips
o Crossing nose
 Gauge
Gauge of switches and crossings should be checked when both open and closed.

5.8 Basic Visual Inspection – Level Crossings

The following advice is published by the Office of Rail Regulation on Level Crossings:
“Minor railways should avoid the use of level crossings where possible, as they are a potential
source of danger to the railway and the public.”
The risks are great at Level crossings where road and rail interact and are therefore safety critical
areas which must be regularly inspected.
Advice is published on the design and construction of level crossings by the Office of Rail
Regulation in Railway Safety Principles and Guidance Part 2, Section E: Guidance on Level
Crossings.

5.9 Basic Visual Inspection – Off Track

Drainage, earthworks, structures, roadways, fencing, hedging etc are all important areas which
must also be considered during a line inspection, however, the scope of this handbook limits its
content to the Permanent Way. It is envisaged that this section, along with others, will be
completed in future editions.

Permanent Way Handbook 31 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

5.10 Gauge and Geometry Inspection

Gauge and geometry inspections are concerned with determining the conformance of the
permanent way to the dimensional limits which ensure safe operation of trains up to a maximum
limit of 25 mph.
This section should be read in conjunction with the “quick reference standards” – section 4. Listed
below is advice as to this form of inspection, the areas to be examined and measurements to be
taken.

Alignment
 Rails
Lines should run straight and parallel. Passenger comfort and load safety is risked if this is not
the case.
Kinks and buckles can be identified by observing down the length of the track and recording
any irregularities seen.
 Check rail clearances
Faulty or damaged check rails can affect the distance between the check rail and the running
rail, potentially obstructing passage of trains. For this reason it should be ensured that the void
between the rails is clear and free from obstruction and check blocks are fully tightened.

Longitudinal Level
 Cross levels
On straight track, rails must be level on the vertical plane to ensure even distribution of loads
down to the sub layer and prevent eccentric loading increasing the possibility of derailment.
Settlement of sub layer over several track panels could result in an extended area of cross level
error and so evidence of settlement should be investigated.
 Cant
Cant, where applied, should be measured to ensure it conforms to the designed level. The cant
and its run-out must be checked for divergence from the prescribed specification since in some
circumstances it can lead to derailment.
Cant should be checked with and without loading to ensure it is maintained under traffic.

Gauge Spread
If measurements demonstrate that the distance between the rails is increasing this could be a
case of “gauge spread”. The following should be looked to as an indication of the cause of the
problem.

Permanent Way Handbook 32 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 24. Rail gauge

 Broken / sheared chair or baseplate

 Ferrules worn / missing
 Severe sidewear
In extreme cases sidewear can be so severe that it results in a change in the gauge of the track.
Measurement of sidewear is covered in section 6.2.7
 Wear on the splayed ends of checkrails
 Chair / baseplate shuffle

Twist
 Slips / subsidence
Unsupported or abnormally supported sleepers resulting from slips or subsidence can no
longer support rails and therefore twist can occur under the force of a passing train.
 Incorrect tamping
Poorly supported sleepers allow them to move which may result in twist under loading.
 Settlement
Differential track settlement or heave can result in twist occurring.

Sleepers
 Out of square sleepers
Sleepers must be positioned perpendicular to the rail to provide ideal support conditions.

 Correctly spaced
Sleepers should be evenly spaced, 24 per 60ft panel, along the length of the track.

Track Buckling
Measurements may indicate a rapid, tight bend in the rail. If this is the case the following should
be investigated as a possible root of the problem.

Permanent Way Handbook 33 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
 Lack of ballast
Ballast restrains the movement of sleepers; where there is insufficient ballast, lateral
movement of the track occurs under loading.

 Over-tightened fishbolts
Fishbolts and fishplates are designed to hold the joint of rails firm but allow expansion and
contraction of rails with changes in temperature (i.e. summer heat waves). If fishbolts are
over-tightened the contraction and expansion movement is prevented, thereby causing
buckling.

 Voided sleepers
If sleepers do not rest on firm ballast, vertical movement can occur. If the void beneath the
sleeper is large, enough vertical movement will be sufficient to cause buckling.
Horizontal buckling may also occur if there is insufficient ballast preventing lateral movement
of the sleepers.

 Fixed point
Points at which rails are fixed (such as longitudinal timber bridge or level crossing) prevent
expansion and contraction and therefore, if not designed with this in mind, can buckle.

Expansion Gaps
To allow expansion of the rail due to raised temperatures the gaps between rails should conform
to the levels detailed in the standards sheet depending upon the atmospheric temperature during
measurement.
Inspection should take place in spring to allow correction before summer hot spells.

Rail Depth
Rail depth reductions may result after a particularly heavy running season. It may be prudent to
measure the extent of the reduction in rail depth during Gauge and Geometry Inspection.

Sidewear
Curves should be examined for evidence of sidewear. Where found a sidewear gauge should be
used to measure and record the extent and rate of change.

5.11 Immediate actions during and following

inspection
During Patrolling of the line, defects observed can initially be dealt with in two ways, either they
can be recorded or, where practicable, fixed. Only very minor defects can be rectified
immediately by the patroller but such actions help to minimise the burden placed on the
maintenance team. Minor defects which can be easily rectified include:
 Replacement of keys.
 Removal of switch toe / flangeway / general obstructions
Where faults cannot be resolved, they will be listed on the inspection report, prioritised and
added to the main works list (as detailed further in section 5.13).
Permanent Way Handbook 34 of 93 pages
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
There are, however, particular faults which would require immediate action by the patroller upon
identification. To aid in the identification of such defects, process diagrams can be found in the
following appendices, identifying faults and, where required, immediate actions. Note, these
process diagrams may be of assistance however they are in no way exhaustive and an executive
decision may need to be taken by senior members of the railway:

 Defective Rails: See Annex C.1.

 Defective fishplates: See Annex C.2.

 Defective Sleepers: See Annex C.3.

5.12 Marking Defects

During inspection the Patroller should mark the location of faults identified in order to aid
subsequent identification of the fault. The use of brightly coloured spray paint / surveyors paint
(e.g. yellow) will clearly and durably mark the extent of the fault. It must, however, be
remembered that paint applied on contact surfaces will be worn away by train operations. For
example the extent of wheel burn should be indicated by applying paint to the web of the rail
rather than the running surface.

Clearly marking defects allows subsequent inspections to establish the rate of growth of existing
faults and also establish which faults have not previously been identified. It should also prevent
defective rails from being reused.

5.13 Inspection reports and records

Inspections must be thoroughly and accurately recorded to ensure all faults and defects observed
are communicated to the maintenance team upon handover from the Patroller to the Permanent
Way team.
A basic template for an inspection report has been provided in Annex A and B.
Digital photographs can prove a useful medium to communicate and record the extent of faults
and, where practicable, may also be included in inspection reports.
The Permanent Way team will review reports from visual track inspections to determine the
actions needed to rectify the faults identified, and prioritise the order in which they should be
corrected. Once the faults detailed in the basic track inspection report have been prioritised they
are integrated into the main defect list. Compiled by the Permanent Way team, the main defect
list is used to plan future maintenance works.
Upon rectification of faults it is prudent to include an archive system to store details of defects
and correction works thus aiding identification of recurring problems, specific problem areas and
underlying issues.
Inspection reports should be retained for future reference.

Permanent Way Handbook 35 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

5.14 Frequency of Inspection

The required frequency of line inspections varies depending upon two variables:
 Line speed
 Line cumulative tonnage
With Heritage Railways predominantly operating at 25 mph and cumulative tonnage of well
below 6 million gross tonnes per annum, inspection levels are far lower than those required on
the mainline network. However, with safety the primary concern, it is not possible to inspect the
line too often, where doubt occurs, further inspection should take place.
The degree of inspection depends upon the circumstances of the line. Where a line is set in a
rural, secluded setting a basic visual inspection should ideally be carried out once a week during
the running season, with the first train of each day proceeding along the line with caution.
Frequencies of usage will vary throughout the year and so inspections may be halted if the line is
suspended for a prolonged period, such as during the winter months, however, the line must be
inspected before train movements restart.
There are a number of instances where the basic frequency of inspection may have to be
changed:
 Severe weather
Exceptional or severe weather can result in damage to the line. Therefore, in addition to the
mandatory scheduled inspections, an additional inspection should take place to assess the
damage caused by the weather before trains are allowed to run.
 Poor track geometry
Where there is suspicion of movement of the track geometry, inspection should take place
more frequently to ascertain the extent of movement, the possible causes and the measures
to be taken to rectify the faults found.
 Track bed failure
Where the bed has failed, inspection must take place to ensure that it is small enough to not
endanger the track.
 Track maintenance and renewal works
It is prudent to carry out detailed inspections of the line following the completion of
maintenance and other renewal works to ensure areas have not been overlooked. During such
an inspection special attention should be given to uncompacted ballast, geometry of the track
and any temporary conditions which could have an impact on the safety of the line.
 Introduction of new vehicles
New vehicles should be examined during operation on the line to establish potential effects of
the new stock on the permanent way.
 Vandalism
With heightened prices of steel, railways have fallen victim to planed thefts of permanent way
components. Theft of any constituent part can have critical consequences for safety. Where
this has been identified as a problem, inspection should take place more frequently, as decided
upon on an individual basis by railway management teams.

Permanent Way Handbook 36 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

6. MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of the Permanent Way is an essential part of any working railway. Without it the safe
running of trains would be in doubt and derailment could become a possibility. Due to the
volunteer nature of the majority of those undertaking maintenance activities, efficient planning and
preparation should be adopted to make the most of the volunteer labour that is available.
Volunteer numbers for the Permanent Way are often far lower than those working in the engine
sheds or on the running of the trains. Therefore, large maintenance works need to be planned in
advance in order to assemble the required number of volunteers to satisfactorily and safely
undertake the works.

6.1 Planning of maintenance

Planning of maintenance provides two functions:
1. To prioritise works, especially those which are, or could soon become safety critical and to
ensure they are completed within a satisfactory timeframe.
2. To ensure that sufficient resources, both labour and materials, are able to be purchased
and sufficient volunteer labour can be rallied to carry out the works.

6.1.1 Routine
Routine maintenance will be conducted to a schedule which shall differ for individual railways
dependant on the regularity of use and weight of trains using the line.
The maintenance section in this handbook provides details of the routine works which should be
undertaken to ensure continual operation of the line.

6.1.2 Non-routine
Non routine maintenance, such as the upgrading or renewal of track or the rectification of
unexpected incidents requires an individual approach for each problem. Section 7 details the
standards such work should adhere to, including details of measurements for the relaying of track
and other works.
Non-routine planned maintenance shall usually be timetabled over the course of several years to
be completed in the off season of the railway. As a section of sleepers are nearing the end of their
life-span, for instance, they shall be added into the scheme of works to be completed several
years in the future. This planning allows business plans and expected cash flows to be drawn up
and the long term maintenance of the railway to be managed and planned for.

Permanent Way Handbook 37 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

6.2 Routine Maintenance Practice

The following sections detail the maintenance requirements for the individual components of the
permanent way.

6.2.1 Formation & Drainage

In order to maintain the structural nature and so carry the loads from the trains, the formation
needs to be kept well drained and water not allowed to penetrate and weaken the structure.
Maintenance of this involves ensuring that drains running under the track are free flowing.
Further, if the ballast and track bed is seen to be repeatedly waterlogged then further
investigatory action may need to be taken; potentially the track and ballast lifted and the angle of
the formation regraded to allow the flow of water away from it.

6.2.2 Cuttings & Embankments

Cuttings and embankments should be left alone if they are causing no issue. The removal of
vegetation or ‘tidying up’ of a cutting or embankment may have the effect of destabilising it and
increasing the likely hood of land slips or slides. Further, the toe of an embankment must never
be removed to make way for a wider ballast shoulder or realignment of the track without the
opinion of a qualified engineer as this can lead to a catastrophic failure and collapse of the
embankment.
Routine maintenance should include the clearing of drains which may become blocked and the
provision of new drains or pipe work if it is seen that water is running into an embankment. Water
running into an embankment can act to liquefy certain soil types and increase the chances of a
land slip or landslide occurring, therefore embankments should be kept as dry as possible.

6.2.3 Ballast
Ballast acts to support and restrain the sleepers and to drain water away from the track, it should
therefore be maintained to allow it do both jobs it is intended to do. Autumn leaf litter and other
debris should ideally be removed from the line and not allowed to form a layer of mulch over the
ballast. This acts to prevent water from draining through the ballast and further deposits fines
within the ballast leading to ballast contamination.
Ballast can be lost from the ballast shoulders into the cess drain or down the side of an
embankment. Over time this may act to reduce the capability of the ballast to restrain the track
and so sections of track shoulder should be re-ballasted over an interval period.

Permanent Way Handbook 38 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 25. Re-ballasted shoulder before profiling.

6.2.4 Sleepers
Attention must be paid to sleepers once they cease to fulfil the role they were intended for.
The 1 in 4 method is applied to sleepers when maintaining a stretch of track. If 1 sleeper out of 4
in a row no longer maintains the gauge or supports the rails then this may be allowed to remain in
place as long as the remaining 3 sleepers are structurally sound.
Maintenance for timber and concrete demands different actions as detailed below.

TIMBER
As timber sleepers age and water starts to penetrate into the sleeper body, rot will occur. This can
exhibit itself in several ways as discussed in section 5.6.3. Generally once a sleeper starts to show
these symptoms there is little that can be done to correct them and replacement is the only
option.
If the sleeper cannot be replaced immediately a tie bar may be installed to maintain the gauge. If
found on a running day or perhaps before replacement of a stretch of sleepers, tie bars can be an
appropriate solution. Tie bars are a temporary solution and should be in place for no more than
six months.
To replace a sleeper, the ballast shoulders at either end of the sleeper first need to be dug away
and the ballast in between the sleepers loosened and removed. Particular attention should be
given to loosening the ballast in contact with the sleeper - with a pick axe - down to the sleeper
base as suction can occur and make removing the sleeper difficult.

Permanent Way Handbook 39 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Once the ballast has been removed fixings attached to the sleeper should be unscrewed and the
track lifted using a track jack. The sleeper can then be dragged out using sleeper tongs and a
replacement slid into place. The track should then be lowered and slewed as need be to get the
correct alignment. The gauge should be measured to ensure it has been maintained by the
surrounding sleepers and holes drilled into the timber for the coach screws. Once the screws have
been driven home the gauge should be rechecked.
Ballast should be repacked around and under the sleeper, if the sleeper has dipped then the track
can be jacked up and a layer of extra ballast shovelled underneath the sleeper. Once re-lowered
the ballast can be tamped using a Kango hammer or packed underneath and around using
shovels.

Figure 26. Rail jack

If using second hand timber sleepers it is important to fill old screw holes. The holes collect water
and so allow rot to develop within the body of the sleeper. To address this, short sections of
wooden dowel of the correct diameter can be forced into the holes displacing the water and
preventing any further ingress of moisture.

CONCRETE
Concrete sleepers are similar to timber in as much as once serious cracking of the concrete occurs
there is little that can be done to remedy the situation. Small cracks and chips around the edge of
the surface pose no problem as long as the internal reinforcement bar is not exposed.

The process of replacing concrete sleepers is similar to timber however the increased weight of
concrete sleepers requires up to six men to drag and replace the sleeper safely. As a general rule

Permanent Way Handbook 40 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
once installed concrete sleepers with light infrequent loadings shall have a lifespan of 60 years +
and therefore reduce the maintenance burden.

6.2.5 Chairs
 Track bed failure
The maintenance of chairs is predominantly focussed on the replacement of those that are
cracked and/or damaged. Commonly manufactured from cast-iron they can crack easily and
cannot be repaired.
Cracks triggering the need for replacement of chairs are located in the upper vertical restraints
and in the vicinity of the fastening holes. Indicated in figure 27 below by a cross is a chair in
need of replacement due to the horizontal crack through the vertical restraint. The tick
demonstrates a damaged chair which does not require to be replaced; a corner has been
removed but since it does not affect the fastening of the chair to a sleeper it does not require
replacement.

Figure 27. Chair replacement; top picture showing horizontal fracture.

 Derailment
Derailment and the following rerailing process can cause significant damage to chairs, sleepers
and fastenings. After such an event chairs should be examined thoroughly for cracks and
where present should be replaced to maintain the structural integrity of the track system.

 Loose chair
Maintenance at the first instance is retightening of the coachscrews or other fixings fastening
the chair to sleeper.

Permanent Way Handbook 41 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Where tightening does not resolve the issue the following should be followed:
o Timber sleepers: Sleeper should be pushed through, beneath the rails, by
approximately 3 inches. Fastening holes should be re-drilled and coachscrews installed.
o Steel / Concrete Sleepers: replacement of the sleeper will be required. The urgency of
replacement will depend on the state of surrounding sleepers. The 1 in 4 rule should
be followed (section 7.1.6).

Figure 28. Fastening of chairs to sleepers

 Keys
Should it become apparent that certain keys are repeatedly coming loose then inspection
should identify this and maintenance may involve the replacement of the keys in question.
With the passage of trains, keys can move out from between the rail and chair. If this occurs
the rail is no longer fully supported since movement can occur. Before the keys loosen
completely they should be returned to the correct position using a rail hammer.
Such issues are easily solved. Due to the easy nature of the work, it can often be carried out
during inspection of the line.
In figure 29 below the top picture is a chair requiring maintenance, in the form of reinstallation
of the rail key. The bottom picture is acceptable since the entire key is between the chair and
the rail.

Permanent Way Handbook 42 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 29. Key positions

BASEPLATES
 Cracks
Similar to chairs, baseplates must be removed if cracks occur in the vicinity of fixing points.
 Fixing holes
Upon removal of fixings the baseplate fixing should appear square and not exhibit any wear or
divergence from the standard shape, otherwise the plate must be replaced.
 Pad movement
Where baseplate pads are found to have moved from beneath the plate, they must be
replaced to ensure the energy absorption role they play is maintained.
 Loose baseplate
As per guidance given for loose chairs.

COACHSCREWS
Coachscrews must attach chairs / baseplates tightly to sleepers if the track system is to be rigid
and efficiently transfer loads. Maintenance must therefore include the tightening / tensioning of
all coachscrews.
Before the initiation of tamping or rail alignment works all screws should be checked.
Where coach screws are found to be damaged in any way (head or thread) they shall be replaced.
Permanent Way Handbook 43 of 93 pages
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Where new holes must be drilled for the installation of coachscrews they should be drilled at the
correct size (for the screw to be used), centrally within the plate/chair hole and vertically. If the
guidance holes are not drilled vertically straight downwards, upon installation of the screw, the
chair will be pulled out of position causing a change in the track gauge.
Coachscrews should NOT be driven into the sleeper using any type of hammer but should be
tightened using an impact wrench or T-spanner. During fastening it should be ensured that:
 The screw is installed vertically.
 The ferrule is not deformed.
 The top of the chair and the underside of the coachscrew head do not touch.
The exposed nature of coachscrews means there is the potential for them to be significantly
damaged during a derailment (see figure 30). If the baseplate/chair continues to be held firmly
then there is no need for urgent replacement. However, where the chair has cracked, or the
screw is loose, as a result of the force, both the screw and chair should be replaced.

Figure 30. Damage to coachscrew from derailment

FERRULES
Ferrules should be present in all connections between chairs (or baseplates) and coachscrews to
absorb vibrations produced by movement of trains on the line and reduce any impact or resulting
damage.
Ferrules shall be positioned in the screw hole in a chair before the coachscrew is inserted. The
coachscrew is then tightened until there is full contact with the ferrule and approximately 6mm
(1/4”) is visible between the top of the chair and the bottom of the coachscrew head.
If a ferrule has been deformed from the standard shape (see figure 31) in any way then it must be
discarded and a new piece used.

Permanent Way Handbook 44 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 31. Ferrules

Screws have been over tightened if there is any less than 6mm of the ferrule visible and must
therefore be removed, ferrule replaced and screw fixed with less torque.
If a new ferrule is found to drop entirely into the fastening hole present in a chair then
deformation of the chair has occurred and it must be replaced.

6.2.6 Joints
There are a number of causes which can act individually or in unison to cause a dipped joint
between two lengths of rail. Natural flexing, slack sleepers, loose fishbolts and worn fishplates all
allow a joint to lower.
Eliminating dipped joints improves ride and removes the main cause of wear on rail ends, thereby
reducing the chance of rail end failures. If dipped joints are not resolved, rapid development of
further defects can occur; including pumping of formation, broken fishplates and broken or
cracked rail ends.

POSITION
The position of rail joints should be carefully considered during replacement of rails, particularly
on curves, to ensure that joints in parallel rails are opposite each other. Curves must be given
special consideration because the inner rail travels a shorter distance than the outer rail.

FISHPLATES
 Cracks
Fishplates are forged, therefore cannot be repaired when cracked. Where cracks are identified,
fishplates must be replaced with urgency,
The extent of damage to the fishplate will determine the urgency and approach to be taken
upon discovery of such a fault. Annex C.2 displays required reactions.
If repeated failure of fishplates occurs in the same location then a wide skirted fishplate may
be installed which can restrain the joint under greater loading.

 Oiling
Oiling of fishplates takes place to facilitate and ease thermal expansion of rails preventing
seized joints which can lead to track buckling.

Permanent Way Handbook 45 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Oiling, where possible, should take place during the spring before any periods of hot weather,
this can be carried out biennially or, to spread work more evenly, every other fishplate can be
greased each year.

The process of oiling should involve:

1. Removal of fishbolts
2. Removal of fishplate from rail web.
3. Existing grease and debris should be cleaned from the surface of the fishplate and the
web of the rail. A wire brush should be used to ensure the removal of stubborn dirt.
4. The fishplate should be inspected for crack or signs of weakening and, where found,
replaced
5. Grease should be liberally applied to the inner surface of the fishplate and to the web.
6. Position of plates should be reversed (sides swapped) to prevent continual repeated
wear.
7. Bolts refastened

 Specialist fishplates
Where rails of different type or weight must be connected at a joint, specialist or bespoke
fishplates must be used. Dropped forged fishplates must be used between rail of different
sections or weights. Figure 32 shows the connection plate used between flat bottom rail and
bullhead rail and figure 33 displays the connection between two types of flat bottom rail of
different weights.

Figure 32. Connection between FB and BH rail

Permanent Way Handbook 46 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 33. Connection between rails of different weights

 Emergency clamped joggled fishplates

Joggled fishplates are a form of emergency repair for fractured rail or faulty joints. Clamped
fishplates can be installed quickly without the need for drilling (using 4 x G-clamps) and allow
continued movement through the section of line at a reduced line speed. Broken rail or faulty
joints secured with 4 x G-clamps is not a permanent repair and must be replaced as soon as
possible.

FISHBOLTS
Fishbolts should be kept sufficiently tight if the joint is to remain strong and increased component
wear is not to occur. However, it should be noted that if tightened too much the bolts will restrict
the capacity of the joint to accommodate thermal movement of rails.
Fishbolts should be tightened to the appropriate torque values displayed in the table below,
however note that compliance with these values is markedly less important than ensuring all
fishbolts are tight.

Fishplate Type Bolt Type Torque setting

Expansion fishplate Black bolts 475 Nm (350 ft-lb)

Tight joint fishplate 25 mm (1”) 880 Nm (650 ft-lb)

28 mm (1 1/8 “) 1018 Nm (750 ft-lb)

Table 3. Fishbolt torque ratings

Efficient maintenance practices should involve the oiling of exposed threads of fishbolts during
the fishplate oiling process to allow easy removal of fishplates for maintenance and prolong
component life.
Upon removal of bolts during fishplate oiling the opportunity should be taken to inspect them for
signs of cracking or bending and where appropriate replace them.

Permanent Way Handbook 47 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Fishbolts should be fastened with bolt on the outer edge of the track as this allows easy
unfastening if the internal four foot is obstructed by ballast, signalling or the storage of a rail.

Figure 34. Torque wrench tightening fishplate bolt nuts

FISHBOLT HOLES
 Position of holes
Accuracy is vital in the drilling of fishbolt holes. Therefore marking of positions should be
carried out carefully using the dimensions detailed in table 3.
Note: the table below gives dimensions assuming a 6mm gap at the joint between rails.

Permanent Way Handbook 48 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Bullhead Flat Bottom Flat Bottom Flat Bottom

95 lb 110lb 98 lb 109lb
113lb
End of rail to 60.3 mm 60 mm 60.3 mm 60.3 mm
centre of first
hole (2 3/8”) (2 23/64”) (2 3/8”) (2 3/8”)

Centre of first 114.3 mm 127 mm 127 mm 127 mm

and second
holes (4 ½”) (5”) (5”) (5”)

Drill Bit ∅ 30 mm 30 mm 30 mm 30 mm

(1 3/16”) (1 3/16”) (1 3/16”) (1 3/16”)

Finished Hole 30.7 mm 30.7 mm 30.7 mm 30.7 mm

∅
(1 13/64”) (1 13/64”) (1 13/64”) (1 13/64”)

Ordinary Bolt 23.8 mm 25.4 mm 25.4 mm 25.4 mm

∅
(15/16”) (1”) (1”) (1”)

Height of hole 64.3 mm 65 mm 59.5m 65 mm

centres from
underside of (2 35/64”) (2 9/16”) (2 11/32”) (2 9/16”)
rail

Table 4. Dimensions for rail drilling

 Drilling of holes
The process of drilling fishbolt holes in rail ends must be carefully controlled to ensure the
quality of work and an adequate fit upon installation of the rail.
The joint will not fit unless the hole is drilled perpendicular to the longitudinal length of the
rail. Rails must be firmly supported at both ends and around the area to be drilled to prevent
movement or vibration of the rail. The finished holes should present a smooth void through
which fishbolts can be easily fed.
Rails should not be drilled if temperatures are below 10 degrees Celsius.
Any error or defect resulting from drilling will cause overstressing of the bolts, plate and joint
and therefore must be avoided to prevent future maintenance problems.

SHIMMING
Where fishplates are found to be worn, such that they no longer give sufficient support to the rail
joint, they should either be replaced or shimmed.

Permanent Way Handbook 49 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
When a joint dips, the top of the rail drops onto the fishbolts squeezing them against the bottom
of the fishplate, preventing thermal expansion or contraction of the rail. The shim levels the joint
immediately, effectively renewing the joint, since the joint with shims installed will remain level
for as long as a new joint.
Shimming of joints should be part of the regular maintenance of the track. Simple fixings such as
shims can easily rectify dipped joints, thereby reducing component wear.
This approach is cheap and easy to implement. Early rectification of dips prevents the rapid
deterioration of joints and therefore reduces the long term maintenance burden of the line.

EXPANSION GAPS
Expansion gaps should be left between rails to allow for the natural expansion of metal in hot
weather. For this reason expansion gaps should be checked in the Spring before the onset of
Summer.
If more than 5 consecutive joints are found to have no expansion gap (i.e. are closed) movement
of the rails should be considered.
See section 7.9 for details of expansion gap sizes.
Note that expansion size gap does not increase with the length of rail. It remains constant due to
the tolerances between the fishplate holes and the bolts.

SLEEPERS
The joint between rails marks the weak point of the track system and was one of the reasons for
the widespread adoption of CWR on the mainline network.
The sleepers bordering a joint must be firmly packed to limit movement of the joint since
movement can accelerate component wear. Handheld tampers should be used routinely as part
of the maintenance regime to ensure firm packing.
Rail joints should be centrally located between supporting sleepers to ensure even distribution of
the loads. During renewal this should strive to be achieved, however, it is not a critical area to be
changed urgently. It will lead to accelerated deterioration of the joint relative to normal wear
rates but this alone is not safety critical.
Sleepers on each side of the joint should be of the same type to ensure uniform reaction around
the joint to loading. If different sleepers were used, for example a concrete and timber sleeper
were combined, the timber sleeper would flex under loading whereas the concrete sleeper would
remain rigid resulting in undue strain being carried.

6.2.7 Rails
With Heritage Railways using both bullhead and flat bottom rail the maintenance of both are
considered in this handbook. Maintenance requirements are similar for both types of rail and
therefore the measures detailed below are, unless otherwise stated, applicable to both flat
bottom and bullhead rail.

Permanent Way Handbook 50 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
SUPPLY AND USE
Flat bottom rail is predominantly used on the UK mainline network, however, due to light loads
and low wear levels; bullhead rail is still widely used on preserved railways.

Due to low order quantities which typify heritage railways requirements it can be difficult and
costly to obtain new rail. For this reason, Heritage Railways should investigate sources of second-
hand rail, including:
 Ministry of Defence Establishments
The MOD uses railways extensively for the movement of ammunition within its armament
depots and docks. With the consolidation of resources in recent years depots have been
closed and rail with low wear has been available.
 Former Ports / docks
 Network Rail
Formerly an important source of second-hand permanent way components, however,
with the growth in asset management, donations of components are now more limited.
When obtaining rails from different sources, it must be ensured that the parallel rails making up
the running track are of the same type and weight.

MOVEMENT OF RAILS
During the movement of rails it is critical to ensure they are fully supported throughout. For this
reason the use of fork lift trucks should be avoided since the narrow support they offer allows
bowing and thus deformation of the rails.
A lifting boom, figure 35, may be used in to widen the distance between supports therefore
supporting a longer length of the rail. Otherwise strops spread wide apart may provide sufficient
support.
Particular care must be taken when loading and unloading rails to avoid damage, particularly to
rail ends.

Permanent Way Handbook 51 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 35. Correct support for lifting and movement of rail

STORAGE
Where rails are to be stockpiled they should be supported on a level base (such as a concrete
hard standing or compacted earth) or on regularly spaced level sleepers. Spacing should be small
enough to prevent obvious bowing between supports. Storage and support arrangement must
be considered carefully since rails easily deform if their entire length is not supported.
If rails are to be stacked the following should be observed:
 Heavier, longer rails should occupy the lower levels.
 Support should be capable of carrying load with minimal deflection.
 Ends of rails should be kept above one another.
 Stacking should not exceed hip height.
 Placement of rails should be performed slowly to prevent damage.
 Flanges of rails should not overlap, particularly on the bottom layer.
 Rail ends should be positioned so as to avoid damage from vehicle movements.
 Stockpile should be positioned to prevent gathering of water around base since this can
result in corrosion.
During maintenance work rails can be stored in the four foot of the running line as long as the
maximum height of the rail does not exceed the level of the running track by any more than
25mm.

Permanent Way Handbook 52 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
USE OF SECOND-HAND RAILS
Difficulties may be experienced in trying to obtain small quantities of new rail from
manufacturers. However, second hand materials are a suitable alternative to satisfy demand for
permanent way components.

The loads exerted on Heritage Railways are typically low and therefore wear rates are far lower
when compared with the main network. If chosen carefully second hand material can have an
extensive asset life.
For this reason it is critical that the rail chosen for the line, when second hand, is thoroughly
examined and inspected to ensure there are no flaws present caused by previous heavy usage.
Inspection has two main stages:
1. Establishment of extent of wear
2. Identification of common defects.

 Extent of wear
The head of the rail experiences the most wear, therefore the overall height and width of the
rail head are the critical dimensions when assessing rails for reuse.
Due to the different types of rail used across the Heritage Railway network the permissible
wear of used rails is expressed, below, as a percentage reduction in the height of the rail or
width of the foot. Limit for reuse of partly worn rail:
o In heavily trafficked depot track 5%
o In sidings / occasionally used running lines 9%

If obtaining curved rail side wear should also be taken into account. See limits detailed in
section 7.7.
Assessment of the extent of wear on a rail can be carried out using an appropriate gauge
(similar to callipers) or where possible by weighing a sample of rail and comparing readings to
technical literature.

 Common defects
Detailed visual inspection of used rails should identify any defects present in the rail. Defects
which automatically class the rail as unsatisfactory would include buckling, cracks and severe
corrosion.
Where defects and damage are limited to the fishing surfaces of a rail the rail may be used
after removal of the ends.
The same remedy may be applied to rail with worn / dipped ends or cracked fishbolt holes.
Wheel burns indicate locations where repeated slips of loco wheels have occurred and are a
possible source of rail fracture so should be carefully examined to determine the extent of the
defect.
Rails with chipped edges can be reused by reversing the rail as long as one edge is in good
condition.
Note: Re-rolled track should not be used for standard gauge running line.

Permanent Way Handbook 53 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
RCF
Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) is a form of rail damage caused by the repeated overstressing of the
rail head. Through the passage of trains over the rail corrugations develop and in some cases, the
running surface may flatten, developing a lip on the inner edge.
A change in the profile of the rail head can be indicated by poor ride of vehicles and should be
identified by subsequent basic visual or geometry inspections.
It should be noted that unless there is a fault in the geometry of the track, preserved lines are
unlikely to experience this form of defect since it is caused by thousands of intense wheel-rail
connections which the low speed, low traffic lines do not experience.
Where found, RCF can be resolved through rail grinding. However, if the cracks associated with
RCF have propagated to a depth greater than 5mm the rail must be replaced.

RAIL GRINDING
Removal of faults and optimisation of the rail profile can, in some instances, be resolved through
the accurate and careful application of rail grinding. Short lengths of RCF can be removed and the
rate of return reduced through grinding.
Hand grinding may also be used to maintain rails in S&C.

SIDEWEAR
Sidewear is monitored since excessive reduction in the width of the rail head could allow the
flange of rolling stock to strike a fishplate.
However, on Heritage Railways the number and weight of trains is low enough that sidewear is
unlikely to be a problem unless:
1. Rolling stock axles are poorly adjusted and cause excessive wear with long fixed axle
vehicle.
2. Sub-standard rail used – possible if second hand, since records are non-existent.

RAIL LUBRICATION
Rail lubricators may be installed on curves with a radius of less than 200m to reduce friction and
wear between wheel flanges and the rail head.
If a tight curve is found to exhibit signs of excessive wear the installation of a rail lubricator should
be considered.
With wear on Heritage Railway lines being predominantly low it is unlikely that lubrication will be
widely required, however, in areas of high traffic flow such as entry to the main sidings or depot
lubrication may have its advantages.
Note that it must be ensured that the running surface of the track is not contaminated by their
installation.

CUTTING OF RAILS
Where a replacement rail must be cut to length or damaged rail ends removed the following
guidance should be considered:

Permanent Way Handbook 54 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
 Reciprocating saw
To ensure an accurate, square and straight cut the saw must be firmly supported to prevent
vibrations affecting the accuracy of the cut and ensure a suitable fit between rails during
thermal expansion.

Care should be taken to ensure accuracy when measuring and marking the position for the cut.
During operation the saw must not be pressured or forced through the cut but allowed to cut
at the designed speed.
Sawing must be done in a controlled environment, with the saw operator wearing appropriate
personal protective clothing. Only those involved in the cutting process should be in the close
vicinity whilst the saw is in operation.
As the saw blade approaches the tip of the rail foot it is important to ensure that the rail end
will not sag, twist or trap the saw blade under the weight of the rail being removed.

 Disk cutter
As above, but also should be noted that it may be necessary to partially cut the rail from one
side and then cut the remainder of the rail from the opposite side due to the limited size of the
blade. If this is the case care should be taken to ensure the rail is fully supported and that it
does not bend and trap the cutting blade.

REPLACEMENT OF RAILS
When a rail requires replacement its replacement is likely to have a different profile to the
bordering rails. Where this is the case, any step in the gauge profile, must be blended with the
existing rails through rail grinding.
Hand-grinding should start and finish approximately 1.5 metres on each side of the rail joint to
ensure a sufficiently gradual change.
Note that hand grinding is unlikely to produce the required gradual change in rail head profile so
the grinder should be fully supported.
Lengths of rail removed from the track should be clearly marked to indicate such, however,
lengths should not be discarded since sections may be of sufficient quality to be able to be cut to
length for areas where bespoke length track is required.

RAIL CREEP
Rails have a tendency to creep in the following situations:
 Downhill sections.
 Direction of predominant traffic flow.
 Areas of intense, repeated braking by trains.
 Flat bottomed track creeping towards bullhead track.
These areas must be regularly examined to determine the extent of creep.
Minor creep can be prevented from worsening through the installation of rail anchors. Otherwise,
creep requires correction when it results in the closure of more than five consecutive expansion
joints or where initial signs of buckling occur.

Permanent Way Handbook 55 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Where new track is laid it must be monitored to establish any tendency of the rails to creep. If
identified it should be rectified and rails anchors installed to prevent repeat.

SLEWING
Slewing of railway line is a maintenance method used to remove kinks in the line or reduce the
sharpness of curves.
The slewing process involves the removal of restraining ballast (ballast positioned in the direction
the track is to be moved, as shown in figure 36) from the ends of sleepers. Crow bars and jim
crows can then be used as levers against the underlying ballast to push the full track system
outwards.

Figure 36. Exposed sleepers before slewing

Where the track fails to move the following steps should be attempted. After each, leverage
should be retried. If movement is still not forthcoming the next item listed should be carried out:
 Ballast surrounding sleepers should be loosened with the use of picks and spades.
 Track and sleepers should be jacked and lowered to break the surface tension between
ballast and underside of sleepers.
 On curves where the track is being moved away from the centre point the keys of the
inner rail may be removed and slewing attempted.
It should be noted that this process will be more difficult if the ballast surrounding the sleepers in
question is contaminated, since moisture and fines will allow stronger surface friction to hold the
sleepers in place.
Where the above steps do not work, ratchets and chains can be used as long as there is a firm
anchor point or failing that, the track will have to be lifted and re-laid.

ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL
The line must remain level to prevent increased component wear. The only point at which parallel
rails are at different levels is where cant is applied to curves.

Permanent Way Handbook 56 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Cross level adjustment on straight running track can be carried out easily by as few as two track
workers. The process is commonly carried out as follows:
1. Ballast is removed from the ends of sleepers requiring lifting. Only the side requiring
lifting requires to be excavated.
2. Further ballast is removed below rails until a jack may be firmly supported directly
beneath the rail.
3. A jack is used to lift the rails and the sleepers.
4. Ballast or pea gravel can then be packed beneath the lifted sleepers. Note that the
ballast should be piled to a level above that required to take into account compaction
and consolidation of the ballast under loading.
5. The track system is lowered slowly down onto the new ballast bed.
6. Ballast is replaced around sleepers’ ends.
The process above can also be used for adjustment of the intentional cross level difference e on
curved track – Cant. Section 7.2.1 details the calculation of the required cant dependant on the
curve radius and speed limit.

6.2.8 Switches & Crossings

When a broken or defective switch or crossing is identified, immediate action must be taken to
ensure rail movements are not in danger. Subsequently it should be replaced as quickly as
possible. S&Cs mark a change in the direction of travel of trains and for this reason forces exerted
on the track system are increased.
Due to the disruption likely to be caused by failure of S&C regular and timely maintenance is vital
to reduce downtime.

GAUGE & FLANGEWAY CLEARANCES

S&C gauge should be checked every three months and maintenance to correct gauge carried out
where required.
Maintenance should include the measurement and adjustment of gauge and the removal of any
items obstructing the running line. Gauge limits can be found in section 7.3.

BOLTS
Critical to the maintenance and continued smooth operation of switches and crossings is the
maintenance of the rigid track system through the checking of fastenings. Crossing bolts and heel
block bolts should be kept tight to prevent movement of the rails under loading which can
increase component wear, or in more serious instances result in derailment. Where possible bolts
should be tightened using a torque wrench to the levels indicated in section 6.2.5 for fishbolts.
When unfastened, bolts should be inspected for cracks and to ensure they remain true and
straight with the thread undamaged. Where faults are found they should be immediately
replaced.
As part of the railway maintenance regime the exposed threads of bolts should be greased to
prevent corrosion seizing joints.

Permanent Way Handbook 57 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
STRETCHER BARS
Stretcher bars maintain the gauge between switch blades and flangeway clearances. Where
stretcher bars are found to be deformed, cracked or broken to the extent where gauge cannot be
maintained they must be replaced immediately. Until bars are replaced the turnout at the switch
must be taken out of use.

SLIDE CHAIRS AND BASEPLATES

Slide chairs and baseplates allow the movement of switch blades whilst maintaining support,
thereby preventing deflection. For this reason, where a slide plate is found to have indented into
the surface of the sleeper below, the sleeper must be replaced.
Maintenance must include oiling and clearing of debris from the slide plate to ensure continued
smooth operation of the switch.
Fastenings must be tightly secured to ensure movement of the switchblades does not cause
movement of chair or plate on sleeper, thereby affecting gauge or flangeway clearances.

SWITCH TOE OPENING

Sufficient clearance must be ensured between the stock rail and switch rail to ensure free travel
of vehicle wheels. Striking of the switch rail could result in significant damage to both the
permanent way and running stock and endanger passengers travelling on the line.
The minimum clearances between the stock rail and the tip of the switch rail, depending upon the
mode of operation can be found in section 7.3.
Particular attention should be paid to facing switches where insufficient opening could result in
rolling stock striking the switch rail.
Where switch movement is insufficient the switch should be locked into the open position and
the turnout removed from service until corrected.

CHECK RAILS IN S&C

Replacement of wing and check rails will be required if wear is greater than 3mm on any surface.
Check rails should be smooth and fixed firmly by tight fastenings (such as coachscrews) with
angled ends to reduce the risk of collision. Gauge should be maintained as stated in section 7.8.
If evidence of collision is identified during inspection the check rail should be replaced.

Permanent Way Handbook 58 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Figure 37. Check rails in S&C on narrow gauge railway

REPLACING SWITCHES
Where a switch requires replacement due to wear or damage it should be noted that only
complete half sets of switches should be laid. Changing of just one rail in a half set is likely to lead
to differences in gauge and clearances during operation of the switch.
Installation should follow the steps listed below:
1. Placement of switch.
2. Fixing to timbers.
3. Adjustment for line and level.
4. Slide baseplate bolts tightened.
5. Timbers packed.

HAND LEVER OPERATED SWITCHES

Hand lever operated switches are common on heritage railways due to their simplicity and low
cost in comparison to motor driven points.
Maintenance should involve the rectification of any issue which could impede the smooth
movement of switches. Particular attention should be paid to the switch rail and its tight
placement against the running rail.
A switch rail may exhibit cracking at the toe, however until this affects the transfer of wheels
between rails or the tight fitting of the toe against the stock rail this is not a critical safety
concern. It therefore may be left but should be monitored on a regular basis. It is more important

Permanent Way Handbook 59 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
to discover and rectify the cause of distortion. Typically it is caused when the switch is not fully
aligned with the switch rail.
Switch levers should exhibit equal pull when both opening and closing. Where switches do not
open or close fully the following should be investigated and, where appropriate, rectified:
 Obstructed slide plates / chairs
 Insufficient lubrication of slide plates / chairs
 Broken, weakened or defective spring.
 Damaged stretcher bar or connecting rods
Rectification in each case is self explanatory; replacement of the defective part or removal of
obstruction.
Note that it is also important to observe the reaction of all switches under traffic.

6.2.9 Effects of hot weather and appropriate actions

Hot weather can cause severe distortion to rails. In the United Kingdom temperature ranges are
limited however hot summer spells can still cause expansion.
Prevention of rail buckling is an easy process requiring significantly fewer resources than would be
required to replace buckled rails. For this reason, expansion gaps should be checked and joints
greased in early spring before the onset of hot weather.
Rails in certain areas are prone to expand more and therefore maintenance efforts to prevent rail
buckle should be focused on these areas, which include:
 Track laid upon ash ballast.
 North / south cuttings sheltered from wind.
 Track laid upon sleepers with inadequate restraining ballast at sleeper ends.
 Areas of recently disturbed ballast.
 Wet spots or areas of recent embankment slips.
Where buckling does occur solutions include:
 Slewing of track.
 Reduction in length of rail through replacement or cutting.
 Increasing expansion gaps.

6.2.10 Effects of cold weather and appropriate actions

Extreme cold temperatures can have severe effects on the components of the permanent way.
Low temperatures significantly reduce the toughness of metals resulting in brittle fractures if
heavily loaded. The permanent way is therefore particularly at risk during the running of the first
train on cold winter mornings.
Failure rates of fishplates are found to spike in winter, particularly in areas which experience
particularly low temperatures. The same is true for other components such as fishbolts and cast-
iron chairs.
Permanent Way Handbook 60 of 93 pages
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Avoidance of such damage resulting from cold weather is difficult, short of ceasing all movements
on the line, therefore efforts must be increased to repair resulting damage and ensure safety of
trains.
Sleepers containing either cracks or holes from previous fastenings are also at risk since such
fissures can allow the gathering of water which when frozen expands and in doing so damages the
sleeper further (frost heave). This can be avoided by plugging holes to avoid collection of water
and replacement of sleepers with significant splitting or spalling.
In cold weather snow and ice can pose a risk to railway operations. To ensure safety of railway
personnel, walkways should be cleared of snow and ice along with signals and important signage.
Note that work on the ballast or sub grade (works that affect stability) of the track should not be
carried out when temperatures are below -7 degrees.

Permanent Way Handbook 61 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

7. Track Standards
The following standards assume the use of standard, non inclined, base plates or chairs and are
suitable for both Bullhead and Flat Bottom rail (unless otherwise stated).

7.1 Track Gauge

The gauge of the track is the distance between the gauge faces, measured perpendicular to the
rails, 14mm (1/8”) below the top of the rail.

7.1.1 Standard
The standard gauge is 1435mm (4’ 8 ½“)

Track gauge should be maintained on straight plain line within the following limits:
 Tight Gauge: 1429 mm ( 4’ 8 3/10“)
 Wide Gauge : 1450 mm (4’ 9 1/10“)
n.b. Switches and Crossings gauge limits see section 7.1.3

7.1.2 Gauge Variation

Over a 3m length of plain track, variation in gauge should not exceed 8 mm (3/10”) to ensure a
suitable level of ride comfort.

7.1.3 Gauge Widening

On curved track of tight radius (less than 200m (656’)), gauge may be widened to prevent
excessive wear to rail and vehicle wheels.
 Radius of 200 – 140 m: 6mm (1/4”)
 Radius of 140 – 110 m: 12mm (15/32”)
 Radius below 110 m: 19mm (¾”)

7.2 Track Geometry

7.2.1 Horizontal Alignment

Intentional difference in cross level around a curve (cant) is dependent on the known radius of the
curve and the speed limit defined by railway management.

Permanent Way Handbook 62 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Cant (Superelevation)
Cant shall vary uniformly (maximum 1 in 400) on transition curves. Below is detailed the change in
cant over a transition curve which is equal to the maximum cant on a curve of fixed radius.

E = Change in Cant over transition

Vm = Maximum Speed around curve

R = Maximum radius of curve at apex

Fixed Radius Curve

The minimum radius a vehicle can traverse should be sought ideally from manufacturers although
if not possible then from railway archives. The minimum radius on the line should be sufficient for
the vehicle with the tightest wheelbase to traverse.

Transition curves
Transition curves should be maintained to provide a gradually tightening radius between the
straight track and fixed radius curve.

7.2.2 Vertical alignment

Gradients
Track gradient is highly dependent on locomotive capability and as such shall be individual to each
railway. Steeper gradients should only be adopted where absolute savings in construction costs
can be achieved.

 Absolute maximum gradient of 1 in 40 for straight plain track.

 Maximum gradient in platforms must be no less than 1 in 500.

Railway Specific - Maximum track gradient:

Vertical Curves
Minimum curve radius is reliant on type of rolling stock operated and extent to which rail can be
fitted.

Cross Level Error

Maximum cross level error permitted on straight track is 20mm (13/16”).

Twist
Maximum twist permissible over 3m is 10mm (13/32”)

Permanent Way Handbook 63 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
7.2.3 Switches and Crossings (S & Cs)
Switches and Crossings are typically purchased by Heritage Railways as a complete unit for a
specific location; as such their dimensions vary dependant on position, details can be found in
Network Rail publication ‘Track Design Handbook – NR/2/TRK/2049’
During inspection switches should be examined when open to ensure adequate clearance is
maintained between the switch and stock rail as detailed below:
 Lever or Motor Operated 102 – 120 mm (4” – 4 7/10”)
 Clamp Lock Operated 105 – 110 mm (4 1/10 “ – 4 3/10”)
Slide base plates must be kept oiled and free of ballast and other obstructions which could restrict
movement of switch blades.

 Acute angle crossings (common)

Gauge must be maintained through standard vertical S&Cs at 1435 mm with a flangeway gap
of 44mm. This should be monitored 100 mm (4”) in front of switch toes and at all heel blocks.
Note that the exception to the above is inclined S&Cs, in such cases gauge should be
maintained at 1432 mm with a flangeway gap of 41 mm.

 Fixed Obtuse-angled crossings

For fixed crossings the minimum flangeway clearance is increased to 48mm between the
check rail and wing rail at the fixed “knuckle” of the crossing.

7.2.4 Subgrade
A blanket may be employed if issues exist with mud pumping from clay based soils. The blanket
can be either a layer of fine aggregate or a ‘Terram’ style matting to isolate the ballast from
subgrade. Geotextiles should be laid as per manufacturer’s instruction with special care taken to
ensure they are placed the correct way up.

The implementation of a blanket shall require increased depth of ballast as detailed in section
7.2.5.

7.2.5 Ballast
Ballast should consist of angular crushed stone of between 28 – 50mm (1 1/10 – 2”), it should be
free of fines to allow adequate drainage and should be sufficiently hardwearing.
Ballast depth should be a minimum of 150 mm or 6“ beneath sleepers, ballast should be kept
clear of sleeper tops, chairs and baseplates.
Above a blanket layer, ballast should be a minimum depth of 250mm or 9 8/10” to prevent
tamping damage to the blanket.
Ballast shoulders should be a minimum width of 300mm (12”) for Plain Track. If extra lateral
restraint is required ballast can be heaped on shoulders up to 125 mm (4 9/10”) in height.
The four foot should be sufficiently filled with ballast so that the vertical sleeper faces cannot be
seen.

Permanent Way Handbook 64 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Where the changeover from bridge deck to ballasted track occurs, special consideration must be
given to the packing of the ballast to avoid differential settlement.

7.2.6 Sleepers
Sleepers should be of sound material and able to support loads and maintain the gauge, they
should be fitted perpendicular to the rail and uniformly spaced. Standard of 24 sleepers per 60ft
track panel.
In areas of difficult formation or tight curves (<800m) sleeper spacing’s of 650mm (2’2”) may be
used.
Replacement of sleepers must be of the same material, width and depth over the whole length of
one track panel.
Fine adjustment of cross level error can be achieved through the use of pea ballast as a packing
material.

Timber
Sleepers should be either preserved softwood or hardwood in material such as Douglas Fir, Scots
Fir, Baltic Redwood or Brazilian Hardwood.
Typical sleeper dimensions should be 250 mm (10”) x 125mm (5”) x 2600mm (8’6”).
Second-hand sleepers should be inspected to ensure they are true and straight and have no areas
of decay, hollow or unsound knots, splits or compression failures.

Concrete
Concrete should be prestressed, free from cracks, either transverse or longitudinal and no re-bar
should be exposed.
Current mainline standard F40 sleepers are over strengthened for use on HRs so where available
F27 may be preferred.

Steel
Steel sleepers where used should be to BS 500 design,
Sleeper spacing’s on jointed track should be at 750mm (2’6”) centres corresponding to 24
sleepers per 18.3 (60ft) rail length.

7.2.7 Rail
All rail should be to BS 9 - Bullhead, BS 11 - Flat Bottom, or equivalent for foreign imported rail.
Rails capable of carrying axle loads up to 25 tonnes include 98lb Bullhead and 113A Flat Bottom
rail to BS 11.
Sidewear should be within the limits stated below:
 Extent of sidewear should not reach the bottom of the rail head.

Permanent Way Handbook 65 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
 Rail with a head width of 70m; 9mm of sidewear is permitted before the rail is
unserviceable. Where the rail is reversed, minimum total head width should be no less
than 52mm.
Where second hand rail is purchased, rail ends should ideally be marked before lifting to ensure
dipped rail ends match.

7.2.8 Check Rails

Check rails must be installed on curves of radius less than 120 m, all graded curves should also
have check rails to prevent flange climbing. Check rails will also be found on S & C’s where there is
an interruption to the continuous guiding of the wheel.
A gauge of 1391 mm should be maintained between the outer running edge and the rubbing edge
of the check rail.

7.2.9 Joints
Rail joints should be square on straight track and can be staggered by up to 60mm (2 3/8”) on
curved track.

Expansions Gaps

Below 100C 13/32 in 10 mm

Between 100C – 240C ¼ in 6 mm

Above 240C 1/8 in 3 mm

n.b.Length of rail has no effect on expansion gaps due to tolerances of fishplate hole/bolt
connection.

Fishplates
Fishplates should be greased before installation and secured by not less than 4 bolts per pair of
plates either side of rail ends. Cracked fishplates should be replaced due to risk of shattering.
Fishplates should be lubricated on a regular maintenance schedule using a high quality rail
lubricant to allow free thermal expansion and contraction.
Should repeated cracking of fishplates occur over time, deep skirted fishplates can be installed to
counteract the issue.
Connections between Flat Bottom and Bullhead rail utilise special fishplates which should be
fitted in the above described manner,

Permanent Way Handbook 66 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

ANNEXE A: INSPECTION PROFORMA

Permanent Way Handbook 67 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Inspection Report

Section of Line Walked: Date:

Patrollers Name: Contact Number:

Inspection Start Point:

Inspection Finish Point:

Remarks:

Track Panel Location Track Fault / Defect

Type

EXAMPLE:

Panel 6 from milepost 1 ¾ BH Broken chair and ferrules missing – coach screws reusable

Permanent Way Handbook 68 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Track Panel Location Track Fault / Defect

Type

Permanent Way Handbook 69 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

ANNEXE B: TRACK PANEL INSPECTION PROFORMA

Permanent Way Handbook 70 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Track Panel Inspection Report

Track Panel Location / Identification: Date:

Patrollers Name: Contact Number:

Remarks:

Left Hand Side – Up-line Sleeper Right Hand Side – Up-line

10

Permanent Way Handbook 71 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

Permanent Way Handbook 72 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

ANNEXE C: PROCESS DIAGRAMS

C.1 Rail Damage

C.1.1 Longitudinal Split

Permanent Way Handbook 73 of 84 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
C.1.2 Transverse break through plain rail, rail head or lower part of rail broken away

Permanent Way Handbook 74 of 84 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

C.2 Fishplate Damage

Permanent Way Handbook 75 of 84 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

C.3 Sleeper Defects

Permanent Way Handbook 76 of 84 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BRITISH STANDARDS

BS 9 Specification for Bullhead Railway Rails

BS 11 Specification for Flat bottom Railway Rails

NETWORK RAIL STANDARDS

NR/L2/TRK/0053 Network Rail: Inspection and repair to reduce the risk of derailment at
switches.

NR/L2/TRK/2049 Network Rail: Track Design Handbook

NR/SP/TRK/001 Network Rail: Inspection and Maintenance of the Permanent Way

NR/WI/TRK/001 Network Rail: Track Inspection Handbook

WELSHPOOL & LLANFAIR LIGHT RAILWAY STANDARDS

WLLR Civ 1.00 Definitions, Procedures and Safety Statement

WLLR Civ 1.03 Organisation & Job Descriptions

WLLR Civ 1.09 Permanent Way / Civil Engineering Standards.

OFFICE OF RAIL REGULATION PUBLICATIONS

Railway Safety Publication 3 Safe movement of trains

Railway Safety Publication 4 Safety critical tasks – Clarification of ROGS regulations

requirements

Railway Safety Publication 5 Guidance on Minor Railways

ROGS 2006 The Railways and Other Guided Transport Systems (Safety)
Regulations 2006

ROGS 2006 Guide The Railways and Other Guided Transport Systems (Safety)
Regulations 2006 – A guide to ROGS

RSPG Part 1 Railway Safety Principles and Guidance

RSPG Part 2A Guidance on infrastructure

RSPG Part 2E Guidance on level crossings

HEALTH & SAFETY EXECUTIVE PUBLICATIONS

Permanent Way Handbook 77 of 93 pages
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
HSE 13 Health and Safety Regulation: A short guide

INDG 143 Getting to grips with manual handling

INDG 174 A short guide to the Personal Protective Equipment

INDG 398 Are you making the best use of lifting and handling aids?

MISC 769 RIDDOR Ring and Report

Management of Health and Safety at Work 2000 (ISBN 9780717624881)

OTHER PUBLICATIONS

PWI: British Railway track: Design, Constuction and Maintenance 1971

MOD: Design and Maintenance Guide 09: Permanent Way

Permanent Way Handbook 78 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

GLOSSARY

A
Adjustment Switch Switch allowing the expansion of continuous welded rail track. Installed
between CWR and jointed track it permits thermal movement of the CWR.
See also: expansion switch

Adze Tool used to carve or smooth wood, in this context, sleepers.

Alignment Position of rail in both horizontal and vertical planes, relative to design.
position.

Anchor Attached to both rail and sleeper/chair, it prevents creep (longitudinal

movement) of rails.

AIR Association of Independent Railways.

Now part of the Heritage Railway Association (HRA) after merging with the
Association of Railway Preservation Societies (ARPS).

ARPS Association of Railway Preservation Societies.

Now part of the Heritage Railway Association (HRA) after merging with the
Association of Independent railways (AIR).

B
Ballast Layer of uniform sized stone placed on top of the sub-layer. The stone
(commonly limestone or granite) supports and restrains sleepers, and
provides good drainage for the track.
See also: bottom ballast and upper ballast.

Ballast Shoulder Ballast mounds placed at the ends of sleepers to prevent lateral movement.

Baseplate Fastened to the top of sleepers, baseplates support flat-bottomed rails.

Baseplate pad Square of rubber, or other resilient material positioned between sleeper and
baseplate to absorb vibrations and prevent indentation of the plate.

Bed Area occupied by ballast between sleepers.

Blanketing Sand (or synthetic membrane) positioned between earthwork formation and
bottom ballast to improve drainage. Used particularly in situations where
mud pumping may occur, such as on clay soils.

Bottom Ballast Ballast beneath sleepers employed as vertical support. Placed, levelled and
compacted before track is laid.

Boxing in Term used to describe the placing of ballast to form typical ballast profile.

British Rail Operator of the entire railway network of the United Kingdom until
privatisation in 1995.

Permanent Way Handbook 79 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Broad gauge Track laid with the distance between the inside edges of the rail being
significantly greater than 1435mm (Standard Gauge).

Buckle Distortion in alignment of rails often caused by extreme changes in

temperature.

Buffer stop Found at the end of railway lines or sidings to stop vehicles.

Bullhead Rail Otherwise known as BH.

Type of rail in which the head and foot are of equal width. Superseded by flat
bottom rail. Used extensively on heritage railways.

C
Cant On curved track, the vertical elevation of the outer rail above inner rail to
counteract the centrifugal force of the train travelling around a curve. Also
can be referred to in terms of the cant of a rail; the angle of a rail relative to
vertical. Also known as superelevation.

Cant deficiency The height by which the outer rail on a curve would have to be lifted in order
to counteract the lateral cornering force. Dependant upon the typical running
speed of vehicles on individual curves.

Cant gradient Rate of change of cant with distance around a curve.

Chair Fitting attached to timber or concrete sleepers which supports bullhead rail.
Predominantly superseded by bearing pads and flat-bottomed rail on the
main line network but still widely used on heritage railways.

Check Rail Rail set close to the inside running rail so as to make contact with the back of
the vehicle flange on traversing vehicles. On a sharp curve this contact
prevents the flange of the opposite wheel from impacting heavily with the
running rail. Check rails are also used at crossings to ensure the opposite
flange follows the correct route, avoiding derailment.

Circular Curve Curve with constant radius.

Coachscrew Type of fastening used to firmly attach chairs to sleepers.

Permanent Way Handbook 80 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Corrugation A type of rail defect involving regular peaks and troughs on the surface of the
rail.

Creep The longitudinal migration of rails in the direction of predominant traffic

flow, relative to other pieces of the permanent way.

Crib Area occupied by ballast between sleepers.

Crossing (1) A right of way across a railway line allowing pedestrians or vehicles to cross
the line safely.
(2) A piece of permanent way, the purpose of which is to allow one track to
cross another at an angle.
(3) Component of a turnout. Specifically the point where the tracks diverge
leading out of the turnout. Element forms a ‘V’.

Crossing angle The acute angle between rails at a crossing.

Cross Level (1) Difference in the horizontal level of rails, relative to the centre line.
(2) Gauge used to measure the extent of this difference.

Cross over Rails allowing trains to move between two parallel tracks.

Cross-tie Sleeper

Cutting Channel excavated through hillside to reduce height gain of railway.

CWR Continuous Welded Rail.

A form of track where rails are butt welded together to form one continuous
rail greater than 36.5 metres long.
Provides smoother running surface and reduced maintenance requirements
due to the lack of joints, a common area for faults to develop.
Also known as Ribbon Rail.

Cyclic top Can cause excessive vehicle sway resulting in passenger discomfort and
possibly derailment.

Depending upon the speed and loading of a vehicle, there is the potential for
it to cause a derailment. Cyclic top occurs predominantly on jointed track
where joints can dip every 30m (60ft). The regular dips can cause vehicles to
effectively bounce progressively more violently until the vehicle bounces out
of the four foot, derailing.

D
Design Speed Speed (in miles per hour) which the line has been designed to accommodate.

Diamond Track which allows one rail line to cross another. See also Crossing

Double Track Route in which a track is provided for travel in each direction.

Dual gauge Type of line designed to accommodate vehicles of different gauge through
the addition of a third rail between the existing rails.

Permanent Way Handbook 81 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
E
EAT Equivalent Annual Tonnage.
The total tonnage annually over a section of line. Note: The actual weight of
each train is multiplied by a factor depending upon the impact of the rolling
stock on the track.

Electric staff or token System of dispensing tokens from machines at either end of the operating
line which ensures only one token is in operation at once.

Embankment A section of the line built up to fill a depression in the terrain and reduce the
extent of the gradient of the line.

ESR Emergency Speed Restriction.

Speed reduction applied for a short period of time whilst the track is not fully
sound due to faults or maintenance work.

Expansion switch Switch allowing the expansion of continuous welded rail track. Installed
between CWR and jointed track it permits thermal movement of the CWR.
Also known as adjustment switch.

F
Facing Pointing in the direction from which trains predominantly approach.

Facing crossover Crossover which faces the predominant direction of travel on the lines.

Facing turnout A turnout which can select the path of a train (the way in which it will
diverge). Switches face the predominant direction of travel.

Facing point Point allowing trains to change track without changing direction of travel.

Fastening Device used to secure a rail. This can be through connecting the sleeper and
rail directly or indirectly connecting the rail to a chair fastened to the sleeper.

Fishplate Metal plate with four holes to allow the connection of two rails. In jointed
track. When fastened with four bolts a bolted butt connection is made.

Flangeway Area adjacent to rail which must be kept clear to allow free, unimpeded
passage of the wheel flange.

Permanent Way Handbook 82 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Fettle Term used to describe the repairing of the permanent way.

Ferrule Small hollow plastic hollow stopper placed between chair and coachscrew to
absorb vibrations from the track and reduced damage to sleepers caused by
such vibrations. Ferules act by absorbing some of the vibration caused by the
passing of trains to reduce the forces experienced by the sleepers. Therefore,
if they are found to be missing the sleepers experience the full vibratory
force, allowing movement of coachscrews thus widening holes and resulting
in a loss of grip, allowing the gauge to increase.

Flaking Bad corrosion of steel resulting in ‘flakes’ of metal peeling away.

Flange Lip protruding from the inner edge of wheels to restrain the movement of
rolling stock and keep them on the rails.

Flangeway Gap through which the wheel flange passes between the check-rail and
running rail.

Flat Wheel defect in which the wheel is no longer round. Most commonly results
from the dragging of seized wheels caused by locked bearings or brakes

Flat bottom rail Type of rail with wide foot and flat bottom to allow direct fastening of the rail
to sleepers without the need for chairs.
Form of rail which superseded bullhead rail.

Flange Climbing During the traverse of a curve by a train the flange of the front outside wheel
pushes against the gauge face as it guides the vehicle around the curve. Due
to the rigid nature of the axles the outer wheel is directed outwards at an
angle resulting in the wheel impacting with the gauge face. The combination
of these forces causes sidewear but if the force of impact and pressure
against the outer rail are high enough then the wheel flange can climb up the
rail and derail.

Formation Trackbed and earthworks of a railway line.

Formation Level Marking the top the foundation level, level at which ballast is laid.

Fouling point Area around two or more converging tracks in which sufficient clearance is
unavailable for trains to pass each other.

Four foot The area of a track bordered by a pair of rails. Abbreviation for four foot,
eight and a half inches.

Frog Point in a crossover that allows the wheel flange of stock taking one route to
pass through the rail of the other.
Permanent Way Handbook 83 of 93 pages
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

G
Gall Defect in which either the chair is damaged or eroded by the movement of
the rail or the rail is damaged by the chair.

Gauge Distance between the inner edges of the parallel rails.

Gauge face The inside or running edge of a rail from which the gauge is measured.

Geotextiles Permeable fabrics are those which have the capacity to filter, drain or protect
earthworks.

Gradient Post Post positioned beside the line to detail a change in gradient of the track.

Grade Slope of track. Normally expressed as “1 in n” where n is the number of feet

or metres it takes for the track to rise one foot or one metre.

Greasing The application of lubrication to the underside of fishplates to allow

unhindered thermal expansion of rails

Guard rail Extra rails positioned between the running rails to prevent a derailed vehicle
from going completely off the track.

H
Hallade Method used during permanent way works to survey design and set-out
curves. Named after Emile Hallade.

HMRI Her Majesty’s Railway Inspectorate. Disbanded in May 2009. Previously

oversaw safety on Britain’s Railways.

HRA Heritage Railways Association. An umbrella organisation which represents

heritage and preserved railways across the United Kingdom and Ireland.

Permanent Way Handbook 84 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
I
Inclined Baseplate A baseplate inclined towards the centre line of the fourfoot. Designed to
allow a wider portion of inclined wheel to be in contact with the rail.

J
Jim Crow Tool used to bend or remove bends from track.

Joint Dip Situation where two ends of jointed track butted together have dipped below
the usual running line level. Can be due to a variety of causes but should be
addressed.

Jointed track Track in which track lengths are bolted together end-to-end using a fishplate.

Junction Point on the line at which two or more lines diverge from each other.

K
Kango Hammer A vibrating hammer with a special attachment which is sunk into ballast to
consolidate and so ‘tamp’ the ballast. User should only operate tool for short
periods due to risk of ‘white finger’.

Key Component used to restrain rail.

For flat bottom rail the rail is held to the chair by a sprung steel link.
For bullhead rail a wedge (either wooden or metal) is hammered between
the outside edge of the rail and the chair.

L
Level crossing A crossing between road and rail.

Line Horizontal alignment of rail.

Line speed Maximum permitted speed on line.

Lookout Trackman whose duties involve observing for the approach of trains and
warning those working on the line.

LWR Long Welded Rail.

Permanent Way Handbook 85 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
A form of track where rails are butt welded together to form one continuous
rail up to 36.5 metres long

Loading Gauge Height and width dimension limits which allow rolling stock to travel safely
and clear all lineside structures.

Longitudinal timbers Sleepers which run along instead of across the direction of travel. Used in
special circumstances on bridges etc.

M
Main line Primary running track (or artery) of railway, as contrasted with spurs, yard
lines, and sidings. Route connecting locations of importance.

Marker board Temporary notice placed to the side of the running track to draw attention to
a specific feature.

Mile post Post positioned beside the line to indicate the distance from that point to the
datum (usually start of the line). Aids recording and identification of faults
and defects.

N
Narrow gauge Track with a gauge less than 1435mm.

Network Rail Government created owner and operator of the majority of Great Britain’s
rail infrastructure.

Nose Point at which the running edges of two rails meet to form a crossing.

O
ORR Office of Rail Regulation.
Permanent Way Handbook 86 of 93 pages
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Economic and Safety regulator for the UK’s railway network. Replaced the
Rail Regulator in mid 2004.

Outside edge Opposite edge of rail to the gauge face.

P
PACT Paved Concrete Track.
From of ballastless track consisting of a continuous reinforced concrete slab
with baseplates attached to its surface.

Pad Material such as rubber which is non-conductive and resilient which is placed
between the baseplate and the rail to prevent galling.

Permanent Way The structure consisting of the rails, fasteners, sleepers and ballast plus the
underlying sub grade.

Permissible Speed Highest speed at which trains can traverse a curve when radius, cant, cant
gradient and rates of change of cant are considered.

Plain line Length of track unimpeded by crossings or turnouts.

Points Also known as turnouts.

Point rail One of two rails forming the nose of a crossing.

Possession Occupation of the line (usually for engineering works) during which the line is
closed for normal services.

PSR Permanent Speed Restriction.

Applied to specific locations where a reduction in speed is a safety
requirement or to improve the ride comfort for passengers.

Pumping Defect where soft ground or voids results in sleepers being poorly supported
and allows movement under loading. Can result in fines being brought up
through the ballast and contaminating it.

Q
No Entries

R
Rail grinder Machine used to wear down irregularities on the surface of rails.

Rail seat Area on baseplate, sleepers or chair which supports the rail.

RCF Rolling contact fatigue - Damage that appears in rails due to overstressing
caused by wheel-rail contact. RCF describes a family of faults including:
spalling, flaking and squatting.

Permanent Way Handbook 87 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Reception siding Sidings used to hold haulage trains until the running times of passenger
services have passed.

Refuge (1) Siding used by trains to allow overtaking by more important, faster trains. For
example passenger services overtaking goods trains.
(2) Indent in the wall of a tunnel or cutting in which a person or persons can
stand safely when a train is passing.

Rerailer Metal device used to guide derailed trains back onto the track.

Reverse Curve Curve formed by two circular curves on opposite sides of the track.

Rolling stock Vehicles operating on railway other than locomotives.

Running Line Track which makes up part of a continuous route rather than loops or sidings.

Running Rail Rails on which the wheels of trains run rather than, for example, check rails
which merely guide the rails.

Run-round the practice of releasing a locomotive from its train, moving it to the other
end of the train and re-attaching it, to make it ready for the return journey.

S
S&C Switches and crossings.
Covers all elements of crossings and turnouts.

Sand drag Length of track buried in sand to stop runaway vehicles safely without
derailing them.

Shim Slither of metal used to ensure worn fishplates fully fit into the rail profile
and adequately support the joint. Process of shiming.

Siding Track just off the main line used to store rolling stock.

Six-foot Narrow corridor between a pair of double tracks.

Sleeper Hardwood, steel or concrete bars placed perpendicular (at 90 ) to the rails to
support them and transfer the load from trains down to the ballast and sub-
layer. Sleepers also maintain the position of the rails and therefore the
gauge.

Hardwood sleepers typically have dimensions of: 250 mm (10”) x 125 mm

(5”) x 2600 mm (8’6”).

Slewing Process of moving a section of track, including sleepers back into alignment
from a state of being out of alignment, possibly due to buckling.

Slide baseplate Baseplate which supports moving part of flathead rail in a turnout.

Slide chair Chair which supports moving part bullhead rail in a turnout.

Permanent Way Handbook 88 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

Slip Type of S&C unit.

Slippery Rail Condition resulting from leave litter and other detritus sticking to the track
causing wheel slippage.

Spalling A heat produced metal reaction when the wheel slides along the rail. Causes
dips to appear in either the wheel or on the rail surface.

Splice rail One of a pair of rails forming the nose of a crossing.

Spot re-sleepering Replacement of sleepers on an individual basis when or just before failure
occurs.

Spur Stretch of line branching off from the main line. Often miles in length and
used to reach a facility, customer or industrial area.

Squat Crack in the rail head caused by fatigue.

Standard gauge Normal width between gauge faces used in the United Kingdom and across
Europe

Stock rail The fixed rail which the point of a switch rests against in a turnout.

Stop blocks See Buffer stop.

Stretcher bar Connection between switches used to maintain gauge during operation.

Superelevation See cant.

Switch Track formation including moveable rails to allow diversion of trains from one
track to another.

T
Tamping The use of vibrating tongs to penetrate and repack ballast under sleepers.
Tongs can be vehicle mounted or a hand tool.

Tare weight Weight of vehicle when unloaded.

Terram Trade name of supplier and manufacturer of geosynthetics (geocomposites,

geotextiles and geocells).

Permanent Way Handbook 89 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Tie rod Rod which runs between a pair of rails, tying them together to maintain
gauge.

Timber Softwood or hardwood lengths used to connect and support the rails of
crossings or switches.

Token Object given to drivers of locomotives or others who wish to have full
possession of the line.

Top Refers to the accuracy of a rails vertical alignment.

Top ballast Ballast placed on top of bottom ballast and above the level of the underside
of sleepers to restrain lateral movement of the track system. It is laid after
installation of the track components.

Track Parallel rails which guide the direction of travel of trains.

Track Formation The ground and soil structure beneath the ballast on which the track system
is laid.

Track Panel Term to describe the complete system of rails, chairs/fastenings and
sleepers. Typically considered in 30 or 60ft lengths.

Trailing crossover Crossover used by trains which are travelling against the normal flow of
traffic or are reversing. The crossover therefore faces in the opposite
direction to the predominant flow of traffic.

Transition Curve Where a straight track changes into a curve. The curve is of constantly
varying radius designed to reduce the effects of centrifugal force experienced
by users.

TSR Temporary Speed Restriction.

Limit on speed for a stretch of line usually set in place for safety reasons.

Turnout Another term for a set of points. Track involved in ‘turning out’ one line from
the main line.

Twist Track defect whereby there is a change in the cross level over a short length
of track. Where severe it can cause the wheels of a vehicle to lose contact
with the running surface of the rail.
Also known as the rate of change of cross level or cant gradient and can
therefore be detected through the measuring the cant of the track every
three metres.

Twist Rail A type of rail which merges together the inclined main line rail with the
vertical rail of a S&C component.

U
Up line Direction of travel towards the major city / London.

V
Permanent Way Handbook 90 of 93 pages
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
Vertical Curves Second important transition element in the design of railway tracks allowing
gradual, smooth movement between terrains of different heights.

Viaduct Structure which carries the railway above ground level usually across rivers or
a valley.

W
Wet spot Area of track bed at which vertical movement of sleepers causes fines to
contaminate ballast and choke drainage.

Wheel base Distance between the front and rear axle of a vehicle (centre of axles).

X
No entries.

Y
No entries.

Z
No entries.

Permanent Way Handbook 91 of 93 pages

 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh

INDEX
BALLAST, 9, 31, 40, 66 INSPECTING THE LINE, 20
BASEPLATES, 45 INSPECTION KIT, 20
BUCKLING, 36 LEVELS OF INSPECTION, 20
PROCEDURE, 20
INSPECTION REPORTS AND RECORDS, 37
CANT, 17, 65
CHAIN, 3
CHAIRS, 43 JOINTS, 47, 68
CHECK RAILS, 68
CHECK RAILS IN S&C, 60
CHECKRAILS, 15 LEVEL CROSSINGS, 33
COACHSCREWS, 45 LEVELS OF INSPECTION, 20
COLD WEATHER, 62 LINESIDE SAFETY, 4
CONCRETE, 31, 67
CROSS LEVEL ERROR, 65
CURVES MAINTENANCE, 39
CANT, 17 MANUAL HANDLING
TRANSITION CURVES, 17 TECHNIQUE, 5
CUTTING OF RAILS, 56 MANUAL WORKING, 5
CUTTINGS & EMBANKMENTS, 40 MARKING DEFECTS, 37
CWR, 1 MILEPOSTS, 18
MOVEMENT OF TRAINS, 4

EXPANSION GAPS, 36
EXPANSION GAPS, 52 NARROW GAUGE, 2
EXPANSIONS GAPS, 68

OFF TRACK, 33
FERRULES, 46
FISHBOLTS, 49
FISHPLATES, 68 PATROLLER, 21
FISHPLATES, 47 DUTIES OF, 21
FIXED RADIUS CURVE, 65 PICOW, 5
FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION, 38 PLACE OF SAFETY, 4
PPE, 6

GAUGE AND GEOMETRY INSPECTION, 34

QUICK REFERENCE STANDARDS, 19

HEALTH & SAFETY REGULATIONS

MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH AND SAFETY AT RAIL, 67
WORK REGULATIONS, 6 RAIL CREEP, 57
RIDDOR, 6 RAIL FIXINGS
ROGS, 6 BULLHEAD, 13
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT, 64 CONCRETE, 13
HOT WEATHER, 62 FLAT BOTTOMED, 13
STEEL, 13
TIMBER, 13
INSPECTION RAIL GRINDING, 56
BASIC VISUAL, 20 RAIL LUBRICATION, 56
GAUGE AND GEOMETRY, 24 RAILS, 11, 52
Permanent Way Handbook 92 of 93 pages
 Heritage Railway Association
University of Edinburgh
AXLE WEIGHTS, 11 SUPERELEVATION. SEE CANT
BULLHEAD, 11 SWITCH TOE OPENING, 60
EXPANSION JOINTS, 11 SWITCHES & CROSSINGS, 32, 59
FISHPLATES, 11 SWITCHES & CROSSINGS (S&C), 16
FLAT BOTTOM, 11 SWITCHES AND CROSSINGS (S & CS), 66
RCF, 56
REPLACEMENT OF RAILS, 57
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE PRACTICE, 40 TIMBER, 28, 67
TRACK GAUGE, 64
TRACK GEOMETRY, 64
SHIMMING, 51 TRACK STANDARDS, 64
SIDEWEAR, 36 TRANSITION CURVES, 65
SLEEPERS, 41, 67 TRANSITION CURVES, 17
CONCRETE, 9 TWIST, 35, 65
STEEL, 9
TIMBER, 9
SLEWING, 58 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT, 2
STANDARD GAUGE, 2
STEEL, 30, 67
STRETCHER BARS, 18 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT, 65
SUBGRADE, 9, 66

Permanent Way Handbook 93 of 93 pages