Unit-1

General Introduction to OD:

Organization development (OD) is the study and implementation of practices, systems, and
techniques that affect organizational change. The goal of which is to modify a
group's/organization's performance and/or culture. The organizational changes are typically
initiated by the group's stakeholders. OD emerged from human relations studies in the 1930s,
during which psychologists realized that organizational structures and processes influence
worker behavior and motivation.
Organization Development allows businesses to construct and maintain a brand new
preferred state for the whole agency. Key concepts of OD theory include: organizational
climate (the mood or unique "personality" of an organization, which includes attitudes and
beliefs that influence members' collective behavior), organizational culture (the deeply-seated
norms, values, and behaviors that members share) and organizational strategies (how an
organization identifies problems, plans action, negotiates change and evaluates progress). [1] A
key aspect of OD is to review organizational identity.
Objectives
The objectives of OD are:

1. to increase the level of inter-personal trust among employees

2. to increase employees' level of satisfaction and commitment
3. to confront problems instead of neglecting them
4. to effectively manage conflict
5. to increase cooperation and collaboration among employees
6. to increase organizational problem-solving
7. to put in place processes that will help improve the ongoing operation of an
organization on a continuous basis

Overview of the Field of Organization Development

OD is an effort that focuses on improving an organization’s capability through the alignment

of strategy, structure, people, rewards, metrics, and management processes. It is a science-
backed, interdisciplinary field rooted in psychology, culture, innovation, social sciences,
adult education, human resource management, change management, organization behavior,
and research analysis and design, among others.

Organization development involves an ongoing, systematic, long-range process of driving

organizational effectiveness, solving problems, and improving organizational performance. It
is also one of the capabilities identified in the Talent Development Capability Model.
OD Strategy: Five Phases
TD professionals should integrate OD skills with the growing number of L&D, performance
improvement, and talent management solutions focused upon increasing organizational
effectiveness. The process used by OD practitioners to design and implement organizational
development strategies is structured in five phases:

1. Entry represents the initial contact between consultant and client in which they
present, explore, and identify the problem, opportunities, or situation. The output of
this phase is an engagement contract or project plan that establishes mutual
expectations and preliminary agreements about project scope (such as time, money,
and resources).
2. Diagnosis (assessment) represents the fact-finding phase. It is a collaborative data
gathering process between organizational stakeholders and the consultant in which
relevant information about the presenting problem is gathered, analyzed, and
reviewed.
3. Feedback represents the return of analyzed information to the client or client system;
exploration of the information for understanding, clarity, and accuracy; review of
preliminary agreements about scope and resource requirements; and the beginning of
ownership of data by the client. The output of this phase is typically an action plan
that outlines the change solutions to be developed, along with defined success
indicators based on the information and data analysis.
4. Solution represents the design, development, and implementation of the solution or
set of solutions meant to correct the problems, close gaps, improve or enhance
organizational performance and effectiveness, or seize opportunities. Outputs may
include a communication plan, a role-and-responsibility matrix, a training plan, a
training curriculum, an implementation plan, a risk management plan, an evaluation
plan, or a change management plan.
5. Evaluation represents the continuous process of collecting formative and summative
evaluation data to determine whether the initiative is meeting the intended goals and
achieving defined success indicators. Outputs generally include an evaluation report
with recommendations for continuous improvement.
Definitions of OD:
According to Cummings & Worley Organization development is a system-wide application
and transfer of behavioral science knowledge to the planned development, improvement, and
reinforcement of the strategies, structures, and processes that lead to organization
effectiveness.
According to Vail Organization development is an organizational process for understanding
and improving any and all substantives processes and an organization may develop for
performing any tasks and pursuing any objectives
History of OD and its Evolution:
Kurt Lewin (1898–1947) is the founding father of OD, although he died before the concept
became mainstream in the mid-1950s.[4] From Lewin came the ideas of group
dynamics and action research which underpin the basic OD process as well as providing its
collaborative consultant/client ethos. Institutionally, Lewin founded the "Research Center for
Group Dynamics" (RCGD) at MIT, which moved to Michigan after his death. RCGD
colleagues were among those who founded the National Training Laboratories (NTL), from
which the T-groups and group-based OD emerged.
In the late 1960s organizational development was implemented in organizations via
consultants, but was relatively unknown as a theory of practice and had no common
definition among its practitioners. Richard Beckhard, an authority on organizational
development and change management, defined organizational development as "an effort,
planned, organization-wide, and managed from the top, to increase organization effectiveness
and health through planned interventions in the organization's processes, using behavioral-
science knowledge" (Beckhard 1969).

The Evolution of Organizational Development: Past, Present, and Future

Let’s start with the beginning of change management and organizational development.

Past
In the early part of the last century, Kurt Lewin developed a body of ideas that became the
foundation of change management.

These include:

 Action research. Action research is a form of participatory problem-solving. By

working together, a group is able to more effectively analyze, address, and fix
problems. 

 Group dynamics. Group dynamics refers to how groups behave and interact. This

psychological approach helps change managers understand how employees react to
 change. In turn, this helps managers address employee resistance and other barriers
to change.

 Force field theory and analysis. This framework looks at factors that influence a
situation – an individual, goals, and forces that either hinder or enable an
individual’s movement toward that goal. 

 The 3-stage change process. Kurt Lewin’s change model has informed many
other subsequent change frameworks. This framework identifies three main stages
in any change process – unfreezing previous processes, transitioning to a new
state, and refreezing the new status quo.

Throughout the latter half of the 20th century, a number of scholars further developed these
ideas.Those developments led to change management theories as they exist today.

Present
What does organizational development look like today?

 Change management. Change management is the business discipline devoted to

managing change, mitigating risk, executing change projects, maximizing project
ROI, and so on. Today’s change practitioners use methods developed from the
ideas covered above, such as John Kotter’s 8-step change model or Prosci’s
ADKAR model.

 Organization development. Organization development (OD), is another field

devoted to executing and managing change projects. Many of the foundational
ideas are the same and it shares many of the same aims. However, its specific
methods and objectives can be distinct from those of change management.

 Digital change. Today, all businesses are becoming digital. And change

management is also digitizing, through the use of data, analytics, automation, and
other digital tools and processes. To stay relevant and effective, change managers
should begin digitizing their own approaches to organizational development.

Future
What does the future hold for the evolution of organizational development?

Here are a few things to look for:

  More AI, data, and analytics. Today’s most cutting-edge change managers
implement data, analytics, and AI. These can be used to predict project outcomes,
improve team synergy, analyze project performance, and much more. 

 Continual change. The digital revolution is far from over. To keep up with an

economy in transition, businesses should prepare themselves for continual,
ongoing change. In the coming years, expect more technology-driven changes –
not less. 

 Lifelong learning. Today’s businesses are already facing a digital skills shortage.

And in the coming years, the digital skills gap will widen and become a permanent
feature of business. To keep employees relevant, effective training will be more
important than ever.

Characteristics of Organization Development

Plannedchange:
OD is an educational strategy for bringing about planned change. Planned change concept
makes it different from other approaches for change in the organizations.

Longrange change:
OD is a sort of long range process. It may take days or months or years to implement it. The
Organizational Development is never intended to be a stopgap arrangement or measure.

c. Systems Orientation:
Organization Development is concerned with various groups in the organization and their
interactions with each other. It is concerned with formal or informal as well as social
relationships. It is concerned with group structure, processes and attitudes. The
Organizational Development emphasizes on the relationship among the groups and not on the
groups themselves.

d. Change agent:
The services of external experts are obtained, generally, to implement OD process. In OD,”
do it yourself” programs are discouraged, when the primary change agent is consultant from
outside the organization. He can operate independently without ties to the Organizational
hierarchy and politics of the organizations. Change agents do not just introspect the
employees and introduce changes, rather, they conduct surveys, collect data, evaluate and
then take decision.

e. Problem solving:
Organization emphasize on problem solving rather than just theoretical discussion of the
problems. The focus on real, ongoing problems rather than the theoretical or artificial ones is
called action research.

f. Collaborative Management:
In contrast to the traditional management structure where orders are issued at upper levels
and simply carried out by the lower levels, OD stresses collaboration among different levels.
In OD, collaborative management is viewed in a systems perspective.

g. Group Processes:
In Organizational development, an effort is mad to improve interpersonal relationship, open
communicational channels, build trust, and encourage responsiveness to others. For this,
Organizational Development relies on group processes like group discussions; inter group
conflicts, confrontations and procedures for cooperative efforts.

h. Situational and Contingency:

Organizational Development is flexible and pragmatic, adapting to the actions to fit particular
requirements. Although some occasional organization development change agents may have
to impose a single best way on the group, there is, usually, open discussion of several
superior alternatives rather than a single best way.

i. Reciprocal Relationship:
The organizational development recognizes the reciprocal relationship between individuals
engaged in tasks and the organizations. It acknowledges that for organization to change for
better, thee individual in the organization must change.

j. Goal Orientation:
The organization Development is mostly goal oriented. It is generally a process which seeks
to constantly improve both the individual and organizational well-being and effectiveness.
ASSUMPTIONS AND VALUES OF OD
OD is based upon the following assumptions and values:
• Most individuals are driven by the need for personal growth and development as long as
their environment is both supportive and challenging.
• The work team, especially at the informal level, has great significance for feelings of
satisfaction, and the dynamics of such teams have a powerful effect on the behavior of their
members.
• OD programmers aim to improve the quality of working life of all members of the
organization.
• Organizations can be more effective if they learn to diagnose their own strengths and
weaknesses. • But managers often do not know what is wrong and need special help in
diagnosing problems, although the outside „process consultant‟ ensures that decision making
remains in the hands of the client
Growth and relevance of OD:
1. Optimization of Operations: Organizational Development (OD) aids in
pinpointing operations requiring modifications, leading to a comprehensive
management plan that assesses needs and potential changes. This optimization
enhances productivity and efficiency, promoting innovation and increasing
profitability.
2. Improved Efficiency: Through OD, businesses streamline their processes,
optimizing the use of resources. This enhancement results in an increased
output from the same or even fewer inputs, reducing waste and operational
costs and improving efficiency.
3. Improved Effectiveness: OD promotes increased communication and
collaboration, resulting in multi-dimensional solutions to business needs. The
chosen solutions will likely meet their objectives through careful consideration
and thorough research.
4. Positioning for Future Expansion: OD assists in communicating a vision for
future operations, aligning talents with this vision, and identifying skills gaps
to bridge. This readies the organization for future growth.
5. Exploration of Market Opportunities: OD enables an organizational
structure assessment for flexibility and the identification of resource needs. It
also strengthens processes to accommodate new market opportunities.
6. Capacity Building: OD provides employees the skills to meet new market
requirements. Balancing an organization’s strengths and weaknesses ensures
the effective use of resources.
7. Improved Operational Quality: OD promotes a culture of continuous
improvement and innovation, reducing operational errors and ensuring high-
quality outputs. This enhances product quality and boosts employee morale by
fostering a sense of accomplishment.
8. Increased Value for Stakeholders: OD creates a win-win scenario for all
stakeholders by elevating productivity. Suppliers benefit from heightened
demand, investors enjoy higher returns, and employees gain from skill
enhancements and professional growth opportunities.
9. Cost Reduction: Organizational Development significantly influences cost
reduction within a company. It does this by fostering an enjoyable work
environment, thus improving employee retention and reducing the cost of
constant recruitment. Additionally, by promoting a culture that values
continuous improvement, OD helps to increase productivity and efficiency,
thereby reducing operational costs and wastage.
10. Increased Competitiveness: With OD, organizations can identify, hone, and
leverage their unique resources and competencies. This is vital for standing
out in the saturated marketplace. By fostering innovation and aiding in
strategic decision-making, OD empowers businesses to build competitive
advantages that lead to market leadership and business success.
 11. Improved Process Integration: Organizational Development enables
organizations to scrutinize and reassess their operational processes. It
highlights any inefficiencies or duplications and provides insights into
potential process combinations that can streamline operations and enhance
efficiency. This aspect of OD optimizes the workflow, leading to improved
performance and productivity.
12. Ease of Embracing Changes: Change is constant and often unavoidable in
the business landscape. OD helps organizations to adopt a proactive approach
toward change. By encouraging the active engagement of stakeholders and
preparing them for future alterations, OD ensures that transitions are smooth
and less disruptive. This helps to maintain organizational stability and
continuity during periods of change.
13. Enhanced Process Sustainability: Organizational Development allows for
data-driven planning and management of growth. Businesses can make
informed decisions about the future by analyzing sales projections and market
demand. This ability aids in resource allocation and operational adjustments,
ensuring sustainable growth and relevance in the evolving marketplace.
14. Enhanced Communication: One crucial benefit of OD is improving
communication within organizations. OD provides leaders with the necessary
tools to express their future vision clearly. This transparent communication
rallies support from stakeholders, motivating teams and fostering a unified
effort towards achieving common organizational goals. This leads to a more
engaged, motivated, and effective team.
15. Fostering Organizational Learning: The culture shifts towards continuous
improvement and nurtures a learning mindset that includes rewarding success,
sharing knowledge, and ongoing training and Development.
Ethical Issues in OD:
An ethical issue is a problem or situation that requires a person to choose between two
options, where both options are morally wrong. Ethical issues can be divided into three
categories: personal, professional, and social. Examples of personal ethical issues include
whether or not to take your spouse’s last name after marriage and how much money you
want to inherit from your parents when they die. Professional ethics refer to the right thing
for a particular profession such as teaching, accounting, law enforcement, etc. For example,
what constitutes a conflict of interest in medicine? Social ethics have to do with the values
and beliefs within society.
Different types of ethical issues in OD:
Unethical Leadership
Having a personal issue with your boss is one thing, but reporting to a person who is
behaving unethically is another. This may come in an obvious form, like manipulating
numbers in a report or spending company money on inappropriate activities; however, it can
also occur more subtly, in the form of bullying, accepting inappropriate gifts from suppliers,
or asking you to skip a standard procedure just once. With studies indicating that managers
are responsible for 60% of workplace misconduct, the abuse of leadership authority is an
unfortunate reality.
Toxic Workplace Culture
Organizations helmed by unethical leadership are more often than not plagued by a toxic
workplace culture. Leaders who think nothing of taking bribes, manipulating sales figures
and data or pressuring employees or business associates for “favors” (whether they be
personal or financial), will think nothing of disrespecting and bullying their employees. With
the current emphasis in many organizations to hire for “cultural fit,” a toxic culture can be
exacerbated by continually repopulating the company with like-minded personalities and
toxic mentalities.

Discrimination and Harassment 

Laws require organizations to be equal employment opportunity employers. Organizations
must recruit a diverse workforce, enforce policies and training that support an equal
opportunity program, and foster an environment that is respectful of all types of people.
Unfortunately, there are still many whose practices break with EEOC guidelines
Unrealistic and Conflicting Goals

Your organization sets a goal—it could be a monthly sales figure or product production
number—that seems unrealistic, even unattainable. While not unethical in and of itself (after
all, having driven leadership with aggressive company goals is crucial to innovation and
growth), it’s how employees, and even some leaders, go about reaching the goal that could
raise an ethical red flag.

Questionable Use of Company Technology

While this may feel like a minor blip in the grand scheme of workplace ethics, the improper
use of the internet and company technology is a huge cost for organizations in lost time,
worker productivity and company dollars.

Unit-2

Foundations of Organization Development:

Leaders and OD practitioners use the knowledge of organization development theory and
practice to plan and implement effective change programs in their organizations. The
knowledge base of OD is extensive and is constantly growing.
Following are the most important underpinnings for the field of OD.
1. Models and theories of planned change
2. Systems theory
3. Participation and empowerment
4. Teams and teamwork
5. Parallel learning structures
6. A normative-re-educative strategy of changing
7. Applied behavioural science
8. Action research
Theories of Planned Change
1. Kurt Lewin’s Organizational change theories
 Resultant Theory
 Three stage Model
2. Burke Litwin’s model of Organization change
 First Order Change and Second Order Change
3. Porras and Robertson’s model of Organizational Change
 Based on work setting

What Is Lewin’s Change Model Theory?

Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Theory states that restraining forces influence the behavior of both
the group and individuals, ultimately deciding the fate of change. The driving forces motivate
& steer employees toward the new state. The restraining forces highlight potential resistance
to change, acting as the prime barriers to change initiatives. 

Lewin suggests that it is crucial to balance these forces through effective change
communication and employee involvement by providing training to bridge the skill
gap. Change agents must implement stress management techniques, ensure compliance is
met, and use convincing change reasoning

The 3 Stages of Change in Lewin’s Model

To substantiate his Force Field Theory, Lewin suggested a straightforward three-step change
model which aids employees’ ability to adapt to change. 

Here are the three stages in Lewin’s change model:

Stage 1 - Unfreeze
The first stage in Lewin’s model deals with perception management and aims to prepare the
affected stakeholders for the upcoming organizational change. Change leaders must look at
ways to improve the company’s preparedness for change and create a sense of urgency
similar to Kotter’s change model. 

During this stage, effective change communication plays a vital role in getting the desired
team member buy-in and support of the people in the change management. 

Stage 2 - Change
Once the status quo is disrupted, this stage deals with the implementation of change. In this
stage, you must consider an agile and iterative approach that incorporates employee feedback
to smoothen the transition.

Stage 3 - Refreeze
Employees move away from the transition phase towards stabilization or acceptance in the
final’ refreezing’ stage. 
However, if change leaders fail to reinforce the change in org culture, employees might revert
to previous behaviors. 

Burke Litwin’s model of Organization change

There are many reasons that change occurs in organisations. Building on the Burke-Litwin
model of organisational change and performance, this article will help you identify different
drivers of change and consider the implications for you as a change manager. The Model The
Burke-Litwin model shows the various drivers of change and ranks them in terms of
importance.
Identifying and Dealing with Drivers for Change
1. External Environment This includes such factors as markets, legislation, competition and
the economy. All of these will have consequences for organisations, and, as a change
manager, it is vital that you continually scan the environment for issues that will affect you
and your team.
2. Mission and Strategy An organisation’s mission articulates its reason for existing. It is the
foundation upon which all activity should be built. The strategy then sets out, in broad terms,
how the organisation will go about achieving its mission.
3. Leadership This considers the attitudes and behaviour of senior colleagues and how these
behaviours are perceived by the organisation as a whole. The way in which change is
implemented and accepted through the organisation will be largely influenced by the top
team.
4. Organisation Culture Organisation culture can be described as “the way we do things
around here”. It considers the beliefs, behaviours, values and conventions that prevail in an
organisation. Culture change does not happen overnight. It evolves over time as a result of
many other changes in the organisation..
5. Structure Very often, changes in strategy can lead to changes in the way the organisation is
structured. This can impact on relationships, responsibilities and ways of working. Your job is
to assess the impact of the structural change and ensure your team understands why it is
required, and what it means for them.
6. Work Unit Climate This considers employees’ perception of their immediate colleagues
and working environment. Our immediate working environment is often what shapes our
view of the organisation as a whole, and influences the extent to which we feel satisfied in
our jobs.
7. Task Requirements and Individual Skills/Abilities Change at a higher level in the
organisation will often require changes in the work carried out and the skills available in the
team. As the change manager you need to assess whether: all the right skills are in place; if
they can be developed; or, if you need to bring them in from outside the team.
 8. Individual Needs and Values Changes to team membership can mean a change in the team
dynamic. In a perfect world, we would be able to recruit the exact fit for our teams, in terms
of personal style, abilities and skills mix.
9. Employee Motivation Considers the significance of individual and organisational goals.
Motivation is key to effective change. The real challenge is to maintain motivation
throughout a change project, particularly when change is often not well-received by those
affected.
Porras and Robertson’s model of planned Organizational Change
Organizational development interventions alter features of the organization’s work setting
causing changes in individual behavior which results to individual and organizational
improvements. The intervention implemented at the Barbados Fire service affected the work
setting factor technology. This was the implementation of the high risers thermal imaging
cameras. Technology involves machines required to do the job. In terms of individual behavior,
the high riser thermal imaging cameras have affected the behavior of the fire officers.The
implementation of this new technology was met with resistance especially from the older fire
officers resulting in low morale and a poor team spirit.According to the Hierarchy of needstheory,
proposed by Maslow (1943), human beings have wants and desires which influence their
behavior, only unsatisfied needs can influence behavior while satisfied needs cannot. This
resistance in turn affected the organizational culture which can be linked to another work
setting factor know as social factors. Social factors affect the organizational culture, norms,
roles and management styles. The resistance also results in negatively impacting performance
and satisfaction. This then eventually affects the organization’s performance and the
individual development. With the individual development, there was a lack of essential
training in the fire service as only few fire officers were trained

Systems Theory:

Systems theory is a theoretical framework for understanding how organizations work. A

system can be defined in different ways, but it’s best characterized as an entity that has all the
elements necessary to carry out its functions. It started as a way to understand organizations
from an outside perspective but has since become a means of gaining insight into daily
operations within an organization.

Importance Of Systems Theory

Here are some areas where systems theory can be of help in a modern workplace: 

1. Strategic Planning
Understanding how an organization functions is important for managers who are
involved in strategic planning. They need to know how various departments work
together and affect each other. This is where the systems theory of organization is very
helpful. It allows managers and other decision-makers to look at things like
organizational change and organizational development from a broader perspective. 
 2. Managing Change
Looking at the big picture instead of looking just at the individual functions and aspects
of an organization can be a valuable tool for those who need to make changes in an
organization or who want to implement new initiatives within their businesses.

3. Project Management
With large, multi-stakeholder projects, a systems approach allows for clear planning
and delegation from the outset. It helps managers account for the interdependence
between different verticals in an organization and assign ownership to achieve
collective goals.

Participation and empowerment

Empowerment in Participation TheoryPart of 2004 Report "Designing Social Capital

Sensitive Participation Methodologies"
Empowerment is a term frequently associated with participation that is often poorly used and
conceptualized (Lyons, Smuts et al. 2001). Holcombe (1995:17)] identified that

‘participation and empowerment are inseparably linked, they are different but they depend on
each other to give meaning and purpose. Participation represents action, or being part of an
action such as a decision-making process. Empowerment represents sharing control, the
entitlement and the ability to participate, to influence decisions, as on the allocation of
resources’.

White (1981)[3] identified that empowerment grows out of involvement in thinking, planning,

deciding, acting and evaluating. Because empowerment refers to control, words commonly
found in definitions include access, control, entitlement, deciding, enabling, acting,
awareness, and participation

‘the idea that some can act on others to give them power or enable them to realize their own
potential’ (Nelson and Wright 1995)

‘in simple definitional terms, the verb to empower means to enable, to allow, or to permit and
can be conceived as both self-initiated and initiated by others. For social agents, empowering
is an act of building, developing, increasing power through cooperation, sharing and working
together. It is an interactive process based on a synergistic, not a zero-sum, assumption of
power; that is, the process of empowerment changes the power in the situation as opposed to
merely redistributing it.

TEAMS AND TEAMWORK

A team is a collection of individuals organized to accomplish a common purpose, who are
interdependent, and who can be identified by themselves and observers as a team. Teams
exist within a larger organization and interact with other teams and with the organization.
Teams are one way for organizations to gather input from members, and to provide
organization members with a sense of involvement in the pursuit of organizational goals.
Further, teams allow organizations flexibility in assigning members to projects and allow for
cross-functional groups to be formed.
TYPES OF TEAMS
There are six major types of teams: informal, traditional, problem solving, leadership, self-
directed, and virtual. Table 1 describes some of the characteristics of these six types of teams.

INFORMAL TEAMS.
Informal teams are generally formed for social purposes. They can help to facilitate employee
pursuits of common concerns, such as improving work conditions. More frequently however,
these teams form out of a set of common concerns and interests, which may or may not be the
same as the organization's. Leaders of these teams generally emerge from the membership
and are not appointed by anyone in the organization.

TRADITIONAL TEAMS.
Traditional teams are the organizational groups commonly thought of as departments or
functional areas. Leaders or managers of these teams are appointed by the organization and
have legitimate power in the team. The team is expected to produce a product, deliver a
service, or perform a function that the organization has assigned.

PROBLEM SOLVING TEAMS.

Problem-solving teams or task forces are formed when a problem arises that cannot be solved
within the standard organizational structure. These teams are generally cross-functional; that
is, the membership comes from different areas of the organization, and are charged with
finding a solution to the problem.

LEADERSHIP TEAMS.
Leadership teams are generally composed of management brought together to span the
boundaries between different functions in the organization. In order for a product to be
delivered to market, the heads of finance, production, and marketing must interact and come
up with a common strategy for the product. At top management levels, teams are used in
developing goals and a strategic direction for the firm as a whole.

SELF-DIRECTED TEAMS.
Self-directed teams are given autonomy over deciding how a job will be done. These teams
are provided with a goal by the organization, and then determine how to achieve that goal.
Frequently there is no assigned manager or leader and very few, if any, status differences
among the team members.
These teams are commonly allowed to choose new team members, decide on work
assignments, and may be given responsibility for evaluating team members. They must meet
quality standards and interact with both buyers and suppliers, but otherwise have great
freedom in determining what the team does. Teams form around a particular project and a
leader emerges for that project. The team is responsible for carrying out the project, for
recruiting team members, and for evaluating them.

VIRTUAL TEAMS.
Technology is impacting how teams meet and function. Collaborative software and
conferencing systems have improved the ability for employees to meet, conduct business,
share documents, and make decisions without ever being in the same location. While the
basic dynamics of other types of teams may still be relevant, the dynamics and management
of virtual teams can be very different. Issues can arise with a lack of facial or auditory clues;
participants must be taken at their word, even when video-conferencing tools are used.
Accountability is impacted by taking a team virtual. Each member is accountable for their
tasks and to the team as a whole usually with minimal supervision. Key factors in the success
of a virtual team are effective formation of the team, trust and collaboration between
members, and excellent communication.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEAMS

Some characteristics of effective teams are clear direction and responsibilities,
knowledgeable members, reasonable operating procedures, good interpersonal relationships,
shared success and failures, and good external relationships.

CLEAR DIRECTION.
Clear direction means that the team is given a clear and distinct goal. The team may be
empowered to determine how to achieve that goal, but management, when forming the team,
generally sets the goal. A clear direction also means that team outcomes are measurable.

CLEAR RESPONSIBILITIES.
Clear responsibilities means that each team member understands what is expected of her or
him within the team. The roles must be clear and interesting to the team members. Each team
member needs to be able to rely on all the other members to carry out their roles so that the
team can function effectively. Otherwise, one or two team members come to feel that they are
doing all the work. This is one of the reasons so many individuals are initially reluctant to
join teams.

KNOWLEDGEABLE MEMBERS.
An effective team will be comprised of individuals who have the skills and knowledge
necessary to complete the team's task. Cooperation is essential at an early stage in
inventorying the skills and knowledge each member brings to the team, and working to
determine how to utilize those skills to accomplish the team task.

REASONABLE OPERATING PROCEDURES.

All teams need a set of rules by which they operate. Sports teams for example, operate
according to a clearly laid-out set of rules about how the game is played. Similarly, work
teams need a set of procedures to guide meetings, decision making, planning, division of
tasks, and progress evaluation. Setting, and sticking to, procedures helps team members
become comfortable relying on one another.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS.
Teams are composed of diverse individuals, each of whom comes to the team with his or her
own set of values. Understanding and celebrating this diversity helps to make a stronger,
more effective team.
SHARING SUCCESS AND FAILURES.
Everyone wants to feel appreciated. Within a team, members should be willing to express
their appreciation, as well their criticisms, of others' efforts. Similarly, the organization must
be willing to reward the team for successful completion of a task and hold all members
responsible for failure.

EXTERNAL RELATIONSHIPS.
In the process of building a strong team, groups external to the team are frequently ignored.
In order for the team to successfully complete its task, it cannot operate in isolation from the
rest of the organization. Teams need help from people within the organization who control
important resources.

Parallel learning structures-A Normative- reductive strategy of changing.

Parallel Learning Structures may be a form of Knowledge Management. Knowledge
Management involves capturing the organisation’s collective expertise wherever it resides (in
databases, on paper, or in people’s heads) and distributing it to the people who need it in time.
They promote innovation and change in large bureaucratic organisations while retaining the
advantages of bureaucratic design. It is also referred to as communities of practice.
The concept of Parallel Learning Structures was first introduced by Dale and Zand in 1974
under the label Collateral Organisations. They described it as a supplementalorganisations
existing with usual formal organisations, which are mainly useful to deal with structural
problems that the formal organisation is unable to deal with. These structures are modes of
learning how to change the structure and leading the whole change process.
Features of Parallel Learning Structures
Though parallel learning structures may vary from organisation to organisation, they do
possess certain common features.
These features are discussed as follows:
i) Sharing of Knowledge: One of the main features of parallel learning
structures is sharing of knowledge and information amongst the members
of its groups. The knowledge is shared through discussions, interactions
and participation. This kind of sharing helps the members become more
aware of the issues in an organisation and also help them come up with
effective solutions.
ii) ii) Spontaneous: Most parallel learning structures emerge spontaneously
without any efforts on behalf of the organisation, as the members get
together voluntarily. It is however beneficial for organisations to promote
growth of such structures for successful sharing of knowledge and
effective resolution of certain issues.
iii) iii) Common Objective: Most commonly parallel learning structures
emerge as a result of a group of people with common objective or interest
 or shared vision coming together. These people in an informal set up start
sharing knowledge with regard to their common concern

Applied Behavioral Science:

The American Psychological Association defines behavioral science as a discipline that uses
systematic observation and experimentation in the scientific study of human and nonhuman
animal actions and reactions. Applied behavioral science is a constantly evolving field with
numerous applications in such areas as education, sociology, and public health.

One method of practicing behavioral science is through the discipline of applied behavior
analysis, or ABA, which involves applying behavioral principles in practical settings. For
example, ABA can be used in a clinical setting for behavior modification or behavior therapy,
or as a treatment for abnormal or problematic behaviors. Effective ABA methods focus
closely on behaviors related to learning and motivation.

Action Research:
Action research is a research method that aims to simultaneously investigate and solve an
issue. In other words, as its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action
at the same time. It was first coined as a term in 1944 by MIT professor Kurt Lewin.A highly
interactive method, action research is often used in the social sciences, particularly in
educational settings. Particularly popular with educators as a form of systematic inquiry, it
prioritizes reflection and bridges the gap between theory and practice. Due to the nature of
the research, it is also sometimes called a cycle of action or a cycle of inquiry.

Types of action research

There are 2 common types of action research: participatory action research and practical
action research.

 Participatory action research emphasizes that participants should be members of the

community being studied, empowering those directly affected by outcomes of said
research. In this method, participants are effectively co-researchers, with their lived
experiences considered formative to the research process.
 Practical action research focuses more on how research is conducted and is
designed to address and solve specific issues.

Both types of action research are more focused on increasing the capacity and ability of
future practitioners than contributing to a theoretical body of knowledge.

Action research models

Action research is often reflected in 3 action research models: operational (sometimes called
technical), collaboration, and critical reflection.

 Operational (or technical) action research is usually visualized like a spiral

following a series of steps, such as “planning → acting → observing → reflecting.”
  Collaboration action research is more community-based, focused on building a
network of similar individuals (e.g., college professors in a given geographic area)
and compiling learnings from iterated feedback cycles.
 Critical reflection action research serves to contextualize systemic processes that
are already ongoing (e.g., working retroactively to analyze existing school systems by
questioning why certain practices were put into place and developed the way they
did).

Unit-3
Managing OD Process

The process is as follows:

1. Identify the needs of the organisation

Step one is about identifying the organisations current processes and skills and then
comparing these to where it wants/needs to be. This should be done in a structured way and
be given some serious thought. For example, it could be forecasting a significant number of
retirements within 5-10 years. This would leave a huge gap within the organisation.
Alternatively, it could be acknowledging requirements for a different skillset to keep up with
technologies and remain competitive. So, it is about identifying risk and deciding how to deal
with it. The use of diagnostic tools such as PESTLE Analysis for strategic planning or
conducting a SWOT Analysis can help to make the process robust and objective.

2. Decide on how to address those needs

Step two looks at addressing the needs that have been identified. The key is to be as objective
as possible and to think carefully about the various solutions before selecting any. Looking at
the various options before selecting one is key, as we are often criticised for jumping in at the
first solution. There are a number of framework standards that are quite useful to help
benchmark against, for example, the ISO framework or Investors in People, that provide
another set of questions to evaluate your organisation against.

In addition, you may wish to look at McKinsey’s 7-S Model or Burke Litwin’s O.D. process
model where you can analyse how everything interrelates within your organisation in order to
decide what the outputs are you’re trying to achieve and align the interventions against them.

3. Select your intervention

The CIPD identifies four types of interventions and you may do one or more of these:

Human: Coaching people, carrying out training programmes, getting people to work in

groups or facilitating teams of people to do things differently.

Business: Including Business Process Engineering and Lean Six Sigma.

HR: Looking at performance management processes, using psychometrics to identify

personality types and evaluate your workforce.
Strategic Processes Interventions: These could include transformation programmes
or cultural change.

4. Implement the intervention

We would recommend that at this stage you take a structured approach to delivering the
change because that is where all too often we don’t do the change well because it isn’t
thought through properly. It isn’t just about starting the change, it is about making sure that it
is well-managed. This isn’t easy to do, and is a topic we have covered in other blogs and is
talked about on The HR Uprising Podcast series: The 5 Secret Powers Of A Change
Superhero

5. Evaluating the impact

The final important stage is to evaluate the change. So, if we’re managing it effectively from
the start, where we are identifying the needs and gaps, then we should have clear goals on
what we are trying to achieve as a result of the initiative or change.

Three basic components of OD programs:

 Diagnosis = continuous collection of data about total system, its subunits, its processes,
and it culture.

 Action = all activities and interventions designed to improve the organizations functioning

 Program management = all activities designed to ensure success of the program.

DIAGNOSIS – THE SIX-BOX MODEL

Marvin Weisbord Weisbord identifies six critical areas where things must go right if
organization is to be successful. According to him, the consultant must attend to both formal
and informal aspects of each box. This model is still widely used by OD practitioners
ACTION COMPONENT
Act Interventions are the actions taken to produce desired
changes. Four conditions that give rise to the need for OD
interventions:
1. The organization has a
problem (corrective
action – to fix it)
2. Organization sees an unrealized
opportunity (enabling action – to
seize the opportunity)
3. Features of organization are out of
alignment (alignment action – to get
things back ‘in sync’)
4. Yesterday’s vision is no longer good enough
(action for new vision – actions to build necessary structures, processes and culture
to make new vision a reality)ion Component

NATURE OF OD INTERVENTIONS
 All the OD interventions have a dual purpose i.e. educational and accomplishing-a-
task
 They focus on real problems central to each organization’s needs rather than
hypothetical.
 They use several learning models e.g. “learning how to do” may precedes the
“doing” part and it also be the other way round.
ANALYZING DISCREPANCIES
 It is examining the discrepancies or gaps between what is happening and
what should be happening, and the discrepancies between where one is
 and where one wants to be.
 Problem=gap
 Problem solving=discovering the cause of the gap
 Decision making= discovering a solution-a set of actions- to close the gap.

OD Interventions:
OD interventions are actions and events that help a company perform better and work
more efficiently.”

                                                                        –Rober Zawacki
“An OD intervention refers to a variety of planned activities that clients and
consultants undertake throughout the program.”

                                                               – French & Bell

Classifications of OD Interventions
The OD interventions are also lengthy and complex. Cummings and Worley (2009)
contend that it is impossible to know the precise number of different types of
interventions. But broadly speaking, there are four types of OD interventions:

1. Human Resource Management Interventions

Even though an HR department and organizational development are not the same
things, they do coordinate. Within a business, difficulties with “talent development,”
performance management, child care, and even diversity may be identified that
demand the HR department to create an intervention strategy.

2. Strategic change interventions

Through mergers, restructurings, and transformational changes, strategic change
interventions combine two or more organizations.

3. Human process interventions

These interventions focus on the dynamics of group performance and interpersonal
relationships.

They can be implemented to modify how an individual, such as a manager,

communicates with staff members or even how staff members communicate with one
another. They can be used to eliminate unproductive habits, develop productive
actions, and boost general self-esteem.

4. Techno-structural interventions
These interventions were developed in response to the organization systems’
successful implementation of innovations. To do that, it is necessary to assess which
technologies should be used as well as to ensure that staff members are qualified to
use them.
Organizational Development: Steps in OD Interventions
The following eight steps in any OD intervention program are in accordance with those in
action research.
Step 1 Entry: The requirement for change within a company becomes apparent. An issue is
identified. Somebody, or a group of individuals within the organisation, search for a person
who is skilled enough to examine the problem or facilitate change.
Step 2 Start-up: The change agent gets into the  scene. He works to describe issues
surrounding the problem and tried to secure commitment to a  change attempt.
Step 3 Assessment and Feedback: The change  agent collects details about the  situation
and provides decision makers as well as those having a  stake in the change process feedback
with regards to the  information.
Step 4 Action Planning: The change  agent works jointly with management and other stake
holders to formulate a  corrective-action plan.
Step 5 Intervention: The change agent helps in implementing the action plan and the change
process is carried out.
Step 6 Evaluation: The change agent assists the management and other stakeholders to
evaluate the change effort’s progress.
Step 7 Adoption: Members of the company acknowledge ownership of the change, and the
change is implemented throughout the organisation.
Step 8 Separation: The change agent prepares to leave the organization. As part of the
process, the change agent works to disengage while making certain that development will
proceed after his or her departure. This step is achievable due to the fact that the knowledge
and skills of the change agent have been transferred to the organisation.

Program Management Component:

A program is a group of interrelated projects, subsidiary programs, and program activities
that are managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits not available from managing them
individually.

Programs are defined by benefits and components:

 Programs attempt to achieve benefits

 Benefits are achieved through the execution of program components (projects or
sub-programs).

As defined by the Project Management Institute (PMI), programs attempt to achieve benefits
through the application of five performance domains:

1. Strategy alignment
2. Benefits management
3. Stakeholder engagement
4. Governance
5. Life cycle management
Conditions for optimal Success of OD:
.
 1. Determination to Change
As a top executive, you need to be more than willing to change — you must be
fully committed to the new ways of working, behaving, and thinking. This means
not only overseeing changes in the people around you but also working to change
the way you lead.
2. Clarity of Vision for Change
The proposed change must be clearly and simply stated so that all employees can
see, understand, and embrace the big picture of where things are headed. 
Stakeholders need to know what will be involved and why it is imperative. Make
sure that everyone understands the current situation and paint a clear:
— Vision for change
— Urgency for change
— Business case for change
— Plan to make it happen
The more you can actively involve stakeholders most affected by the changes in
the design and plan, the better.
3. Consistent Communication
Communicating organizational change requires a consistent and compelling
message, frequent reiteration, and an openness to answer questions honestly.  Be
ready, willing, and able to provide support for those who will be affected by
change. A one-time announcement or marketing banners will not work.
Listen to and answer objections to change, deal with the “what-ifs,” and go slow
but steady. Have active two-way discussions, not one-way communications.
4. Gather Advocates, Team-by-Team
Help your change team leaders work with their small groups to influence them
one-by-one and gain their commitment. Help them address their team’s questions
with direct answers — what is required of each individual team member and why
it matters.
5. Coach for Desired Behaviors
Keep close to your employees and encourage the behaviors that lead successfully
to the desired change. Role-model, recognize, and reward them. Trying to break
old and build better work habits to operate differently can be frustrating.
Acknowledge the pain but appreciate the efforts and success.
6. Stay on Track
Don’t let up your guard. It’s too easy to slip backward into more comfortable
work routines. Keep focused on the goal and create a culture of accountability as
the “new” behaviors become the “normal” behaviors.

Ethical issues in Consultations:

1. Going digital and transitioning to hybrid work

In the near future, consulting work will be automated to a big extent, especially the
administrative part. Work processes will involve more use of remote technologies and digital
delivery, which will go beyond video conferencing. Being digital also equals being super fast
and delivering offerings within a very short period of time, which is another challenge for
consulting firms.

2. Staying safe in the cyberworld 

One of the challenges of consulting firms that comes along with digitalization is
cybersecurity. According to Andrew Duncan, Partner and UK CEO at Infosys
Consulting, ethical considerations must be an inherent part of consulting business, highly
impacted by automation technologies. Consulting firms receive and process a huge amount of
confidential client information. The failure to comply with cybersecurity rules can cause
leakage of personal or commercial information. This in turn can cause a loss of reputation
and contracts, and even legal liabilities. 

A good way to solve this problem is to use smart artificial intelligence that would be a good.

3. Standing out from your competitors

One of the greatest challenges in consulting is a high level of competition that exists in the
post-pandemic world. Clients have an opportunity to pick a consultant among numerous
experts in just one click. To win in this struggle, firms have to adopt a new competitive
mindset and show unique competence.

4. Creating new ideas and putting them in practice

Crisis is not a synonym to degradation. On the contrary, very often crises help see new
opportunities and apply innovative approaches, building a foundation for growth. New ideas
can lead to new projects that can attract potential customers. But to be open to new
opportunities, consulting firms will need to adopt a new mind set.

5. Understanding your audience and meeting expectations

In the contemporary environment marked by digital innovation, clients have become more
demanding. A study “Insight to Action - The  Future of the Professional Services Industry” ,
showed that now they expect immediate results, transparency, accountability, and higher
quality of work – preferably at a lower cost.
What is client relationship

Client relationship management refers to a company’s interactions with clients, and their
approach to building a positive working relationship. Good client relationship management
helps to generate ongoing business, client retention and brand reputation.

On the other hand, a poor approach to client relationship management can do immense harm
to your growing business. Bad word of mouth spreads fast, and in our digital age it’s easier to
publish a negative review than ever before.

That’s why client relationship management is so important, especially for small businesses.
It’s also why the popularity of the WorkflowMax Client Manager (which lets you store all
sorts of client information - from client birthdays to their favourite type of coffee) is
booming.

Unit-4

What is a human process intervention? 

Human process intervention is a deliberate effort to improve the effectiveness of an

organization's human resources function. This type of OD intervention may be aimed at

improving the quality of the workforce, improving the management of human resources, or

improving the overall effectiveness of the organization.

Purpose of a human process intervention

Human process interventions are usually carried out to improve the performance of

employees or to change their behavior in some way. The purpose of these interventions can

vary depending on the organization's specific goals. Still, they typically involve training

employees on new methods or practices, providing them with feedback on their performance,

or changing the evaluation of performance. 

In some cases, organizations may also use human process interventions to address specific

problems identified within the organization, such as high turnover or absenteeism.

The objectives of human process interventions are:

1. Training employees on new methods or practices

This type of intervention involves employees being trained on new methods or practices. The

goal is to improve performance and help employees become more efficient and effective in

their jobs. Organizations can use human process interventions to help employees learn new

skills, enhance their knowledge of company policies and procedures, or to change their

behavior.

2. Providing them with feedback on their performance

Human process intervention can provide employees with feedback on their performance in

several ways. You can do this through video recordings, direct observation by a supervisor,

or self-evaluation. Another way is through indirect measures, such as surveys or interviews.

3. Change the way performance is evaluated

Human process intervention may change the way that performance is evaluated. This is

because human process intervention can provide new information that managers may use to

assess performance. Additionally, human process intervention can change the way people

interact with each other, which could impact how performance is evaluated.

Human Process Approaches:

 Individual interventions. Individual interventions are aimed at individual employees.

Their goal is often to improve communication with team members and other

stakeholders.

 Group interventions. These interventions focus on the dynamics within a group and

how the group functions to achieve the goals they've set. They aim to help the groups
 work together more effectively. A team building is an example of a group

intervention.

 Team building. Team building is the most prevalent human process intervention. It

refers to activities that help groups perform better. Team-building activities include

volunteering, sports, and Pictionary.

 Third-party intervention. Conflicts frequently necessitate the intervention of a third

party. Destructive disputes should be resolved as soon as possible. Conflict is

controlled and resolved by third-party intervention.

 Organizational confrontation meeting. A confrontation meeting identifies issues,

goals for improvement, and priorities. It assists your organization in addressing issues.

 Intergroup relations interventions. Intergroup interventions are used to diagnose

and comprehend relationships between groups within the workplace. Priorities and

improvement goals are established before tackling problems.

 Large-group interventions. These interventions fall somewhere between

confrontation and intergroup interaction. The goal is to bring together a large number

of members and stakeholders. Large-group interventions can address organizational-

wide issues or change the structure or direction of an organization.

What is a T-Group?

A Training-Group, or T-Group, is a type of experience-based learning.

Participants work together in a small group of 8-14 people, over an extended period. Learning
comes through analysis of their own experiences, including feelings, reactions, perceptions,
and behavior.
Underlying Assumptions

Underlying the T-Group are the following assumptions about the nature of the process which
distinguish T-Groups from other more traditional models of learning:

 LEARNING RESPONSIBILITY. Each participant is responsible for their own

learning. What a person learns depends upon their own style, readiness, and the
relationship they develop with other members of the group.
 STAFF ROLE. The staff person's role is to facilitate the examination and
understanding of the experience in the group. They help participants to focus on the
way the group is working, the style of an individual's participation, or the issues that
are facing the group.
 EXPERIENCE and CONCEPTUALIZATION. Most learning is a combination of
experience and conceptualization. A major T-Group aim is to provide a setting in
which individuals are encouraged to examine their experiences together in enough
detail so that valid generalizations can be drawn.
 AUTHENTIC RELATIONSHIPS and LEARNING. A person is most free to learn
when they establish authentic relationships with other people and thereby increases
their sense of self-esteem and decreases their defensiveness. In authentic relationships
people can be open, honest, and direct with one another so that they are
communicating what they are actually feeling rather than masking their feelings.
 SKILL ACQUISITION and VALUES. The development of new skills in working
with people is maximized as a person examines the basic values underlying the
behavior, as they acquire appropriate concepts and theory, and as they can practice
new behavior and obtain feedback on the degree to which the behavior produces the
intended impact.

Goals and Outcomes

Goals and outcomes of a T-Group can be classified in terms of potential learning concerning
individuals, groups, and organizations.

 THE INDIVIDUAL POINT OF VIEW. Most T-Group participants gain a picture of

the impact that they make on other group members. A participant can assess the
degree to which that impact corresponds with or deviates from their conscious
intentions. They can also get a picture of the range of perceptions of any given act. It
is important to understand that different people may see the same piece of behavior
differently - for example, as supportive or antagonistic, relevant or irrelevant, clear or
ambiguous - as it is to understand the impact on any given individual or a specific
event.

 THE GROUP POINT OF VIEW. T-Groups often focus on forces which affect the
group, such as the level of commitment and follow-through resulting from different
methods of making decisions, the norms controlling the amount of conflict and
disagreement that is permitted, and the kinds of data that are gathered. Concepts such
as cohesion, power, group maturity, climate, and structure can be examined using the
experiences in the group to better understand how much these same forces operate in
the back-home situation.
  THE ORGANIZATION POINT OF VIEW. Status, influence, division of labor, and
styles of managing conflict are among organizational concepts that may be
highlighted by analyzing the events in the T-Group. Subgroups that form can be
viewed as analogous to units within an organization. It is then possible to look at the
relationships between groups, examining such factors as competitiveness,
communications, stereotyping, and understanding.

Process Consultation

The process consultation view has been advocated by Schein since late  60’s (first edition
1969). It belongs to activities of organization  development (OD). OD is one of part of the
organization processes which  aim improving organizational and individual effectiveness.
Process consultation (PC) is one of the OD techniques, enlisted with  sensitivity training (self
€improvement), survey feedback (introspection),team building (socializing), and role
negotiation (changing roles and  perception. The main  argument of Schein for process
consulting is to help people in organizations  to help themselves.

 Process Consultation is the creation of a relationship with the client that permits the
client to perceive, understand, and act on the process events that occur in the client’s
internal and external environment in order to improve the situation as defined by the
client.  Edgar Schein, (1969) Process Consultation: Its role in organization
development
 Process consultation is the reasoned and intentional interventions by the consultant,
into the ongoing events and dynamics of a group with the purpose of helping that
group effectively attain its agreed-upon objectives.  Reddy, Q. Brendan, (1994)
Intervention Skills: Process consultation for small groups and teams

What is Third-Party Intervention?

A third-party intervention is a scenario in which an external entity becomes involved in a
situation between two other parties. The outside party can help to improve communication,
offer impartial support, provide resources or information, and provide outside
judgment/arbitration. Generally, the third party is neutral and has no previous relationship
with either of the parties involved. Many conflicts within organizations can be solved by
those parties directly involved; however, there are times when those involved might find that
they are unable to manage their differences by themselves. In these cases, a third party can be
brought in to help resolve the conflict.

Importance of Third-Party Interventions in Organizations

The importance of a third-party intervention is that it can help to mediate between two parties
and assist them to come to an agreement. It can also provide impartial advice and support,
which may be helpful in cases where the parties involved are emotionally attached to the
conflict. A third-party intervention can also help to raise awareness of the consequences of
the actions of the parties involved and help them to avoid further conflict.

Methods of Third-Party Interventions

There are several methods of third-party intervention that can be used to help resolve a
conflict. Two commonly-used types of third-party intervention are mediation and arbitration.
Mediation tends to focus on helping the parties involved in the conflict to come to an
agreement, while arbitration focuses on making a decision about who is right and who is
wrong. Depending on the circumstances of the conflict, one method may be more appropriate
than the other.
Team building techniques and exercise Interventions

Team building interventions help to enhance relationships and performance among participants who come
include skill development training, team activities and exercises.
The Four broad Different type of Team Building intervention methods are :
 Personality Based Team Building
 Activity-Based Team Building
 Skills Based Team Building
 Problem Solving Based Team Building
Personality Based Team Building Intervention method

Personality-Based Team Building uses a personality or psychometric questionnaire such as

the Myers-Briggs Personality Type, Insights Team Dynamics, Belbin Team Roles, Enneagram
or DISC assessments. Personality-based interventions focus on improving interpersonal skills
among the team members.
Activity Based Team Building Intervention method

Activity-Based Team Building involves fulfilling challenging tasks in an outdoor

environment, such as group outdoor and adventure activities. The team members participate
in physical challenges, such as group obstacles, physical challenges, canoeing or hiking.
Skills Based Team Building Intervention method

Skills-Based Team Building Skills engages team members in a workshop style intervention
that combines training content and activities focusing on developing skills they need to work
together as a team, such as communication, leadership skills, dealing with conflict, effective
team meetings and more.
Problem Solving Based Team Building Intervention method

Problem Solving-Based Team Building is frequently executed at an offsite event but can also
be done indoors. This type of team building is aimed at helping the team unravel and solve
specific problems.

Role Analysis Technique:

The role analysis technique also Known as RAT clarifies the role expectations and

obligations of team members to improve team effectiveness. The individuals have to fulfill

different specialized roles in organisations, in each role they have to manifest different
behaviours. This specialization resulting from division of labour helps in improving

organisational performance. But sometimes the individual members do not have the role

clarity.

Role Negotiation Technique:

Another technique for effective team building developed by Roger Harrison is called the Role

Negotiation Technique. Sometimes people in a team are unwilling to change because it would

mean a loss of power or influence to the individual. This resistance to change causes team

ineffectiveness. Role negotiation techniques are often used to great advantage in such

situations.

Responsibility change

Change Management Process Owner

Has the overall responsibility for ensuring the suitability of the Change Management process
to the organization.

Responsibilities

 Sponsor the process by ensuring the Change Manager has adequate resources to
design the Change Management process conforming to best practices and meeting the
needs of the organization.
 Resolve disputes over the allocation of responsibilities and to sponsor the
communication campaign to promote awareness and acceptance of the Change
Management process.
 Provide the description, mission statement, roadmap, strategy, process objectives and
metrics to measure success and obtain formal approval for the process and its
associated procedures.
 Monitor and review the execution of the process at a high-level, ensure it remains
consistent with the organization’s current culture and ITSM strategy and ensure
coordination with all other ITSM and IT Infrastructure Management processes.
 Must understand and manage integrations between the ITSM processes
 Participate in the IT Governance activities.

Force field analysis:

Force Field Analysis was created by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s. Lewin originally used it
in his work as a social psychologist. Today, however, it is also used in business, for
making and communicating go/no-go decisions.
Step 1: Describe Your Plan or Proposal for Change

Define your goal or vision for change, and write it down in a box in the middle of the

page.

Step 2: Identify Forces For Change

Think about the kinds of forces that are driving change. These can be internal and

external.

Internal drivers could include:

 Outdated machinery or product lines.

 Declining team morale.

 A need to increase profitability.

Step 3: Identify Forces Against Change

Now brainstorm the forces that resist or are unfavorable to change.

Internal resistors and restrainers could include:

 Fears of the unknown.

 Existing organizational structures.

 "That's not how we do it here " attitudes.

Step 4: Assign Scores

Next, score each force, from, say, one (weak) to five (strong), according to the degree

of influence each one has on the plan, and then add up the scores for each side (for

and against).
Step 5: Analyze and Apply

Now that you've done your Force Field Analysis, you can use it in two ways:

1. To decide whether or not to move forward with the decision or change.

2. To think about which supportive forces you can strengthen and which opposing

or resisting forces you can weaken, and how to make the change more

successful.

Confrontation Meeting
What is confrontation meeting?

Confrontation meeting is an activity which allows entire management group, composed of

individual from all levels of the organization to take a quick reading on its own health and
within matter of hours to set action plan for improving it.

This activity is based on

a) Experience with an action oriented method of planned change.

b) It involves the entire in a joint action-planning programme.
c) The meeting can be conducted several times with one morning and one evening session
involving only two or more hours out of usual working days.

Where it is effective?

a) Where there is a genuine commitment to solving the problems on the part of top
management.
b) Top management intends to improve the conditions rapidly.
c) There is adequate cohesiveness in the top management team to ensure follow-up.

Benefits of confrontation meeting.

a) Direct communication is improved

b) Morale of employees increased.
c) Better work culture.
d) Improve inter department human relationship
e) Get solutions on day-to-day problems.

Elements of confrontation meeting

a) Climate setting
b) Information collection
c) Information sharing
d) Priority setting & grouping planning.
e) Organization action plan
f) Immediate follow-up by top team
g) Progress review.

Inter Group Relations Interventions:

Intergroup development is an organizational development intervention aimed at improving

working relationships between groups.

Improved working relationships mean knowing group members better, as well as what they

do and how they work. This leads to a better understanding, higher quality communication

and interactions, and better rapport with one another.

Intergroup development is similar to team building, with one key difference. Team building

focuses on members within a group, while intergroup development focuses on team

building between groups
How do intergroup interventions benefit the organization?

Intergroup interventions benefit the organization through better communication between

teams or departments. This results in the following benefits:

 Enhanced teamwork. Cross-functional collaboration between different teams will

increase.

 Reduced conflicts. Intergroup interventions focus on building relationships between

members of different groups. This reduces between-group conflicts.

 Promoting integration. By connecting members between groups, silos diminish, and

integration increases. This leads to more collaboration and innovation.

GRID OD
Training is an outgrowth of the managerial grid approach to leadership (Blacke and
Mouton, 1978). It is an instrumental approach to laboratory training. Sensitivity
training is supplemented with selfadministered instruments (Benny, Bradford and
Lippitt, 1964). The analysis of these instruments helps in group development and in
the learning of group members. This technique is widely used and has proved
effective.
Grid training for OD is completed in six phases.
They are:
 Laboratory-seminar training, which aims at acquainting participants with concepts
and material used in grid training;
 A team development phase, involving the coming together of members from the
same department to chart out as to how they will attain a 9 x 9 position on the grid;
 Inter-group development aims at overall OD. During this phase, conflict situations
between groups are identified and analyzed;
 Organization goal setting is based on participative management, where participants
contribute to and agree upon important goals for the organization;
 Goal attainment aims at achieving goals which were set during the phase of
organizational goal setting; and
 Stabilization involves the evaluation of the overall programme and making
suggestions for changes if appropriate.

Training experiences:
The “training” aspect of organizational development is the process of training employees and
leaders to understand how to achieve and go about the development, overall.

Organizational Development Training takes a holistic approach to improving workforce

effectiveness and achieving the organizations’ bottom-line goals.
Organizational Development training program focuses on the enhancement of a company’s
abilities to coincide with the strategy, structure, individuals, rewards, metrics, and
management methods.

11 benefits of training employees

Employers derive many benefits from organizing training programs for their employees,
especially when they dedicatedly and consistently carry out these programs. Here are some
likely advantages:

1. Increased productivity and performance

When employees undergo training, it improves their skills and knowledge of the job and
builds their confidence in their abilities. This will improve their performance and make them
work more efficiently and effectively.

2. Uniformity of work processes

When employees in a workplace are exposed to training, it helps to standardize the work
process among the staff. Workers will apply and follow similar procedures as a result of their
exposure to similar training.

3. Reduced wastage

When employees are trained, they will learn to make good, safe and economical use of the
company's materials, tools and equipment. Accidents and equipment damage will be
minimized, and this will keep waste low.

4. Reduced supervision

Though training employees should not totally eliminate the need for supervision, it can
significantly reduce the need for excessive supervision in the workplace.

5. Promoting from within

When an organization needs professionals with new or specific skills, they don't have to go
into the labor market to employ new professionals from outside sources. They can look
inward and select promising staff members who can be promoted after they are trained in this
set of new skills needed by the organization.

6. Improved organizational structure

When a company has an organized system of training for employees, it helps them learn in a
consistent and systematic way. It also prevents the employees from learning by trial and
error.
7. Boosted morale

Employees of organizations who go through training programs will feel like they are a part of
a supportive work environment where they are appreciated, which will boost their morale and
make them approach their job duties with more self-confidence.

8. Improved knowledge of policies and goals

A good training program will always help employees get acquainted with their organization's
ethics, values, policies, visions and missions.

9. Improved customer valuation

When employees of an organization are exposed to consistent training, it improves their skills
on the job and makes them work more professionally and productively. Customers will feel
the impact of this elevated service, and it will improve their opinion of the organization.

10. Better workplace environment

Consistent training will help employees work more effectively in the workplace environment.
This brings about an atmosphere in the organization that encourages every employee to feel
valued and welcomed.

11. Improved and updated technology

With the ever-increasing change in technology across all industries, exposing employees to
new techniques in advanced technology will help to increase efficiency and productivity in
the organization.

Unit-5
 
Technostructural intervention
A   c h a n g e   p r o g r a m   f o c u s i n g   o n   t h e   t e c h n o l o g y   a n d structure of organizations.
 Techno-structural intervention deal with techno-structural issues including
how the overall work ofthe organization is divided into units, who reports
to whom, methods of control, arrangements ofequipment and people, workflow
arrangements ,and changes in communications and the authority.

 Techno-structural interventions concerned withrestructuring organizations