Swadesh Adhyayan

A Text Book for Higher Secondary First Year

Assam Higher Secondary Education Council

Bamunimaidam, Guwahati-21
Swadesh Adhyayan : A Text Book for study of the history and geography of the
state of Assam for Higher Secondary First Year of Assam Higher Secondary
Education Council (Effective from 2018-2019 academic session)

First Published : 2018

Note : The Assam Higher Secondary Education Council reserves the right
to ammend syllabi and course as and when it deems necessary.

Published by : The Secretary, Assam Higher Secondary Education Council,

Bamunimaidam, Guwahati - 21

Copyright : © AHSEC
No part of this book be printed in any form either separately
or as an extra pages in any book without the permission of the
Secretary, otherwise it will be treated as a violation of the
Copyright Act and necessary action will be taken accordingly.

Price : `.... (Rupees ........ only)

Printed at : Saraighat Photo Types Pvt. Ltd.

Industrial Estate, Bamunimaidam,
Guwahati - 781021

Publisher : On behalf of Assam Higher Secondary Education Council

Bamunimadiam, Guwahati-781021
R.G. Publications, Panbazar, Guwahati-781001
 Text Book Development Committee
Geography Part : History Part :
Dr. Bhaben chandra Kalita Dr. Dambarudhar Nath
Retd. Professor & Head, Dept. of Geography, Formerly Professor & Head, Dept. of History,
Cotton University Dibrugarh University
Dr. Jayashree Bora Dr. Jatindranath Konwar
Retd. Associate Professor Dept. of Geography, Associate Professor, Dept. of History,
Cotton University Tingkhang College
Dr. Pradip Sharma Upasana Saikia
Retd. HOD, Dept. of Geography Assistant Professor, Dept. of History
Cotton University Mariyani College
Dr. Chayanika Sharma Bhrigumoni Nath
Subject Teacher (Geography) Assistant Professor, Dept. of History
T.C. Govt. Girls H.S. & M.P. School, Guwahati Chinamora College
Editors
Dr. Bhaben chandra Kalita Dr. Dambarudhar Nath
Retd. Professor & Head, Dept. of Geography, Formerly Professor & Head, Dept. of History,
Cotton University Dibrugarh University

Co-ordinator
Anurupa Choudhury
Deputy Secretary (Academic)
Assam Higher Secondary Education Council

English Translation Committee

Geography Part : History Part :
Dr. Bhaben chandra Kalita, Dr. Rajib Handique
Retd. Professor & Head, Dept. of Geography, Professor, Dept. of History, Gauhati University
Cotton University Dr. Barnali Sarma
Dr. Ashok Bora, Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography,
Associate Professor Dept. of Geography, Gauhati University
Gauhati University Dr. Bornali Sharma
Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography,
Cotton University

Reviewer
Dr. Dambarudhar Nath
Formerly Professor & Head, Dept. of History, Dibrugarh University
& Presently Fellow, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla
 A Few Words From The Desk of The Chairman
Adoration towards its own history is the life-blood of any breathing community. One
which is unaware of its history, in the course of constructing the present, has to relinquish its
uniqueness and hence its future has to be rootless. Even since the beginning of the 13th
century tremendous diligence and several formed the initial stage of moulding a mighty
Assamese community– one far from being dominated, was instead appreciated by the robust
Mughal troupe before they left untriumphant. Needless to say that the community had been
entirely self-dependent as nothing besides salt was to be imported. Even that dearth too was
tuned by procuring alkali.
By nature history is cruel. It scarcely pardons anyone. On the knees of baseless religious
fundamentalism there came the insurrection while the vanity of supercilious personality brought
home almost a familicidal incursion. As such, the Mowamoriya Revolt and the Burmese
Invasion paved the way for the such, the Mowamoriya Revolt and the Burmese Invasion
paved the way for the British. The English rule of one hundred and eleven years (including
ten years of tributary period) in Assam had almost pushed the community into the brink of
devastation. On the other hand, under the post-independent 71 year homerule by the
sentimentally overwhelmed Assamese, the community got rather fully dependent on others.
It is undeniable that along with historical, geographical knowledge too is essential. One
must have the knowledge of geography to relish and cherish the cultural gamut created by
the geographical location, by the affluent stockpile of nature, by the climate including its birds
and animals and by the enormous potential of the rivers and rivulets, all enriched by the
fragrance of the fertile soil, natural beauty and by the congregation of numerous tribes and
classes. If taken into account in the manner one does with Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, the
upliftment of the puny lanes in Assam seems untenable, at least whatever has been perceived
presently.
Having completed the meticulous deliberation on all such issues with the intellectuals of
both the disciplines, an effort has been taken, of course in compliance with everybody's
opinion, to prepare the study of the subject called ''Swadesh Adhyayan''. Two remarkable
higher education institutions of Assam, namely Dibrugarh University and Gauhati University,
have already granted permission to make this subject one of Honours. We sincerely hope
that the new generation of the state will attain the erudition over the history and geography of
Assam, thus contributing to the overall development of the state.

Dated : 20th June, 2018 Dr. Dayananda Borgohain

Chairman
Assam Higher Secondary Education Council
 Introduction
Education is undoubtedly the primary force behind keeping the development of our
society on. It is a pertinent obligation on the part of the Assam Higher Secondary Council
to revise and renew the syllabus from time to time. Accordingly, the Council has, combining
Geography and History together, included a new subject called “Swadesh Adhyayan” in
H.S. syllabus so that the newer generation of Assam gets to know about Swadesh, i.e.
one’s own country. The students to be admitted into H. S. 1st year (Eleventh Standard) in
the Academic Session 2018-19 will be able to study the subject. Subsequently the same
can be studied by the students of H. S. 2nd year in 2019-20 session.
The sincere willingness as well as motivation from the Chairman of the Council and
ceaseless toil of Anurupa Choudhury, Deputy Secretary (Academic) combined with the
cooperation of the members of the Editorial Board played their respective parts to prepare
the mentioned syllabus. I offer my gratitude to all concerned.
While preparing the syllabus of H. S. 1st year Swadesh Adhyayan, each and
every area of Assamese History and Geography has not been taken into account. Those
will be included in the syllabus of the twelfth standard.
Should the well-wishers find any subject-related lapse or mistake, those are to
be directly communicated to the Secretary and Deputy Secretary (Academic) so as to
rectify such lacunas in the next edition.

Dated : 20th June, 2018 (Kamal Gogoi)

Secretary
Assam Higher Secondary Education Council
 THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute
India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity, and to promote among them all;
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and
integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of
Novembar, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO
OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
 Syllabus
FIRST PART : GEOGRAPHY
Marks Class
CHAPTER ONE ASSAM : LOCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE,
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS,
CLIMATE, SOIL 12 18
CHAPTER TWO POPULATION OF ASSAM AND
ITS CHARACTERISTICS 08 12
CHAPTER THREE RESOURCE 11 17
CHAPTER FOUR ECONOMIC BASE OF ASSAM 12 18

SECOND PART : HISTORY

Marks Class
CHAPTER FIVE STATE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 12 18
CHAPTER SIX SOCIETY AND SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS 10 15
CHAPTER SEVEN ITELLECTUAL, CULTURAL AND
RELIGIOUS HERITAGE 10 15
CHAPTER EIGHT MATERIAL HERITAGE 11 17
Total 86 130
CHAPTER NINE FIELD STUDY 14
Total Marks : 100

Marks distribution
First Part : Geography – 43
Second Part : History – 43
Filed Study : Total – 14 (10 + 04)
Filed Study : 10{
{ Viva : 04
 Contents
PART ONE : GEOGRAPHY
Page No
CHAPTER ONE : ASSAM : Locational Significance, Physiographic 11
divisions, Climate, Soil
CHAPTER TWO : Population of Assam and its Characteristics 29
CHAPTER THREE : Resource 39
CHAPTER FOUR : Economic base of Assam 51
– Agriculture, Industries

PART TWO : HISTORY

CHAPTER FIVE : State and its Development 77
– Beginning of State
– Ancient Kingdom of Kamrupa
– Formation of the Ahom Kingdom in the Medieval Period
CHAPTER SIX : Society and Social Characteristics 101
– Social Formation : Social System of Castes and Tribes
– The Paik System of the Medieval Period and its Impact
– Social Characteristics of Assam
CHAPTER SEVEN : Itellectual, Cultural and Religious Heritage 116
– Intellectual Heritage
– Cultural Heritage
– Religious Heritage – Religious Tradition- Tribal Traditions,
Buddhist-Saiva-Sakta Traditions, Vedic Traditions, Bhakti
Movement, Islamic and Christian Traditions
CHAPTER EIGHT : Material Heritage 136
– Historical Monuments of the Ancient and Medieval Period
CHAPTER NINE : Field Study 162
– Need of Field study and its scope
– Survey Schedule
 PART ONE
GEOGRAPHY
Blank
CHAPTER ONE

ASSAM : Locational Significance,

Physiographic divisions, Climate, Soil

IMPORTANT POINTS

Total geographical area : 78,423 km2

It covers 2.93 per cent of the total geographical area of India
Total land area of North East India : 2,55,083 km2 (Seven States)
North East India covers of the total
land area of India : 7.7 per cent
Total number of districts
(as on 30th June/2018 : 33 districts of which 3 Hill districts
Major physiographic divisions : 3
1. The plateau region
2. The folded mountain
3. The plains
(a) The Brahmaputra plain
(b) The Barak plain
12 Swadesh Adhyayan

Locational Significance : cent of the total Indian Union. But the Asam
Contemporary Assam and so called as on today has a total land area of 78,823
Assam of about fifty years ago, are not the km2 recording only 2.99 per cent of the total
same and has a marked difference so far geographical area of India.
geographical area and the political aspects The contemporary Assam shares
are concerned. Untill seventyth decade of common boundary with two foreign nations.
20th century, all the seven states (North-East They are Bhutan and Bangladesh. On the
States or Uttar Purbanchal) formed a signle other hand, Indian states sharing common
entity. Manipur and Tripura, although were boundaries with Assam are Arunachal
not politically united with erstwhile Assam but Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram,
they were economically, socially and Meghalaya and the West Bengal. Hence,
culturally linked with the region and are present Assam includes the 30 districts of the
considered as an integral parts of Assam. Brahmaputra and the Barak valley and the 3
Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh hilly districts of residual Assam. the ‘Bengal
and Mizoram were curved out of Assam Duars’, of course has connected Assam with
according separate political states under the the mainland of India. Any Indian legally
democratic administrative system of the entering into the north eastern states by land
Republic of India. route has no other way but to cross through
The whole of UttrraPurbanchal Assam. Assam under the sovereign
jurisdiction of India is bounded in the north
(Noroth East India) is surrounded almost
by Bhutan and the Arunachal Pradesh,
from all sides by foreign countries. The foreign
eastern side is bordered by Arunachal
nations sharing common boundaries with the
Pradesh, Nagaland and Manipur to its south
region are Bhutan, China, Myanmar and
lies Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya state;
Bangladesh. The whole of the region is
and the western side is bounded by
connected with the rest part of India by a
Bangladesh and the West Bengal. Geometric
narrow corridoor of built up plain known as
location (calculated on the basis of latitude
the ‘Bengal Duars’ having an average width
and longitudinal extention) of entire Assam is
of about 27 kilometer.
extended between 24o3/ North to 27058/
The total geographical area of North Parallels and from 8905/ East meridian
erstwhile Assam was 2,55,083 square in the west to 96o1/ North longitude in the
kilometer and it accounts for about 7.7 per East. (Map 1.1)
ASSAM : Locational Significance, Physiographic divisions, Climate, Soil 13

(Map 1.1) Land-sat imagery, Assam

14 Swadesh Adhyayan
Geological, physiographical and (Chenghei-Arnam) extends upto Kopili and
physical characteristics of Assam reveal that Kakodonga, a sub-tributary to Dhansiri in the
the whole state is covered with geophysical east and from the Brahmaputra in the north
features like fertile plain, marshy land swamps to the folded mountains of Cachar in the south.
and wetlands, scattered hillock and hills, The plateau region of Assam covers an area
folded mountains and old crystalline massif of 74,000 km2. The Kopili-Dabaka platform
of Gondwanaland. More specially the Karbi separates the Karbi-Rengma plateau from the
Anglong, West Karbi Anglong, southern Barail Range of Dima-Hasao. On the guava
margin of Morigaon district, and the fruit-like physiographic expression of the
highlands features of Kamrup (Metro) district plateau there in lies the Rengma hills in the
have been considered as the outlying central part. Simhashion (1359 meters) and
segments of Chhottanagpur plateau. The the Danbukso (1363 metre) are two important
rock characteristics of Shillong or Meghalaya high peaks of Karbi-Rengma plateau. (Map
plateau resembles with the hills and the 1.3)
hillocks of the lower part of the Brahmaputra Western part beyond Kopili basin the
valley. The Barail range located towards the rest segment of Karbi plateau is knowna s
east of the Cachar and the Hailakandi district the Hamren plateau and lies within the west
are parts of Young folded mountain Patkai Karbi Anglong district. It covers an area of
or Arakan Yoma which again in turn is an about 3000 km2. Average altitude of the
extensional part of the Himalayan mountain Hamren plateau from the mean sea level
system. The valley region of Assam namely (MSL) is around 500 meter with its highest
the Brahmaputra and the Barak are peak Umlapar (1220 meter)
composed of the aggradational works of Almost all the drainages originated from
the master streams Brahmaputra and the the Karbi-Rengma plateau are centrifugal or
Barak and their tributaries and sub- radial in pattern. Diphu (north flowing),
tributaries thereof. On the basis of Nambor and Kolioni (east flowing),
geophysical structure the whole of Assam subtributaries like Dilai, Longnit, Disobai,
can by divided into the following three major Patradisa etc. are south flowing, while Na Noi,
physiographic divisions. (Map 1.2) Misa, Dikhow etc. are west flowing
1) The plateau region drainages. Due to the degradational processes
2) The folded mountain region of all these drainages since long past the
3) The plains topography of the plateau region has been
subjected to intense change. The scattered
1) The plateau region : The plateau region
peaks and the hills on the northern side of
of Assam is genetically a part of the Shillong
Meghalaya plateau from Morigaon district to
or Meghalaya plateau. The Karbi plalteau
 ASSAM : Locational Significance, Physiographic divisions, Climate, Soil 15

(Map 1.2) Physiographic divisions, Assam

divisions, Assam
Physiographic
16 Swadesh Adhyayan

(Map 1.3)
 ASSAM : Locational Significance, Physiographic divisions, Climate, Soil 17
Mancachar from geological perspective are 3) The plain region : The plain region of
parts and parcel of the Meghalaya plateau. Assam is the outcome of the aggradational
The scattered hills and hillocks located in and process of the master streams, tributaries and
around Guwahati like Panbari, Thakurkuchi, the sub-tributaries some of which are rainfed,
Amchang, Narakasur, Rani, Nilachal, some are snowfed and some receive water
Chakardoi, Zirang, Khargapahar, from both the sources. The plain region of
Dudhkonwar, Tukreswari etc. are in reality Assam can be subdivided into two regions.
proved to be the innermost extension of the The Barail Range divides the Brahmaputra
Meghalaya plateau. valley region from the Barak valley region.
2) The folded mountain region : The The Barak valley is also known as the Surama
folded hilly region of Assam is confined to Valley.
the Cachar district of Barak valley. Popularly (a) The Brahmaputra plain : The
known as the Barail Range the folded Brhmaputra plain is the largest among the
mountaineous region in reality is a part of the plains of north east India. Extending from the
Patkai hills. Patkai is again a part of the great
Lohit plain near Sadiya in the east to the
Himalayan Mountain system. Patkai Range
Sonkosh plain in the western margin of the
in Myanmar is known by two different names.
They are Arakan Yoma in the north and Regu state, the Brahmaputra plain covers a total
Yoma to the south of Patkai-Barail knot. The length of about 720 km and width varies from
Barail Range divides the Dima Hasao 20-100 km and an average the plain is about
dikstrict of Assam into two parts. 80 meter wide. The plain has an altitude of
About 30-40 million years ago i.e. 174 meter from mean sea level (MSL) on
during Eocene and Oligocene Geological average in Sadiya region, 58 meter in
period, the entire Barail Range was formed Guwahati, it records only 30 meter altitude
and the active normal cycle of erosion processes on average near Bangladesh border 12 km
have dissected the hilly region to transform into
west of the Dhubri town. The average
agglomeration of features like deep valleys,
gorge, steep slopes etc. Theipibang (1865 gradient of the entire plain is only 13 cm per
metres), Mahadev (1739 m) Kaukaha (1736 kilometer. From Sadiya to Dhansirimukh the
m), Jatinga etc. are some of the important peaks Brahmaputra plain has a gradient of 17 cm/
of the Barail Range. Lubha a tributary to Barak km, from Pobitora National Park near
seperates the Meghalaya plateau formed by the Guwahati to the Indo-Bangladesh boundary
Gondwana series of rocks from the Barail Range line the gradient is only 11 cm/km. The
formed by the stratified sedimontary rocks of northern margin of the Brahmaputra plain is
Tertiary period.
almost straight in stretch while the southern
18 Swadesh Adhyayan
margin is a curved one and to the west of surface. The drainages carrying down the
Jakhalabandha there in lies several (14 materials are deposited here due to abrupt
numbers) hillocks and hills besides many fall of the slope between the foothills and the
wetlands scattered in the region. plains.
The Brahmaputra plain is consdered The Bhabar-Tarai zone gradually
as one of the regions having the highest merges with a relatively high and compact
drainage frequency in the world. The plain is ground called the builtup zone on which the
builtup largely by fluvial aggradation of a mighty King Naranarayana constructed the
geological trough (fore-deep or sag). About Gohain-Kamal Ali from Coach Behar to
57 northern tributaries and 32 tributaries Narayanpur. The British called it the North
from the south carring boulders, pebbles, Trunk Road. The National Highways and the
cobbles, sand, silt and soil have formed the raiwlay tract from Srirampur to
fertile plains. The charlands on either sides Murkongselek pass through this tract. The
of the main channel and the riverine islands builtup zone merges towoards the south with
and the mid channel bars are major part of the Brahmaputra flood plain zone.
the plain. The land-sat-imagery reveals that In the south bank such vast flood
there are at present about 540 riverine islands plains are limited in their area and confined
in the bed of the Brahmaputra. Some of these to the immediate bank of Brahmaputra.
are above the highest flood level and some From Bagori of Golaghat district eastward
are annually denudated by flood. These areas up to Dibrugarh the foothill plain zone like
are mostly congensinal for Rabi crop the northern bank foothill belt is congenial
cultivation. for cultivation of tea and paddy with bumper
In the northern part of the Brahmaputra harvest. The foothill-belt of Nagaon,
valley specially on the foothill zone from Morigaon, Kamrup (Metro), South Kamrup
Murkokcheleng (Jonai) to Sonkosh in the and Goalpara are very suitable for raising
western margin there in lies a narrow fertile orange on commercial basis along with tea
belt called the Bhabar Tarai Zone. The strip and paddy.
is composed of older alluvium called alluvial The Dihang, Dibang and Lohit
fans and is composed moinly of sands and culminate to form the Brahmaputra/Luit or
pebbles. The strip is pervious throughout and Louhitya (The Burlungbuthur according to the
the water generally percolates down the Kiratas) at Parashuramkund near Sadiya.
 ASSAM : Locational Significance, Physiographic divisions, Climate, Soil 19

(a) Dihang (b) Dibang (c) Lohit

The northern major tributaries of Brahmaputra from east to west are –
1) Gai 9) Gabhoru 17) Pahumara
2) Jiadhal 10) Pach Noi 18) Beki-Manas-Ai
3) Subansiri 11) Jia Dhansiri 19) Champawati
4) Ranga Noi 12) Bor Nadi 20) Saralbhaonga
5) Dikrong 13) Puthimari 21) Gadadhar
6) Buroi 14) Baralia 22) Gangadhar
7) Borganga 15) Pagladia 23) Sonkosh
8) Jia Bharali 16) Kaldia

The south bank major tributaries are –

1) Dangori 10) Dhansiri 19) Kulsi Kalbog
2) Dibru 11) Diung 20) Boko
3) Burhidihing 12) Kolong 21) Singra
4) Disang 13) Jamuna 22) Dudhnoi
5) Dikhow 14) Kopili 23) Krishnai
6) Janji 15) Daiyang/Diyung 24) Jinari
7) Teok 16) Borapani 25) Jinjiram
8) Bhogdoi 17) Kiling (Umium)
9) Kakadonga 18) Digaru (Umtru)
(Map – 1.4)
20 Swadesh Adhyayan

(Map 1.4)
 ASSAM : Locational Significance, Physiographic divisions, Climate, Soil 21

(b) The Barak plain : The Barak plain 1) Jiri 4) Dalu

has been formed by the Barak and its tribu- 2) Lobok 5) Jatinga
taries through their aggradational activities. 3) Madhura 6) Larang
The horseshoe shaped basin lies within the
The major south-bank tributaries are –
Barail Range in the north, Manipur hills in
1) Sonai 4) Singla
the east, Lushai (Mizoram) hills in the south
and gradually merges with the Sylhet plain of 2) Katakhal 5) Longai

Bangladesh in the western margin. Barak 3) Dhaleswari

plain covers an area of about 6962 km2 with The low hills within and in the
a gradient of 20 cm/km. the plain has a low periphural area of the Barak plain untill recent
altitude from mean sea level (MSL), it is re- past were covered with dense forest. The
corded in Jiribum area in north eastern part Barail Wild-Life Sanctuary in the northern
as 75 metre, Silchar (73 meter) and only 51 part, North Cachar Hills Reserved Forest;
meter is Karimganj in the south-western part Upper Ziri Protected Forest, Barak Reserved
of the basin. Forest in the eastern part; and the Inner Line
Like the lower part of the Brahmaputra Reserved Forest, Sonai, Katakhal, Singla,
the Barak plain on its foothill region exhibits Badshah tila and Longai Reserved Forest
isolated low hillocks. Altitude of none of these located in the southern part of the valley, the
hillocks is 50 meter above the MSL. These rocks of which are composed of deepsoils
are composed of silt, sand, pebbles cobbles and coalescence of silt, sand, pebbles and
and boulders. Moreover the plain supports cobbles with pervious character. Based on
seven numbers of wetlands. the rock characteristics and the climatic

The Barak or Surama valley has been conditions Tropical Monsoon Forest has

formed by the master stream Barak and its flourished luxuriously on each and every hills

tributaries and sub-tributaries thereof. The and hillocks in the valley.

major north-bank tributaries of Barak are–

22 Swadesh Adhyayan

CLIMATE
Assam as a whole falls within the sub- and north-eastern part of India and their
Tropical Monsoon regime. Heavy downpour seasonal shifting nature, (d) The
with high temperature during summer and low predominance of tropical maritime airman
rainfall associated with low temperature is the (south-west monsoon) that move over the
special climatic characteristics of Assam. state, (e) Local mountain and valley wind.
High humidity and low temperature Moreover, the eastern Jet stream, high level
determines the climate of Assam. During western disturbances and water vapour
summer the mean atmospheric temperature extracted from local sources and their
is about 28o celsius and during winter, on influence on the peripherial area (vicinity) vast
average is recorded to be 13o celsius. forests, local cyclonic development etc. are
Temperature and precipitation, of course, noteworthy.
varies spatically according to the influence In the first-half of April owing to the
of geographical factors. In Assam, four development of high temperature in the
climatic regimes are district – Pre-Monsoon, northern side of Assam (Central Asia) low
Monsoon, Retreating Monsoon and Winter. pressure system begins to develop and so
The renouned climatologist Vladimir this attract the warm moisture bearing
Koppen and Thornthwait both have monsoon wind from the Bay of Bengal with
suggested models for classification of climatic high velocity locally known as the
types of the entire world. As such, Assam ‘Bordoichila’. Sometimes even the wind
enjoys Humid Mesothermal Gangetic type velocity exceeds more than 120 kilometer
of climatic (Cwg). But the true model can per hour and brings disastrous effect on the
only be applied with certain modifications. nature, man and animal life. It is called
For example, instead of dry winter some Tornado. In and around Rongali Bihu both
parts of Assam experience rainfall amounting the Bordochila and Tornado ravages Assam
on average 13 cm during December and as a whole and certain parts in particular.
January and temperature also recorded During summer monsoon season i.e. from
below 10o celsius on average with spatial mid-June to first-half of September high
variations. Geographical factors influencing temperature associated with heavy rainfall
the climate of Assam mainly are – (a) Sub- predominates the weather. From the mid-
tropical location, (b) Physiography and relief, September to November the climate of
(c) The alternating pressure condition over Assam is neither hot nor cold (temperature)
the north-west India, and the Bay of Bengal and pleasant. Autumn (Retreating monsoon)
ASSAM : Locational Significance, Physiographic divisions, Climate, Soil 23

(Map 1.5)
24 Swadesh Adhyayan
is the season of flowering sewali and kohua The lower reaches of the atmosphere over
(according to the romantic poets) and then Assam still remain covered with fog with high
the winter season followed by spring. After visibility range. Then again spring comes after
Magh Bihu i.e. from the last part of January winter and thus the six seasons reflect the
to the first-half of March the weather is clear. weather and climate of Assam.

Soils of Assam
The thin outer layer of the earth is called the materials carried by the drainages are
soil. Soil is the ultimate product of the deposited in the flood-prone areas and after
mechanical disintegration and chemical the flood those are observed deposited in
decomposition of rocks mixed with humus. the form of levees with high humus content.
Soil is the natural medium of plant growth Soils are naturally acidic and spreed upto the
and for sustinance of many organisms. Soil flood-prone regions. In the upper part of the
contains bectaria and micro-organisms and valleys high phosphorous content support tea
hence, is considered as organic entity. The plantation specially in the areas with older
general characteristics of the soil of Assam is alluvial soils. In the foothill areas on the alluvial
its acidity. The soils of hilly areas are less cones these older alluvial soils are common.
acidic than the plain areas. The soils of the On the other hand in the lower Brahmaputra
Brahmaputra and the Barak valley are less valley region frequently denudated by flood
acidic. The soils within the valley differs in and with deficiency in phosphorous content
character. Upper Brahmaputra valley region discourages tea cultivation. The new alluvial
soils are more acidic than the soils of the soils are found on either sides of the
western part of the valley. On the other hand, mastertreams in the middle and lower course.
within the valley the soils of flood-plains are These are called levee.
comparatively less acidic. In fact in some The Hilly red soils or red loamy soils
areas alkaline soils are also found. Soils of composed of silt, sand, grit, gravels, pebbles
the three hill-districits of Assam contain more etc. are rich in humus, oxygen and acid
alkaline and less acidic. content, but deficient in phosphate and
On the basis of characteristics the soils potash. This soil is generally pervious and
of Assam may be grouped into the following becomes sticky in presence of water but it
categories– Alluvial soil, Red sandy soil, Red develops cracks in absence of water. This
soil and laterite soil. In both the Brahmaputra type of soil in Assam contains organic mater
and the Barak valley usually the alluvial soils and nitrogeneous material. The redish colour
are common in accurarrance. After the flood of the soil is due to the oxidation of the iron
ASSAM : Locational Significance, Physiographic divisions, Climate, Soil 25

(Map 1.6)
26 Swadesh Adhyayan
content in the parent rocks. This type of soil are naturally soft and sticky. The soils of this
is found in West Kabri Anglong, Karbi region is wet and covoered with tall grasses.
Anglong, Dima Hasao and the foothill region The laterite soils extensively found in
of Upper Brahmaputra valley.In the eastern Assam except the above mentioned
part of Nagaon, southern part of Morigaon locations are very important so far the
and the foothill regions of Kamrup (M) south argicultural activities are concerned. This soil
Kamrup, Goalpara, Dhubri district, red soils generallydeficient in nitrogenous materials,
are common in occurrence. phosphorous, acid and lime including iodine.
The red loamy soils composed mainly The south eatern part of Nagaon, central part
of sand, pebbles, cobbles, gravels etc. are of Karbi Anglong, West Karbi Anglong,
also found in the extreme northern part of Golaghat, Jorhat foot hills of Charaideo, and
the BTAD districts south of Bhutan and the the Barak Valley foohill belt are bestowed
southern margin of Arunachal Pradesh which with laterite soil.

EXERCISE

1. (a) What is the percentage of area occupied by Assam of the total area of India?
(b) Name the two foreign countries sharing common boundaries with Assam.
(c) Name the Indian states sharing common boundaries with Assam.
(d) What is the total area of plateau region in Assam?
(e) Name the plain seperating the Karbi-Rengma plateau from Barail range.
(f) Name the highest peak of Assam located on Rengma Hills.
(g) By which name the part of Patkai range in southern part of Myanmar is known?
(h) The foot-hill belt in the northern part of the Brahmaputra valley extending from
Jonai in the east to Sonkosh in the west is known by which name?
(i) Borgonga is a subtributary to which tributary?
(j) Name the sub-stream of Brahmaputra flowing through the northern side of Majuli.
(k) What is the average gradient of the Barak plain.
 ASSAM : Locational Significance, Physiographic divisions, Climate, Soil 27
2. In which two geological periods the Barail Hills System was formed?
3. Which two rock systems forming two different landforms have been seperated by the
Luva drainage?
4. The Bhabar-Tarai belt in Assam is located in between which two places?
5. The foot-hill plain in the southern part of the Brahmaputra is located between which
two places?
6. Draw a sketch-map of Assam and insert there in the major physiographic regions.
7. Vladimir Koppen has included the climate of Assam under which type?
8. The wind with very high velocity that ravages Assam in and around Rongali Bihu is
known by which common name?
9. The velocity of monsoon wind in Assam is dependent on–
(a) Intensity of pressure
(b) Physiography
(c) Relief
(d) All of the above
10. The Tropic of Cancer passes throuth which side of Assam?
(a) Northern side
(b) Southern side
(c) Through the middle
(d) Extreme east
11. What is the temperature in Assam on average during summer and winter?
12. What is the average rainfall in Assam during summer and winter?
13. Mention the factors on which the climate of Assam depends.
14. In which parts of Assam soils composed of sand, silt, cobbles, pebbles gravels etc.
are found?
28 Swadesh Adhyayan

15. In which soil extensively found in Asam there is deficiency in lime, iodine, potash,
phosphorous?
16. What is Humus?
17. Which soil of Assam is very congenial for the plantations?
18. In which two major floodplains of Assam levee is found?
19. What are the major soil types of Assam?

zzz
CHAPTER TWO

POPULATION OF ASSAM AND ITS

CHARACTERISTICS

IMPORTANT POINTS
z Total population as per 2011 census : 3,12,05,576
(accounts for 2.59 per cent of the
total population of India)
z Density of population : 398 per km2
z Rural population : 86 per cent
z Urban population : 14 per cent
z Sex composition (per 1000 male) : 958 female
z Literacy rate : 72.18 percent
z Male : 77.84 percent
z Female : 66.27 percent
z Urban : 88.47 percent
z Rural : 69.34 per cent
z Number of towns : 214
z Number of village : 26395
z Total number of districts : 33
30 Swadesh Adhyayan
The population of a region, its for various reasons. High growth of
characteristics and pattern of distrbution population, pressure of man on land,
determines mostly the economic and level of decreasing man-land ratio, decrease in per
social development of the area. Therefore, capita cultivable land etc. are some of the
the population, growth rate, density, problems faced by the state in contemporary
distribution, and other characteristics of a time. Assam has been experiencing arapid
state or political and other administrative growth of population since its annexation by
regions are studied seriously. the British in 1826. A British officer estimated
Population of Assam, its growth and the population of Assam to be about seven
development : lakhs in 1830. The first ever census of Assam
The study of population of Assam its in 1872 recorded its population at about 22
growth distribution and other related lakhs which rose to 3,289,680 in 1901. It
characteristics are getting more importance may, however, be noted that Assam’s

TABLE–1

Year Population in lakh Density Growth

(Per km2) (in percentage)
Assam India Assam India Assam India
1901 33 2384 42 77 – –
1911 38 2521 49 82 17.0 5.8
1921 46 2513 59 81 20.5 0.3
1931 56 2789 71 90 19.9 11.0
1941 67 3186 85 103 20.4 14.2
1951 80 3611 102 117 19.9 13.3
1961 108 4392 138 142 35.0 21.5
1971 146 5881 186 177 35.0 24.8
1981 180 (approx) 6833 230 230 23.4 24.7
1991 224 8463 286 267 24.2 24.7
2001 266 10,270 340 325 18.9 21.5
2011 312 12,106 398 368 17.1 17.7
Source : Census of India - 2011,Govt of India.
 Population of Assam and its Characteristics 31
population has grown by about 9 times from major wave of migration entered in to Assam
3.29 million in 1901 to 312 million in 2011 is the Ahom who through Patkai pass
against the Indian population growth by about (Hukwang la) from Shan Inn Plateau. The
5 times for the corresponding period. Assam Ahoms with strong cultural base said to have
gives home to about 75 per cent of the total united the local kingdoms and ruled Assam
population of North-East India. The various for about 598 years with dignity. After Ahoms,
major reasons for such high concentration of the Tai Buddhist community, Tibeto-
population are– plains land, fertile alluvial Burmans, Indo-Arsian community etc.
lands suitable for agriculture and other entered into Assam and settled in different
purposes on iehter sides of the Brahmaputra parts of the state according to their choice
and the Barak river and its trubutaries healthy and security.
climate, developed infrastructural facilities The second group of migrants entered
rapid urbanisation etc. into the states during the British regime i.e.
Population census in Assam, like other after 1826 (Treaty of Yandaboo). They are
states of India, are held after every ten years. identified as the Kukis, Singphos etc.
The record reveals that the rate of population followed by the Munda, Santhal, Gond etc.
growth in Assam is above the national average in 1855 from the Chhottanagpur plateau.
(Table–1) the high growth rate in Assam is They were brought to Assam to work as
not due to natural cause. Birth rate is high labour in the newly established tea gardens,
but death rate is low. Besides, there has been coal and crude oil, mining regions. The British
a continuous immigration both from other brought along with them some people from
Indian states as well as from neighbouring Bengal to assist them in the office and courts.
foreign nations. They were the Bengali speakers. The British
The whole of Assam, untill recent past, also chosed to bring some Nepali people
was covered with dense Tropical monsoon from the northern part of Bengal who were
forest and alaong with this it was surrounded brave and honest to man the British posts.
by hills and mountain terrain and hence, the The third major important stream
density of population was low in comparision entered into Assam after India achieved her
to other parts of nothern India. Later the Independence. Some Hindu refugees were
fertile soil, river valleys and numerous given assylum politically who entered into
tributaries and healthy climate gradually Assam and occupied the areas suitable for
attracted the outsiders. Ever since the British agricultural purposes. The then political
annaxed there occurred immigration from leaders encouraged such migration and kins
Bengal, north India, Nepal, and and kiths of such migrants later thorned the
Chhottanagpur plateau. The first ever such specified vacant lands (Lebensraum). In later
32 Swadesh Adhyayan
period people from Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, = 50 persons/per km2)
Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Odissa, West In our state the regions where
Bengal and neighbouring state Nepal entered migration of population is high, the density of
Assam with distinct motive. According to population is also very high. For example,
1961 census report about 13 lakh such the districts like Kamrup Metro (1313),
people were given warm welcome out of Dhubri (896), Barpeta (742), Nalbari (733),
which about five lakh Indians were Nagaon (711), Karimganj (679) etc. have
accomodated and the rest numbering about population density more than average density
eight lakhs were from neighbouring foreign of Assam as a whole (Assam records 398
states. For such unchecked influx the density km2). Assam ranks 15th in respect of
of population in 1971 census, was higher than population density among the Indian states.
the national average. The frequent flood-prone and the three
Expectaion of better economic hilly districts of Assam have a low density of
opportunities and avenues along with population. Dima Hasao (44), Karbi Anglong
reluctant nature of the youths to work of (90), West Karbi Anglong (97) and Dhemaji
erstwhile Assam is considered as major pull 212 are comparatively sparsely population.
factors of migration into Assam. As oppose to this, the districts having more
Establishment and expansion of tea, crude number of towns, industries have flourished,
oil based and other industries, coal mining, the area under fertile land have been utilised
brick-kiln industry, constructional works for cultivation more than two times (multiple
(roads, bridge, building etc.) demand more cropping) – crop rotation and interculture)
mannual labours. More than 80 per cent of such districts reveal high densityof population.
the total labour force constitutes from outside Cachar (449), Hailakandi (497), Lakhimpur
the states. Such quasi, semi or permanent (458), Udalguri (451), Kamrup )489) and
immigration contributed and added impetus Bongaigaon records high population density
to the total population growth of Assam. above states average.
Density of population : Land has a Religious composition : Like most
special capacity to hold population so far the of the states of India Assam is also a Hindu
supply of food, residents etc. are concerned.
dominated state. It has a substantial number
But it is limited. Therefore, in comparision to
of population belonging to each of the major
size of an area, the total number of population
in that particular area is counted. This man- religions persued in India. Districts of Assam
land ratio is called population density. It is having high density and growth rate of
measured in terms of total population per unit population, the followers of Prophet
of area (Density = 5000/per 100 km2 area Mahammad is more. These districts are
 Population of Assam and its Characteristics 33
TABLE–2
Religion Population in per cent
2001 2011
Hinduism 80.05 61.47
Islam 13.04 34.22
Christian 2.3 3.74
Shikh 1.9 0.07
Buddhist 0.8 0.18
Jainism 0.4 0.04
Others 0.6 0.09
Denied to divulge (0.1) 0.1 0.16
Source : Census of India - 2001 and 2011,Govt of India.

Dhubri, Goalpara, Nagaon, Barpeta, The status or respect to females is

Karimganj and Hailakandi. It is due to the determined by sex ratio. The developed
immigration mainly from the neighbouring nations have always high literacy rate, they
state Bangladesh. In 2011 census the are healthy and mostly self dependent and
religious composition has changed in 11 per capita calory available per day is above
districts of Assam in comparision to 2001 2200 (Cal/day) and hence, mortality rate is
census record. also low. But in developing nations, on the
Sex composition : The sex ratio of a otherhand, literacy rate is lower, mostly
country determines the population dependent on others, poor health quality Cal/
composition of a country or a region. Sex day is below 2200 and female mortality rate
ratio is expressed as the number of females is high. Abortion after determing foetus if
per thousand males in a community or a region found female, negligence of female-child
(number of females/number of males × resulting in death, reluctant to send for formal
1000). It reflects socio-economic stability and educational institute and overall expiry of
welfare or otherwise of a population. It is women during advanced stage due to various
always better to have an even sex ratio of social and economic reasons. For such
1000 females per 1000 males. It is an ideal reasons some states in India the sex-ratio is
situation and rarely reached. low and in some countries of the world the
34 Swadesh Adhyayan
sex-ratio is very low (Saudi Arabia 500 years of age reveals higher mortality rate and
females per 1000 males) low dependency ratio. On the other hand
One of the major causes of low sex higher percentage of people between 18-60
ratio is the migration of higher percentage of years of age reflects larger number of
male than female. The receiving centres or satisfactory working population force.
the destinations like the urban centres In Assam, according to the 2011
generally males outnumbers females because census report male child between the age
of the facts that the bulk of working group 0–6 years of age is 23 per cent while
population and earning members including female child of the same age group for the
daily wage earners for livelyhood mostly corresponding census is 22 per cent. On
constituted by male members. In Assam, average considering male and female child
Kamrup Metro district centering Guwahati between the age group 0–6 years in the
has only 936 woman per 1000 males. Assam districts of Morigaon (17.11 per cent),
as a whole has only 956 women per 1000 Nagaon (16.29 per cent), Dhubri (18.90 per
male population. The districts having higher cent), Goalpara (17.03 per cent), Karimganj
number of males than the state average are– (17.25 per cent) and Darrang have higher
Bagsa (974), Udalguri (973), Lakhimpur than the state average (Assam records 14.86
(968)e, Chirang (960) and Golaghat (964). per cent) and the districts having the lowest
According to the census report of 2011 the percentage of children are Kamrup (Metro)
number of female-child per 1000 male-child (10.00 per cent), Jorhat (11.41 per cent) and
is 962 which is not only higher than some of Cachar (11.79 per cent) according to 2011
the Indian states but also higher than the census. The district having more percentage
national average rate. of children below 6 years of age are also the
Age composition : The age districts having higher growth rate and having
composition of a country reflects the number high density of population. This is one of
and the percentage of people at different age special characteristics of developing nations
group. High percentage of children below 14 i.e. higher number of children with higher
years of age reflects higher birth rate, low growth rate and high density of population.
mortality rate and higher dependency rate. In Assam, according to 2011 census
Likewise, lower percent of people above 60 about 38 per cent of the total population are
 Population of Assam and its Characteristics 35
engaged in productive activities. This was be occupying 26th rank among the Indian states
called as ‘working population group’. Higher (National average literacy rate 72.00 per
percentage of working population has a cent) the highest literacy rate occurs in the
special implication on the production and districts of Kamrup (Metro) recording
economic development of a state. (88.66), Jorhat (81.36) and Hailakandi
Literacy : Level of education and (94.67). The lowest literate districts are
percentage of literate people is one of the Dhubri (59.36) and Darrang (66.88). A
important social characteristics of population remarkable variation occurs between the
of a state. The quality of population of a state rural and urban areas. The urban areas of
is dependent on educational level and literacy Assam has recorded 88.47 per cent literate
rate. The proportion of literate population people. On the other hand rural areas of the
of a state is considered development index state as a whole calculated to be as 69.34
so far both of socio-economic factor of a per cent. There is a gender variation in case
state is concerned literacy and level of of literacy in Assam. The female literacy for
education deterimine the standard of living, the state as a whole is 66.27 as against 77.85
socio-economic states of women, skill per cent for males. The gap between the
development, occupational sturucture etc. In male-female literacy has substantially declined
our state literacy person means persons of now due to awareness created and incentive
above seven years of age who know reading offered by both the central and the state
and writing together with numerical works. government concerned. It is a matter of
According to the 2011 census, the satisfaction for Assam. The male-female
literacy rate in Assam is 72.19 per cent, literacy gap at national level is very high.

TABLE–3
State 1991 2001 2011
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Assam 61.87 43.03 71.28 54.61 77.85 66.27
India 64.13 39.28 75.26 53.67 80.89 64-64

Source : Census of India - 2001 and 2011,Govt of India.

36 Swadesh Adhyayan

Distribution of population : The expansion have started. This has limited the
distribution of population in a region is existing facilities made for the permanent
dependent on many geographical factors. resisdents provided by the authorities
Generally river valley, plain area, fertile soil concerned. This has created a lots of
suitable for agricultural practices, settlement problems. The districts having rapid
easily available potable water, safity and urbanisation process the density of
security determines the distribution and population has exceeded capacity level. The
density of population in a region. The districts having rapid growth of urbanisation
distribution of population is not even process are also the places of high density of
throughout Assam. This is mainly because of population. For example, Kamrup (Metro)
various physical and socio-economic (density 1313 per km2) has more than three
reasons. About 20 per cent of the total area times density of population than the state
of Assam is covered with hills and plateau average.
where distribution of population is sparse. The districts having lowest density of
The Brahmaputra and the Barak valley population are – Dima Hasao (44/km2),
districts reveal high concentration of Karbi Anglong (92/km2), West Karbi
population and more specifically in the urban Anglong (90/km2) and Dhemaji (212/km2).
centres. The three mega cities of Assam i.e. Out of these, the first three districts are
Guwahati, Dibrugarh and Silchar have better having hilly terrain character and Dhemaji
transport network, wel-developed education is annually ravaged by flood for which the
and modern health facilities, employment settlement is sparse. Likewise, five districts
avenues and opportunities and hence, high of Assam as mentioned above shows
concentration of population is found. alarmingly high growth rate of population
Horizontal expansion in these urban centres due to migration unchecked during last three
have become limited and therefore, vertical decades.
 Population of Assam and its Characteristics 37
IMPORTANT POINTS

Population growth – Birth rate (~) death rate (±) migration = immigration (~) emigration)
Causes of migration – healthy climate, plain fertile land, social security in the area in
comarision to existing place.
Three types of migration – (a) Permanent, (b) Temporary (c) Daily commuters.
Density of population – Total number of persons per unit area.
Sex composition – number of females per 1000 males.
Occupational structure – number of people engaged in different economic activities.
Working population – Young energetic people gnaged in productive occupation.
Dependent population – Children and aged people who are not able to take the
responsibility properly or not engaged in any productive occupation. The high percentage
of such people in a state in comparision to working population hinders or affect the
economic development of the region concerned.

EXERCISE
1. Write briefly on the following –
(a) Density of population (b) Sex structure
(c) Age structure (d) Occupational composition
(e) Migration (e) Working population
2. Answer the questions shortly –
(a) What is the number of total population according to 2011 census?
(b) In which district of Assam the density of population is the hgihest?
(c) In which district of Assam the density of population is the lowest?
(d) What are the major causes of population growth in Assam?
(e) Name the district of Assam having the highest literacy rate.
(f) Give an example of permanent migration into Assam.
38 Swadesh Adhyayan
3. The population density in Assam is more than the national average rate, what are the
causes behind it?
4. Write short notes on the following :
(a) Working population
(b) Distrtibution of population
(c) Literacy of Assam
5. Write a short account of sex structure and religious icomposition of Assam.
6. What is sex structure? Write about the sex structure of Assam in brief, according to
2011 census.
7. Write briefly the influence of geographical factors on populations distribution in Assam.
CHAPTER THREE

RESOURCE

IMPORTANT POINTS

After studying this lesson you will be able to learn

What is resource
Classification of resource
Characteristics of different types of resource
Use and need for conservation of resource
Distribution and utilisation of national resources of Assam
Impact and development of Human resource in Assam
40 Swadesh Adhyayan

Anything available in nature or abundant in the natural habitat of Assam was

artificially produced and utilised by man may not given importance until ‘quinine’ was
in broad sense be termed as resource. All processed administered and utilised as drug
material and non-material means of satisfying to get cure from Malaria. Now chinkona as
human and social needs are resources. The medicinal plant has attained immense
materials surrounding us like air, water, soil, importance as precious resource.
flora and fauna etc. all have functionability Hence, all gifts of nature will only be
and directly or indirectly utilised to satisfy our considered as resource when we learn the
needs. These are called resources. All use, utility and the functionability. To clarify
products of the world, as a whole although more, let us cite an example. Pieces of ice
considered as resources, its evaluation is we use in our day-to-day use for various
dependent on our depth of knowledge level purposes is no doubt is almost an essential
and levels of social and technological item. But the mass of ice accumulated on
development. For example, before learning the high peaks of the Himalayan or the
to take or consume tea as a refreshing drink unexplored minerals available at the
(for its flavour, aroma and taste) tea plants interior of the earth we do not consider
available in the Singhpholand of erstwhile them as resource at all. Because, these are
Assam were not considered as resource. It although the gift of nature, but not available
was, like other plant species considered as for use. For future generations, of course,
source of oxygen and agent of maintaining these maybe very important resources.
ecological balance of nature. Tea plants were Therefore, all gifts of nature at present, we
growing in the forest of Assam unidentified cannot consider as resources.
and no importance was paid. But after Commodities which are beyond our reach
Robert Bruce along with Maniram Dewan or beyond our knowledge of use although
identified tea plants in Assam and the British at present those are not considered as
patronised its processing procedure for resource but maybe recoruses for future
ultimate product (tea) the importance and generations to come provided scientific
role of ‘tea’ in the economy of not only Assam knowledge and proper technological
but also the nation as a whole is well-known development is applied. Professor E.W.
to all of us. Likewise ‘chinkona’ plant Zimmermann, one of the exponent of
 Resource 41
resources, considered resource as – Biotic resource : These resources are
‘Resource does not mean any commodity plants, animals and micro-organisms. Both
or matter, but if that has utility and the producers and the consumers are present
functionability can be regarded as here producers means all green vegetables.
resource’’. Professor Zimmermann also Consumers may be divided as primary,
defined resource as ‘means attaining given secondary and tertiary. Herbivorous animals
ends’, the ends being the satisfaction of like cattle, goat, sheep, deer, zebra, bison
individual wants and attainment of social etc. are primary consumers. On the
objectives. That is the say, resource otherhand carnivorous animals like tiger, lion,
satisfies human wants be it individual want fox etc. are secondary consumers. Again
or social want. As it satisfies wants it is some carnivores consumer the other
something useful and possesses utility as carnivores. For example hayena, eagle, owl,
an attribute. Resource relates to man and mongose etc. The dead animal consumers
it is functional. are vulture, crow etc. Dead bodies and
decomposed plants again are consumed by
Anything to be considered as resource
various types of bacteria. In an ecosystem
must be available and should have the
starting from plant kingdom, herbivores,
knowledge of method of use.
carnivores, bectaria etc. are useful and the
Classification of resource : intra and interrelationship among them are of
Resource may be classified in many a ways. utmost need. Any change (increase or
On the basis of origin resource may be decrease) may bring about ecological
classified as land, water, solar, atmospheric, imbalance.
flora, fauna human resource etc. On the basis Ablut 80,000 species of flora have so
of availability resource may be renewable and far been identified on the face of the earth.
non-renewable. On the basis of use– land, About 75 per cent people depend on
soil, water, flora and fauna, mineral, material, medicine extracted from vegetative sources.
non-material (education, skill, economic plan The animals mainly the herbivores may be
etc.) oceanic, energy or fuel, human culture used as sources of red-meat, a major source
etc. Besides, resource may be classified as of protein for non-vetetarian people. Through
biotic and abiotic resources. conservation practices of vulture, crow etc.
42 Swadesh Adhyayan

can contribute a lot for making our and other establishments but also for
environment clean and green. The micro- production of crops especially the fertile soil.
organisms both the bacteria and worms by They are exhaustible and non-renewable as
consuming the decomposed matters enrich they cannaot be regenerated or reproduced.
the soil fertility. Fertile soil contributes to With the development of skill level of
plants health and grow more food and other technology has also developed and the base
crops production. of civilised society including the infrastructural
Abiotic resource : Resources which development etc. are all important resources
are non-living or without having life or death, for us. Some of the resources although are
do not consume any type of food or do not the gift of nature but human being through
grow naturally are categorised under non- their relentless endevour have created some
living resoures. The abiotic resources include of the resources like the dwelling houses of
all non-living elements of the environment. different types, vehicles for movement and
Land, water, air, rocks and minerals both carrying goods and services, cello phone for
metallic e.g. iron, copper, gold, silver, tin etc. communication, computer, laptop, software
and the non-metallic i.e. coal, limestone, to be used for various purposes. Human
dolomite, siliminite, crude oil etc. are Resource Development (HRD) attached
materials either in solid or in liquid form. But mainly to the skill development has given rise
carbon oxygen, niteogen, hydrogen, to development of technology. Technology
phosphorous, potassium etc. are always development again has made the
found to be in gaseous state and chemical infrastructural development thereby
action and reaction of which help in growth processing and using the biotic resources to
and development of plants and organism. The enhence the level of civilization. For such
abiotic elements like fresh air is essential for knowledge, intelligence and expertised skill,
health, we cananot live without water which human being, therefore, has also been
should be fresh with mineral rich for used for considered as very important and special
potable purposes, supply of water for resource. The future of the world is entirely
agricultural and industrial use including hydro- dependent on Human Resource
electricity generation. Likewise, land is Development (HRD).
needed not only for construction of houses Conservation of Resource : The
 Resource 43
resources, more particularly the natural natural habitat is conserved as in where
resources are not found uniformly on the condition without being affected by any
earth. The conservation of resources mean external factors. In such a conservation
the judicious and planned use as well as reuse practice each and every biological agents will
of natural resources by avoiding their grow maintaining a natural or physical balance
wastages misuse and overuse. Depletion of besides fulfilling our needs.
resources is a matter of great concern today. Biotic resources conserved as in
In order to reach the maximum production where condition is called in situ
limit, we are using all those resources which conservation and the conservation in
are infact the property of the future other place changing the place of origin
generation. In fact as the concept of is called ex situ conservation.
sustainable development, resources are the
inheritance which are generation of human Generally the endangered and likely to
society has to pass on to next one. Non- be endangered species are preserved by
renewable resources may come to an end adopting some modern conservation
after sometime, therefore, striking a balance practices. The varieties of plant species can
between the growth of population and be conserved in the Botanical Gardens.
utilisation of resource is absolutely necessary. Endangered speciese as identified by the
Of course such a balance is found to vary in ‘International Union for Conservation of
time and space. Obviously, we have to look Nature’ (IUCN) and enlisted in their ‘Red
at the balance between population and Data Book’ may be conserved in Zoological
resources in a region or country as dynamic Park or Garden. For conservation and
rather than static one. Any imbalance preservation of flora and fauna now a days
between either of the two may disrupt the Gin Bank, Seed Bank and Organism
continuity of our economic, social and cultural Naurishing Centres (ONC) have been
development. So resources should be used established. This will help the future
in a planned way that imbalance does nottake generation to use them as resource, besides
place in Assam. The biotic resources maybe seeing identifying, touching and overall
conserved in two ways. One is the in situ fulfulling their unlimited needs.
(as in where condition) and the other is the National Parks and Wildlife
ex situ (transferring to other place) Sancturies : The in situ conservation are of
conservation. In situ conservation means to various types like the Reserved Forests, Wild
flora and the fauna green and nourished in Life Sanctuary, National Park, Biosphere
44 Swadesh Adhyayan
Reserve etc. Besides these in order to some of the wildlife sancturies have been
conserve and preserve some of the fauna upgraded to the status of National Parks of
special attention have been paid through Assam.
IUCN schemes like the Tiger Projects, Conservation of flora and fauna as one
Rhinocerous Project, Crocodile Project etc. of the major objectives of wild life sancturies
Among all these conservation systems, poaching, disturbing of animals in any form
National Parks and Wild Life Sanctuaries are or cutting or destruction, collection of floral
prominent so far in situ conservation of flora species or even the entry is restricted and
and fauna are concerned. People can enjoy controlled by the authorities concerned.
the plants and the animal in their natural habitat About 0.40 million hectare of land is
forming an ideal ecosystem and biodiversity. covered by the 18 Wildlife Sancturies and
Out of a total of 166 National Parks in India, the 5 National Parks. This accounts for about
Assam posses 5 parks and 18 numbers of 4.98 per cent of the total area of Assam.
Wild Life Sancturies out of a total of 543 in North Karbi Anglong and Bordoibam
the country. Another two forests areas are in Bilmukh forests, if upgraded and accorded
the process of declaration as wildlife the status of wildlife sancturies will definitely
sanctuary. National Parks and wild life be a welcome move for protection of
sancturies etc. are in reality protected forest endangered species. Karbi Anglong and
areas. One of the major purposes of West Karbi Anglong have the largest area
delimiting National Park boundary is to under forest in Assam. Marat Longri (4.15
protect not only the inmates and the km2) is the largest and the Deepor Beel (4.14
environment but also to give a natural abode km2) is the smallest wildlife sanctury in
to some special varieties of flora and fauna Assam. Deepor Beel is primarily a bird
including the orchids. The tourists, both sanctury and has been declared as ‘Ramsar
domestic and the foreign should have the site’.
minimum facilities to visit the parks including In 1971 the UN sponsored
the fooding and the loding arrangements conference held at Ramsar city in Iran
besides Provisions of tourist operators and discussed the importance of wetlands
proper guides. The Parks should have the and took certain resolutions to protect
facilities of Research Oriented Activities. and develop the already identified and
While doing so the environments should be enlisted 1200 nos. of wetlands of the
free from any sort of pollution (ecofriendly). world. Deepor Beel in Assam is one
In view of the protection of flora and fauna, of such recognised Ramsar sites.
 Resource 45
Table-1
Wildlife Sancturies of Assam
Sl.No. Name Location (Districts) Area (in km2)
1 Holongapar Gibbon Jorhat 20.98
2 Garampani Karbi Anglong-Golaghat 6.05
3 Burha Chapori Sonitpur 44.06
4 Bornadi Darrang 26.22
5 Sonai-Rupai Sonitpur 220.00
6 Pobitora Morigaon 38.80
7 Panidihing Sivsagar 33.93
8 Bherjan-Borjan-Padumani Tinsukia 7.22
9 Nambor Golaghat 37.00
10 Karbi Anglong Karbi Anglong 222.81
11 Laokhowa Nagaon 70.13
12 Chakrasila Dhubri-Kokrajhat 45.57
13 Marat Longri Karbi Anglong 451.00
14 Nambor-Daigrang Golaghat 97.15
15 Dihing-Patkai Dibrugarh-Tinsukia 111.19
16 Barail Cachar, Dima Hasao 320.25
17 Amchang Kamrup (M) 78.64
18 Deepor Beel Kamrup (M) 4.14

Table-2
National Parks of Assam

Sl.No. Name Time of Recognition Area (km2)

1 Kaziranga 1974 858.98
2 Manah 1990 500.00
3 Nameri 1998 200.00
4 Orang 1999 78.81
5 Dibru-Saikhowa 1999 340.00
46 Swadesh Adhyayan

The National Parks, in reality are Numaligarh. BRPL produces petro-

characteristics forests which are proud of chemicals and many an allied industries have
Assam. Thousands of tourists both domestic been established based on the products of
and foreign, visit Kaziranga and Manas BRPL for human use. As man cannot create
National Park. There are at present about crude oil but use them for multipurposes, in
2000 one horned Asian rhinoceros in KNP. long run all these will exhaust. Thus crude oil
Both the Manas and KNP have been and coal are ideal examples of biotic but
declared as ‘Project Tiger’ in 1973. Manas exhaustible or non-renewable resources.
besides having one horned rhinoceros also In contrast to it, the resources which
gives shelter to buffalo in national habitat at can be renewed or renewed by nature even
large. after continuous use are abiotic or renewable
Non-renewable and Renewable resource. For example, solar energy, water,
resources : All aboitic resources found in forests and forest products, crops, birds,
nature are non-renewable or exhaustable, i.e. wildlife, fishes etc. are examples of biotic
continuous use of these results in depletion resources. The Sun provides us energy
of the same. These are the gifts of nature and continuously and we are using sunshine for
man cannot create them. For example, we various purposes but never exhausts. Thus
are using mineral oil, natural gas, coal etc. the hydro-electric power projects generating
Continuous use of these resources, at one electricity based on the running water or vast
time will deplete their natural reserve and in storages with inlets flowing continuously are
course of time will totally exhaust. If these running and will operate till the watersource
resources are not used judiciously the future continues. Plantation of saplings and
generation will be deprived of and will suffer nourishment have helped in replacement of
badly. Hence, the concept of sustainable use depleted and deforested areas. Producing
has been suggested by the renowed food crops using modern and scientific
economists in 1889 crude oil was stuck in methods. People are getting required calories
Digboi and Digboi refinery was started in for survival. Paultry, goat, fish etc. are
1901. It produced fuels lubricants and other consumed by a major section of the people
items. Besides Digboii there are 3 more of Assam. Scientific rearing of all these have
refineries in Assam, i.e. Noonmati, BRPL and helped in vigrous renewal of these resources.
 Resource 47

If imbalance occur between use and various uses etc. have changed the face of
production i.e. low level of production and the earth.
excess consumption a time will arrive where Energy resources may be grouped
the future generation will be deprived from under two heads– non-renewable and
the consumption or use of the resource. Some renewable. Energy resource once used if
resources have been exhausted and extinct exhaused forever and can never be renewed
from the earth because of immense need and are called exhaustible energy source. Such
greed. For example, many a local varieties energy resource include coal, crude oil,
of precious and flavoured tasty paddy (like natural gas, nuclear energy like the uranium,
different type of Joha, Bokul Bora, Aam thorium etc., the enhence use of which has
pakhi, Boka etc.) whose hectarage is low led to the deplation of some of the energy
and, hence, have ben replaced by High sources.
Yielding Variety (HYV) paddy. For Contrary to this the renewable sources
conservation of all local varieties of paddy of energy are almost inexhaustible. Solar
and flora including local fish fauna, the central, energy, wind energy, hydro-electricity,
state government and the NGO’s are geothermal eneregy etc. are renewable
working hard spending time, energy and cost. sources of energy. The plast and the animal
Energy and Human Resource : The kingdom are using the solar energy according
day on which the human being learnt the art to need but the energy mainly obtained from
and use of fire, marked the begining of use the sun are intact. Thus hydrological energy,
of energy. Toasting and roasting of hunted wind energy etc. have been used applying
animals red meat, sitting by the fire to get rid available technological expertise. With the
of from severe cold during winter days learnt development of science and technology the
the beginning of the art of use of energy as extraction of energy sources have also made
resource. Slowly man discovered coal and easier. The technology is yet to develop
crude oil and their multipurpose uses. through research and experiment to find
Generation of electricity from different substitute to exhaustible energy source i.e.
sources, solar energy etc. helped in coal, petroleum products etc. to run not onloy
establishment of various industrial units, our vehicles but also use for many other
manufacturing of variety of products etc. for purposes. Like other developed nations of
48 Swadesh Adhyayan

the world India has of late also started the A peep into the HRD in Assam reveals that
use of alteration source of energy and partially it occupy about 2.93 per cent of the total
made sucdessful. But Assam, in this context area of India and gives home to 2.59 per
is lagging for behind due to poor attention by cent of the total population of India.
authorities concerned. Population growth rate during the last decade
Human Resource now a days has in Assam was 8.1 times against 4.31 times
drawn the attention of all the nations of the for India. The infrastructural facilities and
world and India is no exception to it. The other resources have not developed
government of India for the human resource according to the needs of the people and
development has taken keen intererst through hence, Assam is not at per with the other
proper education at different levels and trades developed states of India so far economic
creating scientific temper, technological condition of the state is concerned. Per capita
innovations and application for welfare Annual Domestic Product is one of the
activities, work culture incentives etc. The measures of standard of HRD. Per capita
nations of the world which have succeeded Annual Net Domestic Product is Rs. 60.952
in HRD are also the states among the as against Rs. 1,12,764 for the nation as a
developed nations of the world. whole. Literacy rate in Assam was 72.19 per
Till 1990 per capita income of a state cent against 72.99 per cent for India
was considered as the sole indicator of HRD according to 2011 census. In comparision
index. But exponents like Mehbul-ul-Hoque to some of the states of India like Kerala
and Amartya Sen considered education, (93.91%), Mizoram (91.54%) etc. the
health, capacity and mental satifaction etc. literary rate is low. People below poverty line
as some of idnicatos measuring Human at national level is 21.92 per cent while for
Resource Development. Assam it is 31.98 per cent according to
2011-12 estimate. All these prove that the
Equality, duration/durability production
HRD in Assam is low. Therefore, it is
and rights – These concepts are the four
necessary to pay more importance on
pillars of Human Resource Development.
development of education, per capita income,
HRD is achieved through increase in income
health resource and skill development sector
ability and capacity to fulfill primary needs,
of Assam by the authorities concenred.
skill development and capacity building etc.
 Resource 49

EXERCISE

1. (a) Quinine an antimaterial drug is extracted from which flora?

(b) What is biotic resource?
(c) How many National Parks are there in Assam?
(d) How many wildlife sanctuaries are there in Assam?
(e) What is exhaustible resource?
(f) What is a resource?
2. (a) What according to Professor Zimmerman is a resource?
(b) Why Human Resource is given high position among the resources?
(c) Write the difference between the natural and man-made resource?
(d) Name two biotic resources which are non-renewable.
3. (i) Explain how resource may be classified?
(ii) Explain with suitable examples the difference between the biotic and abiotic
resource.
(iii) Which are the producers and consumers of biotic resource?
(iv) Distinguish between the renewable and non-renewable resource.
(v) Classify with examples the energy resource.
(vi) What system and efforts are needed for the development of Human Resource in
Assam?
4. Find out the correct answer from the following alternatives.
(i) Flora is not included under which of the following resources?
(a) renewable resource (b) biotic resource
(c) exhaustible resource (d) productive resource
(ii) Which one of the following is an exhaustible resource?
(a) wind energy (b) coal
(c) agricultural productc (d) poultry
(iii) Which one of the following at present we donot recognise as resource?
(a) human (b) heat from the sun
50 Swadesh Adhyayan
(c) Nickel available in core (d) bectraia
of the earths interior
(iv) Which one of the following take active part in absorption of plants and animal in
earth
(a) tiger (b) man
(c) vulture (d) bacteria
(v) What according to 2011 census the percentage of literacy in Assam?
(a) 72.99 (b) 72.19
(c) 91.54 (d) 93.91
CHAPTER FOUR

ECONOMIC BASE OF ASSAM

IMPORTANT POINTS

z Economic condition and development trend

z Types of crops and their production
z Production of cash crops and its impact on state economy
z Importance of medicinal and horticultural crops.
52 Swadesh Adhayan
Economic Condition : in 2015-16 against Rs. 166708.85 crores in
The plain state of Assam in North-East 2014-15. As such, the rate of economic
India is surrounded by the hill states on its development of the state stands at 7.73 per
three sides. Assam has only three hill districts– cent during the period. But, this development
Karbi Anglong, West Karbi Anglong and rate of the state is less than that of India by
Dima Hassao. The Brahmaputra is the life 0.15 per cent. During the above mentioned
line of the state. The overall economy of period, as published in a government rapid
Assam depends on its human resources. All survey report there were development rate
the economic activities including agriculture, of 9.41 per cent in the industrial sector and
industries, trade and commerce etc. are 8.21 per cent in the service sector against
controlled by a number of physical and socio- 3.88 per cent development rate in all the
economic factors. sectors.
The domestic production of the state in As per these statistics, there was
the case of agricultural and industrial sectors, notable development is the industrial sector
except the service sector was more or less in 2015-16 as compared to that in 2014-
same during 2011-12 and 2015-16. There 15. During this period there also increased
is, however a slight decrease from 19.89 per from 10.55 per cent to 12.75 per cent in the
cent in 2011-12 to 18.66 per cent in 2015- construction sector.
16 in the agriculture and allied production Occupational Structure
sector. In the case of industrial sector also,
Majority of the inhabitants of Assam
the income decreased from 30.66 per cent
primarily depend on agriculture. Agriculture
in 2011-12 to 28.82 per cent in 2015-16.
has become the main occupation of the
During this period the income from
people of Assam due to its fertile soils, vast
production of minerals indicated a decreasing
water resources of the Brahmaputra and its
trend from 33.4 per cent to 25.0 per cent.
tributaries and the climate congenial for
Against this, the income from service sector
agricultural activities. Since early time the
had increased from 43.97 per cent to 46.7
people of Assam have been carrying out
per cent during this period. Taking 2011-12
agricultural practices for their livelihood.
as the base year one report has revealed that
During the post-Independence period,
the total value of state’s domestic production
especially from the seventies, some changes
was estimated at rupees 179394.73 crores
 Economic base of Assam 53
have taken place in occupational structure agricultural production of Assam are the
of the state. Such changes in the occupational alluvial plains, fertile soils, adequate rainfall
structure have occurred due to growth of and congenial climate necessary for
agro-based and forest-based industries along agriculture. Paddy is the principal crop of
with agriculture and more employment Assam and thus rice happens to be the
generated in the service sector. staple food of its people. Besides rice, jute,
Agriculture sugarcane, tea, pulses, potato, cotton and
horticultural crops are also produced. As
The land area used under the agricultural
per data of 2015-16, paddy cultivated area
sector is more than that used under all other
in Assam is 24.84 lakh hectares which
sectors of the state. About 54.11 per cent of
accounts for 12.96 per cent area of the total
land of the state is used for agricultural
food crops producing areas of the state.
activities. Considering the entire agricultural
There are significant differences in
sector including the plantation agriculture,
production as well as areas under paddy
about 80 per cent of the people depend on
cultivation as found in seasons like summer,
agriculture. Along with population growth,
autumn and winter. The areas under paddy
changes in the methods of agriculture are also
cultivation during autumn season had
observed. The amounts of actual and total
decreased from 4.36 lakh hectares in 2004-
crop lands have increased more during the
05 to 1.96 lakh hectares in 2014-15.
last few decades (Table-1)
Similarly, the areas under summer paddy
Out of the total land area of Assam,
also decreased from 4.16 lakh hectares in
about 54.11 per cent land is brought under
2014-15 to 4.05 lakh hectares in 2015-16.
agriculture and about 80 per cent people of
Against this, the areas brought under winter
the state are dependent on agriculture.
paddy cultivation had shown an increasing
Because of expansion of agricultural activities
trend from 24.85 lakh hectares to 24.95
due to high growth of population, the forest
lakh hectares in 2015-16.
lands are decreasing. Although agricultural
As compared to that in the earlier years,
production has gone up, consequently there
the areas producing wheat and pulses
is adverse impact on the environment.
increased in 2015-16. On the other hand,
Agricultural Production the oil seeds producing areas were increasing
The favourable factors affecting from 3.07 lakh hectares in 2014-15 to 3.11
54 Swadesh Adhyayan
lakh hectares in 2015-16. principal crop in wet cultivation of Assam is
Assam records significant growth in the paady. Again depending on the crop
foodcrop production especially after 2007- production season, Assam’s agriculture can
08 (Table-2). However, during last few years be divided into three types : (i) Kharif
some ups and downs have been observed in cropping system, (ii) Rabi cropping system
the production of foodcrops. There was and (iii) Zaid cropping system.
foodcrop production of 54,18,000 tons in Kharif crops are grown during April-
the year 2013-14 which increased to May when rain starts and the same are
54,59,000 tons in 2014-15. But, this harvested during November-December. The
production had decreased to 53,59,000 tons principal Kharif crops of Assam are sali and
during 2015-16. In the case of paddy bao rice, jute, sugarcane etc. (Table-3)
production, the amount decreased from Rabi crops are sown during the early
52,23,000 tons in 2014-15 to 51,25,000 part of winter season, i.e. during October-
tons in the year 2015-16. In contrary to this, November and harvested during the later part
production of wheat and oilseeds had shown of spring season, i.e. during April to June.
an increase. Wheat production rose to The major rabi crops are ahu and Bodo rice,
34,000 tons in 2015-16 from 29,000 tons mustard, pulses, tobacco, wheat, maize and
in 2014-15. Similarly, the oilseeds various kinds of vegetables and fruits.
production also increased from 2,06,000 The crop cultivation carried out during
tons to 2,15,000 tons during the same the period between the kharif and rabi crop
period. On the other hand, the production of production, i.e. during March to June is called
pulses declined to some extent. During the zaid crop cultivation. This kind of agriculture
above mentioned period, the production of is dependent on irrigation. The major zaid
pulses decreased from 1,11,000 tons to crops grown in the state include peas, potato,
1,08,000 tons. onion, cabbage, water melon, pumpkin,
Cropping Pattern cucumber, bitter.
A different type of traditional agriculture
Cropping pattern in Assam depends on
is prevalent in the three hill districts of Assam.
a variety of factors. Wet cultivation is
The hill dwellers clear the forest and
practised depending on climate,
vegetations of the hill slopes through cutting
physiography, soil characteristics and
and burning methods. This kinds of agriculture
particularly the availability of water. The
 Economic base of Assam 55
is known as jhum cultivation. It is also called (a) Agriculture land plots are small in size
shifting cultivation due to the method of and so tilling using tractor and other
shifting involved in this cultivation system. In mechanical tools is difficult.
shifting cultivation crops like paddy, maize, (b) The farmers face difficulties in meeting
pumpkin, chilli etc. are produced in the same their livelihood needs as the per head
plot of land. Cultivation of crops on the hill agricultural land is very less.
slopes leads to erosion of the top fertile soils (c) Agricultural production per hectare of
washed away downslope due to rain. As a land is very low due to age-old
result, the crop production decreases as soil methods of cultivation adopted by the
fertility is lost. The hill farmers are thus farmers.
compelled to select a new plot of land. (d) There are limited irrigation facilities
Following the same procedure, the newly extended to only 15% of agricultural
selected plot of land is used for carrying out area for which agriculture is largely
the jhum cultivation. As a result of jhum affected due to scarcity of water.
cultivation practised in the three hill districts (e) Heavy damages of crops are caused
of Assam, the hill ecology has been changing. every year by recurring floods.
The statistics of agricultural production Besides these, there are also many other
of Assam are recorded and published by the causes like lack of required amount of
Economics and Statistics Department, manures, lack of experience of farmers etc.
Government of Assam. Such statistics and which offer hindrances to expected growth
data provide information to the government
in agricultural production.
and also the farmers for the development of
agriculture in the state. Cropping System in Assam
The trend of foodcrop production is In some parts of Assam mono cropping
presented in the table-2 (cultivation of only one crop) is practised,
while in different parts duo-cropping and
Problems of Agriculture in Assam multiple cropping are practised. Moreover,
After analysing the trend of agricultural interculture and crop rotation are also
development, data on crop production etc., adopted by the farmers in some areas.
some problems of Assam’s agriculture are Cultivation carried out for several years in
observed. The major problems are : the same plot of land causes reduction in soil
56 Swadesh Adhyayan
fertility and thus there is need to use fertilizer. of multiple cropping and intensive
But, in the case of rotation of crops, several agriculture. In order to met the required
crops are grown in the same plot of land and need of food for the fast growing
different other crops may also be cultivated population the duo-cropping and multiple
in the next year. As a result, the fertility of cropping system have been introduced
land remains unchanged for several years. instead of mono cropping system.
The problem of crop damaged by insects is Moreover, rotation of crops is also being
less in the case of rotation cropping system
taken up.
as compared to that in mono-cropping
Irrigation is necessary in the traditional
system.
methods of agriculture and also in the
Cropping Intensity advanced methods of agriculture like
The method of assessing crop intensity intensive agriculture and crop rotation.
is– Irrigation is essential, especially in agriculture
Crop intensity practised using high yielding seeds.
Total crop producing land Agricultural fields are irrigated from the
= × 100
Actual crop producing land small, medium and major irrigation projects.
Surface water, i.e. water from rivers, tanks,
In order to meet the scarcity of food
wetlands etc. are transported to agricultural
necessary for growing, population, there are
fields through drains or supplied from
two measurement which are (a) to increase
underground water source through power
crop production through expansion of
pumps. Irrigation is performed in the state
agricultural land and (b) to increase the
by the three departments such as, State
fertility of agricultural land than before. But,
Irrigation Department, irrigation department
there are disadvantages to expand
under Panchayat and the department for
agriculture land because it will cause
rural development. The Irrigation
destruction of forest lands and degradation
Department of Government of Assam is
of wetlands leading to decrease in forest
specially engaged in construction and
cover and wetland areas. So, as an
management of the minor, medium and
alternative measure the crop production can
major irrigation projects.
be increased following scientific methods
 Economic base of Assam 57
Crops Production : but crop production is more in this method
of cultivation. In terrace cultivation the same
Paddy
plot of land can be used for cultivation every
Paddy is the principal crop of Assam.
year. But in jhum cultivation forests are
paddy is cultivated in 64.52 per cent of total
cleared to get a plot of land on hill slopes
agricultural land of the state and out of the
and after few years the plot is abandoned
total foodcrop producing areas, 91.43 per
due to loss of soil fertility and the earlier jhum
cent areas are used only for paddy cultivation.
plots are again reused for cultivation.
Four varieties of paddy are generally
produced in Assam– Sali, Ahu, Bao and Jute
Bodo paddy. The method and trend of paddy Jute is the highest cash earning fibre
production in the state are noticeable. Paddy crop. Temperature and moist climate of
producing areas as well as paddy production Assam is suitable for jute cultivation.
per hectare are gradually increasing (Table- Generally the low-lying fertile land, where
3) water remains for considerable time is used
It has already been mentioned that for jute cultivation. Temperature range from
majority of the people of the three hill districts 20oC to 40oC, weekly rainfall from 5cm to
of Assam, i.e. Karbi Anglong District, West 8cm and relative humidity range from 70 per
Karbi Anglong District and Dima Hassao cent to 80 per cent are congenial for jute
District are engaged in shifting cultivation or production. All these conditions prevail in the
jhum cultivation. As a result of this method plain districts of Assam, especially the districts
of cultivation, soil fertility decreases and soil of western Assam and, so jute cultivation is
erosion increases. Due to these two reasons, suitably done in these districts. The stems of
the concerned government has laid emphasis mature jute plants are kept generally under
on conversion of jhum lands into terrace stagnant water for about 20 days. The rotten
cultivation lands. Terrace cultivation is carried and soft are removed from the stems which
out making steps on the hill slopes. The are then washed and dried to get the jute
method of terrace cultivation is scientific and fibres. Jute is mostly cultivated in Nagaon,
loss of soil fertility and soil erosion are less, Morigaon, Goalpara, Dhubri and Barpeta
58 Swadesh Adhyayan

districts of Assam. Generally, the jute plants In Assam tea leaves are plucked for two
grow in Assam upto the length from 1 to 4m. times in a year. First time plucking is done
Tea during March-April, and second time
plucking is done during June-July. Tea leaves
Tea is the principal cash crop of Assam.
plucked during the second time provide deep
Assam enjoys agro-climatic conditions
colour and more taste. This kind of tea gains
suitable for tea cultivation. Almost all the
more popularity in the international market.
districts of Assam enjoy annual rainfall from
150cm to 200 cm, temperature more than Medicinal Plants
30oC and acidic soils of low slopes. Thus Varieties of medicinal plants are found
Assam happens to be an important tea in the hills and forests of Assam. About 300
producing region in the world. There are more species of vegetables and edible plants are
than 850 large tea gardens and several available in Assam. Commercially about 5
thousand small tea gardens in Assam (Table- to 10 per cent plants are grown in the state.
4) As many of these plants have medicinal value,
Assam has 304,133 hectares of land there is ample scope for establishment of
under tea cultivation. The state produces 642 plant-based industries in the state.
million kilograms of tea annually. Next to tea
Horticultural Crops
producing region of South China, Assam
Horticultural crops of Assam can be
ranks second position as tea producing region
divided into three types–
in the world. There are, however quality
(1) Major fruits : Pineapples, bananas,
differences between the tea produced in the
coconuts, jack fruits etc.
highlands of Darjeeling and Nilgiri hills and
(2) Major citrus fruits : Orange, lemon
the tea produced in the gentle slopes in the
etc.
plains of Assam. Colour of Assam tea is deep
(3) Major spice-fruits : Ginger,
in comparison to teas produced in different
turmeric, bhot chilli, chilli, peper etc.
region of the world. Assam tea has occupied
unique position in the international market as Production of fruits in Assam is
it provides pleasant taste and freshness. presented in Table-5
 Economic base of Assam 59
Table-1

Agricultural Land Use (’000 hectares) in the Districts of Assam

Sl. District Actual Total Cultivated Land sown

No. Cultivated Land Cultivated Land more than once
1 Kokrajhar 86.6 172.6 86.1
2 Dhubri 134.3 173.1 387.1
3 Goalpara 80.8 125.2 44.5
4 Barpeta 159.3 254.7 95.4
5 Morigaon 92.0 127.8 35.8
6 Nagaon 235.6 299.3 637.0
7 Sonitpur 165.1 270.8 105.7
8 Lakhimpur 100.2 223.2 123.0
9 Dhemaji 67.5 121.2 53.7
10 Tinsukia 104.7 143.5 38.8
11 Dibrugarh 139.5 166.1 26.6
12 Sibsagar 136.8 149.9 13.0
13 Jorhat 120.2 174.9 54.0
14 Golaghat 119.0 182.0 62.3
15 Karbi Anglong 126.4 201.7 75.3
16 Dima Hassao 28.1 54.2 26.0
17 Cachar 115.1 163.1 47.7
18 Karimganj 76.0 104.1 28.1
60 Swadesh Adhyayan

Sl. District Actual Total Cultivated Land sown

No. Cultivated Land Cultivated Land more than once
19 Hailakandi 50.3 77.3 27.0
20 Bongaigaon 67.6 105.4 378.0
21 Chirang 46.8 88.7 42.0
22 Kamrup 177.3 186.6 9.8
23 Kamrup (M) 43.3 50.0 6.7
24 Nalbari 67.7 120.8 53.0
25 Baska 66.1 133.8 67.7
26 Darrang 103.8 145.6 41.7
27 Udalguri 99.9 158.9 59.0

Source : Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Assam

 Economic base of Assam 61
Table-2

Food Crop Production in Assam (’000 tons)

Year Rice Wheat Pulses Total food Oil seeds

crops (Except coconut)

2001-02 3854 85 66 4023 156

2002-03 3738 78 60 3894 149

2003-04 3880 73 63 4034 157

2004-05 3470 68 61 3617 146

2005-06 3552 54 56 3680 114

2006-07 2916 67 59 3060 134

2007-08 3319 71 61 3468 139

2008-09 4009 55 62 4142 141

2009-10 4409 65 66 4557 147

2010-11 5033 56 72 5178 159

2011-12 8716 49 73 4857 156

2012-13 5128 44 84 5279 187

2013-14 5193 40 104 5418 186

2014-15 5223 29 111 5459 206

Source : Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Assam

62 Swadesh Adhyayan
Table-3

Season-wise Pice Production in Assam (kg/hectare)

Year Autumn rice Winter rice Summer rice

2004-05 667 1598 1959

2005-06 1016 1543 1780

2006-07 899 1321 1017

2007-08 999 1380 2267

2008-09 1084 1641 2133

2009-10 982 1894 2180

2010-11 1155 1993 2577

2011-12 1242 1785 2744

2012-13 1317 1998 2965

2013-14 1340 2002 2981

2014-15 1454 2005 2940

Source : Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Assam

 Economic base of Assam 63

Table - 4
Number of Tea Gardens, Areas under Tea Cultivation and
Tea Production (kg./hectare) in Assam)

Years Number of tea gardens Area under tea Total tea

(larger than 10.12 hectare) cultivation (’000 hectare) production
(’000kg.)

2007 825 311.3 511885

2008 760 321.4 487497
2009 760 321.7 499997
2010 760 322 480286
2011 765 322 589110
2012 78856 322 590120
2013 69220 322 629050
2014 77710 304 610970
2015 83566 316 526185
2016 85344 304 642180

Source : Tea Board, India 2017

64 Swadesh Adhyayan

Table - 5
Production of Fruits in Assam During 2012-13 and 2013-14
(Production in ’000 metric tons)

Fruits 2012-13 2013-14

Banana 837.0 857.7

Pineapple 269.0 288.6

Papaya 175.5 149.1

Guava 105.8 43.8

Lemon 125.9 103.5

Litchi 49.6 48.1

Jack fruit 224.2 192.5

Mango 55.3 44.6

Orange 195.8 188.8

Others 36.8 33.0

Total 2073.8 2025.4

Source : Statistical Hand Book, 2014

 65

(Economoc Base of Assam)

Industries of Assam
IMPORTANT POINTS

z Trend of industrial development in Assam since the past.

z Causes of backwardness in the industrial sector.
z Types of industries developed in Assam.
z Importance of cottage industries.

Any activity associated with production decorative materials made of brass and bell
is called industry. Assam is a backward state metals, articles made of tusks and handicraft
in industries as compared to some states of products of bamboo-can industries.
India. Desides the major industries like tea and First mineral oil production in 1901 at
mineral oil iondutry, there are some industries Digboi, first tea industry established 1833 in
which contribute to the economic development old Lakhimpur district and production of
of Assam to certain extent. Although there are plywood for the first time before independence
plenty of forest, mineral and agricultural raw were some of the achievements of Assam in
materials necessary for establishment of the field of industries. But, the state is lagging
industries, Assm has not progressed much in behind in industrial development during
the field of industries. subsequent period due to various reasons. The
Assam is famous for handlooms and reasons may be as follows :
bamboo-based cottage industries since the 1. Assam and the entire North-East India
past. Assam has earned national and (former seven states) are located at a
international fame for hand-woven Eri, far distance from the other regions of
India. The 21-40 km narrow land
Maga and Pat cloths, various utensils and
66 Swadesh Adhyayan
corridor of Siliguri area connected with up necessary for establishment of
the other parts of the country has industries also offerd hindrence in
caused difficulties in road and rail industrial development of the state.
transport connectivity to Assam. 7. Defective government policies, lack of
Therefore, the cost of transportation proper motivation and orientation to be
of raw materials and finished products extended to the young generation by
becomes high and as a result, Assam the concerned families and societies also
and the entire North-East India lag discourage people to come forward for
behind in industrial development. industrial entrepreneurship. Thus
2. Assam and the North-East are majority of the youths have interest in
bordered by the foreign countries goverment job.
Myanmar, China, Bhutan and Inspite of the above-mentioned
Bangladesh. As India’s reletionship problems associated with industries of Assam,
with some of these countries is not some small and medium size industries are
cordial, the foreign investors and being registered in the districts of Assam
industrialists hesitate to come forward annually (Table 1). The noticeable point is
for establishment of industries in Assam that the number of registered industries has
and the North-East. generally increased from 2011-12 to 2013-
3. It is realy difficult to import the raw 14. But, comparatively employment in
materials and export the finished industrial sector has not increased so much
products to the large cities and markets during the period, rather it is decreasing. Data
in India due to distance factor. For this record shows that the newly registered
reason, expenditure involved is more industries have limited employment
and so reasonable prices for the opportunities. As published by the Industry
produced commodities are not and Commerce Secreatariat of Assam, all
obtained. total 5799 industries were registered in 2015
4. Assam is industrially backward in which a total of 2,19,903 persons got
because of non-availability of employment (Table 2). Taking Kamrup and
necessary machines and tools and Kamrup (Metro) districts together the
some special type of raw meterials and number of such registered industries is 1505,
also due to irreguler supply of electricity while Dhemaji district has only 8 industries.
and other sources of energy. The one-fourth of the people engaged in
5. Due to lack of huge capital necessary industrial sector belong to Kamrup (Metro)
for establishment, of large and medium district alone. Data on industries of Assam
type industries, Assam has been reveal that there are gross disparities in
suffering from industrial backwardness. establishment of industries in the state. It is,
6. The people of Assam are largely indeed imperative to remove such disparities
dependent on agricilture. Lack of skills, for eradicating the overall backwardness of
experience, courage and mental set- industrial sector in Assam.
 Economic base of Assam 67
Table 1
Number of minor, small and medium registered industries and industrial workers
in Assam
Serial District Number of registered industries Number of industrial workers
No 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14
1. Kokrajhar 10 13 5 72 106 25
2. Dhubri 35 56 83 251 314 414
3. Goalpara 34 26 89 198 139 494
4. Bongaigaon 53 48 36 396 258 222
5. Barpeta 33 54 59 240 555 371
6. Kamrup 318 297 283 4274 3051 2381
(Metro+Rural)
7. Nalbari 70 89 78 399 439 375
8. Darrang 57 43 107 253 310 452
9. Morigaon 25 37 22 143 189 171
10. Nagaon 74 123 180 603 718 1286
11. Sonitpur 89 54 89 608 319 532
12. Lakhimpur 18 23 53 87 141 457
13. Dhemaji 41 27 39 209 104 156
14. Tinsukia 47 81 98 336 473 649
15. Dibrugarh 58 118 154 625 470 1705
16. Sibsagar 35 81 100 2646 760 632
17. Jorhat 69 82 86 985 565 471
18. Golaghat 62 42 63 390 245 609
19. Karbi Anglong 6 6 15 69 75 154
20. Dima Hassao 2 3 2 21 36 16
21. Cachar 62 50 72 524 1802 494
22. Karimganj 23 25 24 132 133 184
23. Hailakandi 23 37 47 100 155 263
24. Chirang 22 11 41 208 80 246
25. Baksa 7 11 32 44 134 166
26. Udalguri 11 14 3 73 99 28
Total 1287 1451 1860 13886 11671 12971
Source : Industry and Commerce Secretariat, Assam
68 Swadesh Adhyayan
Types of Industries : Agro based Industries :
Based on raw materials used in The agro based industries can again
industries, the industries of Assam may be be divided into two types :
(a) The industries based on tea,
divided into three types :
sugarcane, oilseeds, milk, rice, wheat and
(i) Agro based industries
fruits.
(ii) Mineral based industries (b) The industries based on jute,
(iii) Forest based industries cotton, pat-muga-eri and other fibre crops.

Table 2
Number of Registered Industries and Industrial warkers in the Districts of Assam
(2015)
Serial District Number of registered Number of industrial
Number industries workers
1. Kokrajhar 42 1812
2. Dhubri 95 2762
3. Goalpara 23 598
4. Barpeta 71 2069
5. Morigaon 64 2352
6. Nagaon 373 16920
7. Sonitpur 475 19567
8. Lakhimpur 70 2148
9. Dhemaji 8 124
10. Tinsukia 641 25192
11. Dibrugarh 695 28495
12. Sibsagar 388 13639
13. Jorhat 348 9483
14. Golaghat 317 8185
15. Karbi Anglong 40 1254
16. Dima Hassao 27 591
17. Cachar 343 11,808
18. Karimganj 121 3950
19. Hailakandi 50 3450
 Economic base of Assam 69
Serial District Number of registered Number of industrial
Number industries workers
20. Bongaigoan 67 5559
21. Chirang 21 1139
22. Kamrup (Metro+Rural) 1505 50,673
23. Nalbari 33 1086
24. Baksa 16 1047
25. Darrang 92 2773
26. Udalguri 74 3227
Total 5799 2,19,903
Source : Office of the Chief Inspector of Industries, Assam
The major mineral based industries of registered industries of Assam, 30 per cent
Assam include the oil refineries, industries produce tea. Since inception
petrochemicals, cement and LPG bottling Assam’s tea industry has been producing
plants. black tea, but since 1980 green tea
Paper industries, plywood and production and export has increased, thereby
furniture manufacturing etc. are the major earning more foreign currency.
forest based industries of Assam. Tea industry is the highest foreign
Major Industries of Assam : currency earning industry in Assam.
Tea Industry : Out of India’s total tea production 54
Tea industry of Assam is based on the per cent tea is produced in Assam.
tea leafs produced through large scale tea Among the mineral based industries,
plantation in the state. It is the highest foreign the oil refineries and petrochemical are the
currency earning industry of Assam. India’s major industries. Based on refining mineral
54 per cent tea is produced in Assam. In the oil and different petroleum by – products,
tea industry of Assam more than 6 lakh people some allied industries are set up and among
are employed and among them 2.7 lakh or these the plastic (polymer) industry is the
about half of the people are women. During major one. The Assam Petro-Chemical
the last few years serveral thousands of samll Limited has been able to establish fertilizers
tea gardens have grown up and a good and thermal electric power producing plants
number of families are getting economically by using natural gas found in upper Assam
benefited. Among the total number of region. In order to check wastage of natural
70 Swadesh Adhyayan
gas the Assam Industrial Development 1901, which is the oldest refinery in India.
Corportation (AIDC) has been established Initially this refinery was functioning under the
under government sector in 1971 and thereby Assam Oil Company, but subsequently it was
the gas-based petro-chemical production attached to Indian Petrochemical unit. Later
plant, the first in the country was establised on in 1981, the Digboi Petrochemical unit
in Assam. was brought under Indian Oil Corporation
The first mineral oil based industry Limited. The produced substances and
under government sector is the Guwahati products of the Digboi petrochemical industry
perto-chemical industry. Its main industry is are naptha, high speed diesel, turpine oil,
oil refinery. Moreover, based on various by furnace oil, jute batching oil and mortor spirit.
– products obtained during refining of mineral Wax produced in Digboi petrochemicals is
oil, a number of small industries have been of high quality.
set up in the state. The major chemical Among the other mineral based
substances produced in Guwahati petro industries the three large industries located
chemical industry are – naptha, LPG, motor at Namrup are the Brahmaputra Vally
spirit, petroleum coke, kerosene and high Fertilizer Corporation Limited, Assam
speed diesel. Petrochemicals Limited and Namrup
The Bongaigaon Refinery and Petro- Thermal Power Station. The industrial
Chemical Limited was establised by the environment created at Namrup through
Government of India on February, 20, 1974. establishment of the first natural gas based
But in 2001 this idnustry was brought under fertilizer industry in 1960 was favourable for
Indian Oil Limited. In view of demand in the establishment of these industries at Namrup.
country the Indian Oil Limited had In Assam all total 64 Commercial
established one large methanol production Estates and 50 Industrial Estates have been
unit in 1989 and one formaldehyde developed. Moreover, three industrial growth
production unit in 1998 in collaboration of centres are also established in the state. These
England and the Netherlands. The products three growth centres are located at Balipara
and substances produced by the Bongaigoan in Sonitpur district, Matia in Goalpara district
Petrochemical industry are exported to West and Chhaygaon-Patgaon-Jambari in Kamrup
Bengal, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Uttaranchal district. Efforts are made for industrial
and even to the neighbouring countries like development in the state by establishing
Bhutan and Nepal. another 11 numbers of Industrial
Digboi Refinery was established in Infrastructure Development Centres. The
 Economic base of Assam 71
Software Technology Park established near bamboos as raw materials the two big
the Lokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi paper mills of Assam are the ‘Nagaon
International Airport is a significant step Paper Mill’ presently in Morigaon district
towards development of computer and and the ‘Pachgram Paper Mill’ in
software industries in the state. Under the Hailakandi district. These two paper mills
control of IIT Guwahati, the Bio-Technology are under government sector. Presently
Park, the Export Promotion Industrial Park there is no production in these mills. Due
covering 58 units developed on a plot of 68.1 to heavy financial loss, the ‘Ashok Paper
acre land area at North Guwahati, the North- Mill’ established at an expenditure of 15
East Mega Food Park at Tihu in Nalbari crores during the 4th 5 – year plan period
district, the Food Processing Park, Bamboo has also been closed. There is also a small
Park at Chhaygaon, the Plastic Park at paper mill at Amingaon of Kamrup district.
Lapetkota near Dibrugarh established with Timbers for plywood industries are
the by – products of the Gas Cracker collected from the forests of Assam. The
industry, the Jute Park at Dhing in Nagaon plywoods manufactured in Assam are
district and the Agro Food Processing units mainly used in making the boxes for
established at Silapathar, Dalgaon, Dhubri, packing teas. Assam manufactures about
Samaguri and Pawoi of Tinsukia district are 65 percent plywoods of India. However,
the initiatives in the industrial sector of the the government of Assam has taken some
state which may be expected to bring about measures to reduce plywood production
industrial development in Assam in near in view of increasing loss of forests. Almost
future. The export and import of raw all the plywood manufacturing industries of
materials and industrial products to and from Assam are located at Margherita and
the neighbouring country Bangladesh and Mariani. In the year 1984, there were 52
Bhutan via Assam have been emphasized. In plywood industries in Assam out of which
this regard, commercial centres are 13 were big and the rest were of medium
established at Sutarbandi of Karimganj type. But, some of these industries were
district, Mankachor and Golokganj of Dhubri closed down so as to check tree cutting
district and Darranga of Baksa district. and thus in 2001 the numbers of plywood
Forest based Industries : industries came down to 46. In these
industries, about 5,600 numbers of people
The medium scale industries based on
are directly engaged, while about one lakh
forest products of Assam are mainly the
people are indirectly engaged.
paper and plywood industries. Based on
72 Swadesh Adhyayan
Cottage Industries : these cottage industries, the notable ones are
During the post independence period, rice milling, oil seed milling, grinding of spices,
a survey conducted in 1954-55 revealed that sugarcane crusher, fibre extraction from
there were all total 72 numbers of cottage banana tree, pickles processing, flour milling
industries including handlooms and textiles, etc.
brass and bell metals, pottery industries etc. The forest based cottage industries of
Besides these industries, Assamese Assam include the industries which produce
ornaments manufacturing works, fire works, the bamboo and cane- made household
manufacturing of various items of bamboo - furnitures, doors and windows, various
cane and wood, locally manufacturing of silk decorative furnitures made of timbers, oil
thread and cloths, preparing and designing extracted from different plants and herbal
of different decorative items made of jute medicines etc.
fibre and waterhyacinth etc. are the varieties Footloose Industries :
of cottage industries presently growing in It is not that footloose industries should
Assam. Among the cottage industries, the silk be localised in any particular area. These
industries have occupied the leading position. industries can be set up in all places. The
Cloths made of eri and muga have been factors usually responsible for the growth of
gaining importance in the life and culture of industries, such as availability of raw
the Assamese since the past. Muga cloths materials, skilled labour, favourable transport
have been able to occupy a special position system and market facility are not supposed
now in the international market. Presently, to determine the location of footloose
different types of hand-woven cloths are industries. Therefore, such industries can be
produced in about 7 lakhs looms. Sualkuchi established at any place and thus these are
is famous for production of pat and muga called footloose industries. Although
clothes. Similarly, Palashbari-Chhaygaon footloose by nature, these industries also face
area is famous for production of eri thread difficulties without proper transport system,
and eri cloths. On the other hand, the cottage regular supply of electric power and very
industries of Hajo-Sarthebari are most famous skillful labourers. In these industries the raw
for manufacturing of utensils made of brass materials required and materials produced
and bell metals and varieties of decorative are less in amount, but their market values
items. are high. So, the transport cost involved in
There are also a good number of agro carrying the raw materials and finished
based cottage industries in Assam. Among products is less. Pollution is less in these
 Economic base of Assam 73
industries. However, pollution free Guwahati is such an example. Although the
environment is quite essential for some types footloose industries in Assam are presently
of footloose industries. For this reason, many less in number, the Government of Assam has
footloose industries are set up in the relatively been undertaking plans and necessary efforts
pollution free outskirt of the cities. The to establish a number of footloose industries
Software Technology Park, India localised in the state in the coming years.
near the L.G. B. International Airport at

EXERCISE
1. (a) What do you mean by kharif crops?
(b) What do you mean by rabi crops?
(c) What are medicinal plants?
(d) What is the percentage of people in Assam dependent on agriculture?
2. (a) Where is Jhum cultivation practised in Assam? How is it carried out?
(b) What do you mean by ‘rotation of crops’?
(c) What is intensity of cropping?
(d) What are the spices grown in Assam?
3. (a) Write about the drawbacks of the agricultural system of Assam.
(b) Explain how and in which seasons rice is cultivated in Assam.
(c) Write about the essential conditions necessary for tea cultivation.
(d) Give a short account of the economic condition of Assam.
4. (a) Where was mineral oil first drilled in Assam?
(b) How much percentage of India’s total tea production is produced in Assam?
(c) In which year the Assam Industrial Development Corporation (AIDC)
was formed?
(d) Where was the first fertilizer industry of Assam established?
5. (a) Classify the industries of Assam based on the raw materials used.
(b) Write a short note on the agro based industries of Assam.
(c) Write in brief about the speciality of Assam’s tea industry.
(d) Name the foreign countries bordering Assam.
6. (a) Explain the reasons responsible for industrial backwardness in Assam.
(b) Write about the major industries of Assam.
(c) Give an account of the mineral based industries of Assam.
74 Swadesh Adhyayan
7. Select the correct answer from the following alternatives :
(i) In which one of the following sectors, income increased during 2015-16 as
compared to that during 2011-12 in Assam?
(a) Agricultural Sector (b) Industrial Sector
(c) Mineral Production Sector (d) Service Sector
(ii) Kharif crops are cultivated during
(a) April-May to November-December
(b) March to June
(c) October to April
(d) January to May
(iii) Which one of the following is a zaid crop?
(a) Mustard (b) Paddy
(c) Pumpkin (d) Wheat
(iv) In which of the following districts the number of registered industries is the
lowest?
(a) Goalpara (b) Udalguri
(c) Morigaon (d) Dhemaji
(v) What percentage of India’s total tea production is produced in Assam?
(a) 30% (b) 45%
(c) 54% (d) 67%
(vi) The India’s oldest Digboi Oil Refinery was established in the year
(a) 1898 (b) 1901
(c) 1951 (d) 1974
(vii) Which one of the following industries can be set up at any place?
(a) Tea industry (b) Forest based industries
(c) Mineral based industries (d) Footloose industries
PART TWO
HISTORY
Blank
CHAPTER FIVE

STATE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

ESSENTIAL INFORMATION

The state formation process in early Pragjyotisha –Kamarupa has its

own distinctive features. The history of the geographical and political
expansion can be known from various sources. In its transition from
tribal system to monarchical system, Kamarupa passed through many
stages. The contribution of the rulers of the dynasties from the Varmanas
to the Palas in the early period, and those of the Ahoms in upper Assam
in medieval period was determinative in the polity formation of the region.
78 Swadesh Adhyayan
BEGINNING OF STATE ancient kingdom of ‘Pragjyotisha-
Assam lies at the centre of the region Kamarupa’.
of North East India surrounded by its seven The names ‘Pragjyotisha’ and
other states (in recent times Sikkim has also ‘Kamarupa’ have different etymological
been added to the north-eastern region of origins. According to the legends recorded
India which has raised the number of states in the ancient Sanskrit works,Pragjyotisha
to eight). With an area of about 78,423 was the land of astrology and sun worship.
square kilometres, the Brahmaputra valley is However, according to Dr.BanikantaKakati
the principal region of the state of Assam, the term Pragjyotisha has originated from
though, a major part of the Barak valley also Austric language; the name Pragjyotisha is
lies within it. Though Assam is segregated its sanskritised form. TheKalikaPurana, a
from the rest of India and lies in the distant text composed around 10th-11th century
impassable region of north-eastern India, it states that it was here thatBrahma,the creator
has been known since ancient times of God of the Hindus,created the stars and the
itshuman habitation. Along the fertile plains planets.
on either side of the Brahmaputra valley the IT WAS PROBABLY FROM SUCH
ancient civilizations of Assam emerged. It LEGENDS THAT NAVAGRAHA IN
was onthese plains that the ancient kingdom GUWAHATI WITH TEN SHIVA
of Pragjyotisha and Kamarupa grew. The LINGAS GOT ITS NAME
modern state of Assam is merely a
geographical and political evolution of the It was after fourth century AD that the
ancient kingdoms of Pragjyotisha- term Kamarupa came to be used. This term
Kamarupa. was first mentioned in Samudra Gupta’s
In some ancient literature and (350AD -375AD) famous Allahabad Pillar
inscriptions the term ‘Pragjyotisha’ was inscription which is one of the most reliable
interchangeably used for ‘Lauhitya’ (Luhit, sources of early times. Among the Sanskrit
Luit) or Brahmaputra. On many occasions literature it was in Kali Das’s
the term ‘Lauhitya’ was also used to denote Raghuvamsamthat the term ‘Kamarupa’
the geographical extent of the kingdom of was first mentioned.
Pragjyotisha. Moreover the term Scholars believe that, like
‘Pragjyotisha’ was synonymously used for ‘Kamarupa’,the genesis of the term
‘Kamarupa’. It can thus be assumed that all ‘Pragjytisha’ was also consequence of
the three names were used to denote the sanskritisation. According to Dr.Banikanta
Kakati the term ‘Kamarupa’ has come from
 State and its Development 79
theSanthali word ‘Kamru’ or ‘Kamrut’ which documents do not provide clear ideas about
means magic or the art of invitation of the the geographical boundaries of this kingdom
evil spirits. It may be mentioned that the in ancient times. Sources reveal that the
ancient Sanskrit texts contain legends about kingdom of Kamarupa-Pragjyotishahad a
the origin of the term ‘Kamarupa’ like fluid boundary over times and this nature of
‘Pragjyotisha’. According to the legends, it had failed to give the kingdom a permanent
Kamdeva, the Cupid God in Hindu tradition, boundary that extended over centuries.
succumbed to the rage of Lord Shiva. However, what is certain is that at the pinnacle
However, he got his life back by the grace of of its rise, the submontane regions and a
the same Shiva. This was how the kingdom portion of Bhutan in the north had been a
of ancient ‘Pragjyotisha’ got it’s name part within the borders of Kamarupa and in
‘Kamarupa’. The KalikaPuranastates that the south-west its boundary extended as far
after the ascendency of Narakasura as the as to cover some parts of present
king of Pragjyotisha, the kingdomcame to be Bangladesh. It is likely that since at least the
known as‘Kamarupa’. first and second century AD the river
The term‘Assam’ emerged around Karatoya formed the western boundary of
fifteenth- sixteenth century. It denoted the the kingdom. Many parts of the rest of India
land in the upper Brahmaputra valley over at that time witnessed the growth of some
which the Ahoms ruled for around six largerkingdoms or small bordering
hundred years. This kingdom in subsequent principalities. It may be noted that river
times became the largest kingdom in the Karatoyaat that time was located at a
north-eastern region. Presumably the term considerable distance away on the eastern
‘Assam’ was first used in Assamese literature side from North Bengal. Inthe forested areas
by SrimantaSankardeva to mean the Ahoms. along both the banks of the river Brahmaputra
Much later their name became associated in the east various small tribes dwelt. In the
with the name of their kingdom. Mahabharata there is reference of people of
The Assam that we have today is not ‘China’ and ‘Kirata’ stock residing in the
a true representative of the geographical mountainous region and river banks of north
space covered by ancient kingdom eastern region.
ofKamarupa or Pragjyotisha and therefore Evidence about the geographical
it is not possible to presume the borders of expansion of the kingdom of Kamarupa can
the latter from the context of geographical be found from around fourth century AD. The
boundaries of modern Assam. Even the royal western boundary of the Kamarupa during
80 Swadesh Adhyayan
the Gupta kings extended up to the eastern Varman of Varman dynasty. During this time
side of the confluence of Ganga and the the submontane areas of north-eastern and
Brahmaputra. As stated earlier the name of south-eastern region were most likely
the ancient kingdom of Kamarupa was first incorporated within the geographical
mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription boundary of Kamarupa or perhaps they
of Samudra Gupta whereKamarupa has bordered the outer frontier of the kingdom.
been mentioned as a frontier kingdom. But The Chinese Buddhist pilgrimHiuen-Tsang
still not much expansion of the state had been stated that he entered Kamarupa after
made on the eastern frontier. Though the crossing a big river lying (Karatoya)on the
kingdom of Sonitpur of the asuraking Bana, eastern frontier of Pundravardhan (east
on the northern bank of the river Bengal). This shows that the river Karatoya
Brahmaputra, disintegrated in the wake of still formed the western boundary of
the pressure exerted by Kamarupa, the Kamarupa.
kingdom of Kundil which emerged on the An idea of the distinct geographical
north-eastern frontier continued to flourish boundary of the kingdom of Kamarupa can
extending its boundary from modern be had from the KalikaPurana composed
Lakhimpur to Dibrugarh-Sadiya. during reign of the Pala kings around tenth
Contemporaneously in the southern bank in century AD. This became possible because
the regions around Nagaonthere developed during the period of six hundred years
the kingdom of Dabaka. Till the sixth century covering the rule of the Varman, Salastambha
AD the kingdom had not been a part of the and the Pala dynasties from fourth century
kingdom of Kamarupa. Thus the politico- AD to century AD, Kamarupa got an
geographic extent of the kingdom ofgreater extensive territorial boundary. The
Kamarupa remained limited by the growth KalikaPuranastates that the western
of these tribal kingdoms since the first century boundary of Kamarupa was Karatoya and
AD. Much later however, the kingdoms of at that time the kingdom had a triangular
Dabaka and sonitpur merged with Kamarupa shape. The length of the kingdom from
but from the wombs of the kingdom of Kundil Karatoya to Dikkarvasini (it has also been
emerged the Chutiyakingdom of later times referred to as river Dikrai or Dikrong) was a
which continued to exert its independence hundred yojana and breath was thirty
till the sixteenth century. The largest territorial yojana (1 yojana =15 miles). Incorporating
extent that Kamarupa had achieved was modern Guwahati and Tezpur along with
during the times of king Kumar Bhaskar some territories on the east, the extent of the
 State and its Development 81
kingdom broadened towards the west. It is inhabited by the Morans and the Borahis.
not known how far the measure of the With the establishment ofthe Ahom rule, the
KalikaPuranawas correct. But the length of region also witnessed a transition in its
30 yojanamighthave meant the length of the political and geographicalsituations.
median or that of the two equal bases of a Meanwhilethe kingdom of Kamarupa in the
triangle.Therefore, the four hundred and fifty western part of the Brahmaputra valleyhad
miles (1 yojana was equal to 15 miles) of by now disintegrated and in its place
area between Karatoya and Dikrai (or emerged a new kingdom called Kamatapur
Dikong) comprised the kingdom of (or Kamarupa-Kamata). Since then the new
Kamarupa in the tenth century. In the Yogini kingdom arose centring round Kamatapur or
Tantra composed around sixteenth century Koch Bihar of modern North Bengal and it
andin the HaragauriSamvad of the same survived till1498. In the same year,in the
period, there is mention of four divisions of wake of the onslaughts of the Sultan
the state. Ratnapith, from Karatoya to Alauddin Hussain Shah of Bengal,
Sonkosh, Kampith, from Sonkosh to Kapili, Kamatapur kingdom came under the control
Swarnapith or Bhadrapith, from Pushpikar of the Sultan. However, the reign of the Sultan
to Bhairabi and Soumarpith, from Bhairabi over Kamatapur did not sustain for long as
to Dikrai.However, it appears that these within a short period of time, in the beginning
segments were not geographical divisions but of the sixteenth century, a Koch youth from
were some spheres of influence of the Mother the region Bisu alias BiswaSingha overthrew
Goddess or Devi. Be that as it may, Daniel, the governor of the Sultan rule Daniel,
theChutiya dominated areas had not yet been and put himself as the king. Thus about the
incorporated into the kingdom of Kamarupa. year 1515, a new kingdom of theKoches
In the south bank of the Brahmaputra and arose in the place of KamrupKamata. In the
on the eastern side of the KapiliRiver too, subsequent times Bisudefeated
some minor tribal groups resided. These theBhuyansand extended the boundary of his
territoriesin later timeswere incorporated to kingdom to Nepal and Bhutan in the
the Kachari kingdom. north,includingKoch Bihar in the west.
The Ahoms came to the Brahmaputra At the time of establishment of the
valley in the first half of the thirteenth century Koch kingdom, the Chutiyas had their
and set up a small kingdom on the frontiers kingdom in the extreme eastern and north-
of the Chutiya kingdom residing in the south eastern part of the Brahmaputra valley. The
eastern part of the valley and in the areas Chutiyakingdom was also known as Sadiya
82 Swadesh Adhyayan
or Kundil with its capital at Sadiya. The ruins Gohain was then appointed to rule the newly
of the city of Sadiya are still visible in the acquired territory by Suhungmung. On
Lohit district of Arunachal Pradseh. expulsion from the Dhansiri valley,the
However, in the wake of their failure to Kacharisleft their capital at Dimapur,
compete with the increasing strength of the retreated to Maibang and at last to Cachar.
Ahoms, the Chutiyakingdom merged with the They ruled here independently till the
former in the first half of the sixteenth century annexation of their territory by the British.
in 1523. In subsequent timesthe Chutiyas It has already been mentioned how in
made a number of unsuccessful attempts to the western part of the Brahmaputra valley
regain theirkingdom. The Ahom king the Koch kingdom emerged on the ruins of
Swargadeo Suhungmung the Dihingia raja the early Kamata kingdom. Among the Koch
(1497-1539 AD) annexed the kingsMalladeva alias Naranarayan (1540-
Chutiyakingdom and appointed an 1587), son and successor of BiswaSingha
administrator there called Sadiya Khowa was the greatest.During BiswaSingha’s times
Gohain and thereby he made the Chutiya the Koch kingdom extended from Koch
kingdom a province or administrative unit of Bihar in the west to Barnadi, lying on the
the Ahom kingdom. northern bank of Brahmaputra, on the east.
During the time when the Koch Moreover, with the assistance of his
kingdom was established in the west, on the astutebrother and commander Sukladdhvaj
south of the Brahmaputrathe Kachari alias Chilarai, he conquered almost all the
kingdom arose on the western frontiers of contemporary neighbouring kingdoms
the Ahom kingdom. TheKachariswerea including Ahoms, Kacharis and Jayantias and
major tribal groupamong the aborigines of became the sovereign king of North-east
Assam who had inhabited sporadically almost India. However, this strength of the Koch
the whole of the upper Brahmaputra valley. kingdom did not last long and it split into two
At the timewhen the Ahoms entered Assam over the issue of succession to the throne in
the Kacharishad a kingdom in the valley of 1581. The region on the east of
the river Dhansiri on the western frontiers of theSonkoshriver to Barnadi was known as
the Ahom kingdom. The Ahom king KochHajo or Kamarupa and the part on the
Suhungmung defeated the Kacharis in a battle west of the river Sonkosh was known as
and annexed the kingdom up to Dimapur by Koch Bihar after the name Koch Bihar.
1536 as he did in the case of the Chutiya Taking advantage of this fratricidal warfare
kingdom. An officer called Morongikhowa over the issue of succession, the Mughals,
 State and its Development 83
who had expanded their rule over whole of the west. In the subsequent times they brought
India then extended their sway over Koch under their subordination all the neighbouring
Bihar on the west and conquered and kingdoms and tribal chiefs and thereby
annexed the eastern part as well. Since then formed a very powerful and extensive Ahom
the Mughals had directly ruled over kingdom. In this way they brought under their
Kamarupa and Guwahati and established sway even the submontane regions on both
their indirect ruleover Koch Bihar in the the north and south banks of the
model of a tributary kingdom. Consequent Brahmaputraand formed a kingdom by
to the downfall of the Koch kingdom now, inclusion or by subordination of almost the
the Ahoms came into direct conflictwith the entire Brahmaputra valley. It was under the
Mughals, and during half a century that rule of the Ahoms that a concrete idea of the
followed there were incessant Ahom-Mughal state of Assam with a distinct geographical
conflicts and warfare. As a culmination of half identity emerged. Since then a sense of unity
a century of incessant warfare, the Ahoms between the two valleys of the Barak and
defeated the Mughals at the battle of the Brahmaputra, and the inhabitants of the
Saraighat in 1671 AD and recovered parts hills like the Khasi, Jayantias, Nagas, Garos,
of KamarupauptoManah in the north and Chutiyas, Adis and Mishings emerged.
Goalpara in the south of the Brahmaputra The kingdom of ‘Asam’ of the Ahoms
from the Mughals. Since then the Ahom lasted for around six hundred years. The rule
kingdom had the Manah in the north and of the Ahom kings however came to an end
Goalpara in the south as its western boundary. consequent to the Moamariya rebellion of the
It has been observed that since the mid eighteenth century followed by a series
thirteenth century the ancient kingdom of of invasions of the Burmeseand their
Kamarupa ceased to exist and its place was atrocious rule (1819-1824).Although the
taken by a number of small kingdoms. Apart Ahom kings dreamt of regaining their control
from these kingdoms, a few tribal chiefs also over Assam with the assistance of the
established their dominance in the hilly areas contemporary rulers of Bengal, the British,no
of the neighbourhood. The mighty Ahoms kings including thedeposed king Chandra
however managed to reconstruct the KantaSingha or other claimants to the throne
geographical and political conditions of the could recover the kingdom.Having defeated
valley and by the end of the seventeenth the Burmese, the British chased them upto
century extended their sovereign rule from Burma and by the terms of the subsequent
Sadiya in the east to Manah and Goalpara in treaty of understanding that was signed
84 Swadesh Adhyayan
between the two at Yandaboo in February, Manipur emerged and Assam that was left
1826, the British occupied Assam from the extended only from Sadiya to Dhubri on the
Burmese. In fact Assam came under the plains of the either banks of the river
British rule since then and became an integral Brahmaputra. The total area of
part of the British Empire along with other Assamincluding the district of Cachar
states. (undivided) into the Barak valley, a part of
Duringthe British rule,the hills and the the erstwhile Kachari kingdom, is 78,423 sq.
plains of north east were merged with Assam kms. Of the total area, 63,300 square
for the sake of their administrative kilometres in the plains and 15,220 kilometres
convenience, and formed into a greater state. in the hills. Assam is surrounded on all sides
After occupying the kingdoms of Kachar, by the states of Bhutan, Bangladesh,
Jayantiya and Manipur along with Assam, the Arunachal, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur,
British divided the entire territory into Tripura and West Bengal. Consequent to
separateunits for administrative convenience. these fragmentations,Koch Bihar, where the
However, as an integral part British India great souls Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva
when Assam, along with other parts of the had spent some creative years of their lives,
country obtained independence, its structure became a part of West Bengal. Dimapur, the
as state –i.e, modern Assam became clear. capital of the Kacharis was ceded to
In subsequent times, the geographical Nagaland. Besides, Kundilnagar, the capital
boundary of Assam, which by now had of the Chutiya kingdom, along with a part of
incorporated the hills and plain areas into it, the Sadiya territory, ruled by the
had beenrestructuredmany a times. In the SadiyakhowaGohain, was also ceded to
wake of the ‘States Reorganisation Act’ of what is now called Arunachal Pradesh.
the National Government, new states like Assam’s territorial limit thus contracted
Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya and largely thereafter.

ANCIENT KING DOM OF KAMRUPA

There is no detail account of the political contradictory in nature. Be that as it was since
history of Assam (i.e. Pragjyotisha- the middle of the fourth AD,historical narrative
Kamarupa kingdom) prior to the 4th century about its political developments can be found.
AD. The few scattered references found in Of course even though there is no connected
the early Sanskrit literature are also account of pre-4th century political history
 State and its Development 85
of the land, the early Sanskrit literary works historical remains however indicate that in
contain some legends and myths about Assam the state formation process began
Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa.Traces of such since much earlier.
legends can be found in theRamayana and A connected account of the political
the Mahabharata and also in thePuranas history of the kingdom of Pragjyotisha-
and the Upapuranasof later ages. The Kamarupa have however been found since
legends around Naraka or Narakasura are the second half of the fourth century AD.
most frequently found among these legends. Though the kingdom was known as
From the repeated mention of Narakasura Kamarupa at that time, it may be noted that
and the importance given to this character in in certain records the name Pragjyotisha had
these texts it may be assumed that at some been compounded with the nameKamarupa.
point of time a king called Narakasura ruled The kingdom of Kamarupa sustained for
over the kingdom of Pragjyotisha. The fact about one thousand years, from the middle
that almost all the kings of Pragjyotisha- of the fourth century AD to the thirteenth
Kamarupa traced their lineage from Naraka century AD. And within that period the
after the fourth century AD may also suggest kingdom was ruled by three major ruling
that he was a historical character. Apart from houses. The founder of the Varman dynasty
this the other references in the epics and the which ruled since the middle of the fourth
Puranasand the Upapuranas cannot be century AD was Pushya Varman.Thirteen
accepted without inquiry. kings of the dynasty ruled over Kamarupa
There is no evidence to say who extending over three hundred years till the
exactly the successor of Narakasura was. middle of the seventh century AD. The most
Certain texts and land grant inscriptions left famous among the Varman kings was the last
by some of the rulers put the name of king of the dynasty Kumar Bhaskar Varman
Bhagadatta as his successor. However, no (approximately 598 AD-650AD) who was
evidence to prove the historicity of a contemporary of the famous north Indian
Bhagadatta has come to us. No historical king Harshavardhana and with whom the
evidence about the state, its rulers, and about former had maintained a friendly relation.
their rule is available till the time of the imperial Bhaskar Varman ruled till around 650 AD. It
Guptas of North India.Therefore the period was during the reign of Bhaskar Varman that
prior to fourth century AD may be said to be the Chinese Buddhist monk Hiuen-Tsang had
a pre historical era for ancient Pragjyotisha- visited Kamarupa and stayed in its capital
Kamarupa. The ruins of many ancient Pragjyotisha for around two months.
86 Swadesh Adhyayan
However, opinions of scholars vary on the Varman was also a great patron of learning.
location of the capital of Kamarupa visited Scholars during his times were much revered
by Hiuen Tsang. and received royal patronage, consequent to
The kings of the Varman dynasty claim which there was an expansion of culture and
their descent from Naraka. During their times, literature in the region.
kings of the dynasty donated land to the The rule of the Varman dynasty came
Brahmanas and settled them in different parts to an end by the middle of the seventh century
of the kingdom.In the same manner, Kumar AD. The last king of the Varman dynasty,
Bhaskar Varman, in order to renew the grant Kumar Bhaskar Varman, remained unmarried
given by his ancestor Mahabhuti Varman, and in the absence of a direct successor,a
donated land to more than two hundred powerful provincial ruler called Salastambha
Brahmanas in Pundravardhan, a took possession of the throne. From the
Bhuktisomewhere in the erstwhile East records of the dynasty it has been derived
Bengal now within modern Bangla Desh. In that this ruler got its name from his
an attempt to maintain friendly relations he personalitywhich was as strong as the
made presents of many precious gifts to saltree.It can thus be assumed that he was
Harshavardhan among which there is known by a different name prior to becoming
reference to manuscripts written on the barks a king and the new name was possibly as a
of thesancitree. During the rule of the consequence of brahmanization. Some
Varmana kings, Brahmanas were settled contemporary land grant charters mention
through the grants of landwhich facilitated Salastambha as ofmleccha origin. Like the
growth and expansin of Brahmanical Varman kings, the kings of this dynasty
Hinduism and many non-Aryan people thus claimed their descent from Naraka-
became Hinduized. Consequent to it, the Bhagadatta. The process of brahmanization
indigenoussociety of kirataor mlecchaorigin got an impetus from the various land grants
had also become a part of the made by the kings to Brahmanas and their
varnasramasystem. Moreover, during the subsequent settlement in the new areas which
days of the Varmans, the kingdom of in the course of time also gave protection to
Kamarupa expanded towards the south and the boundary of the kingdom. Among the
the west and included large areas of north- many Gods and Goddesses worshipped by
east and south-eastern part of Bengal. Large the Salastambhas and their predecessors,
tracts of land granted to the Brahmanas were theVarman kings, Siva was the main
in these extended territories. Bhaskar pantheon. According to Hiuen Tsang there
 State and its Development 87
were hundreds of Siva temples in the The last king of the Salastambha
kingdom. In the land grant charters of later dynasty was Tyagasingha. In the absence of
Salastambha kings Vanamala Varman and any successor to the throne after his death,
Harjara Varman (VanamalaVarmadeva and the officers of the capital are said to
HarjaraVarmadeva)there is reference to a haaaaaaave selectedBrahmapala, a kin of the
Siva temple as fair as snow and as high as last Salastambha king, for succession
the Himalayas constructed by them. The (around the last part of the tenth century). In
temple was located in the capital of the the land grant charter of Ratnapala, son of
Salastambhas at Harupesvar or Hatapesvar the second king of the same dynasty
on the banks of the river Brahmaputra. The ofBrahmapala, it has been mentioned that
smell of the incense sticks and the fire altars among the contenders to the throne after the
filled the atmosphere of the capital with death of Tygasingha, Brahmapala was the
fragrance every day. The dancers of the most eligible. It can thus be concluded that
temple lived on the bank of the river. The in the absence of a direct successor to the
ruins of some ancient temples on the Bamuni throne, the nobles and the ministers had the
hills on the eastern part of theTezpur town power and discretiontoelect a successor of
perhaps point to the Himalaya like temple the king. There were eight kings of the Pala
constructed by the Salastambha kings. dynasty who reigned over the kingdom. It
Scholars identify the town of Harupesvar or has been mentioned that among
Hatapesvar town with modern town them,Ratnapala, the son of Brahmapala, set
ofTezpur. up his new capital at Sridurjaya (1010 AD-
1080AD) and constructed many magnificent
palaces there. In Ratnapal’s a charter itself it
has been mentioned that he had erected
fortresses around his capital and made it so
much secured that no contemporary kings
of India could ever dare to conquer it.
Scholars opine that the city of Sridurjaya is
in the vicinity of modern Guwahati.
The last Pala king,Dharmapala
(approximately 1095 AD-1120 AD), was a
great scholar and a poet. He was a very
religious man and a patron of Vedic
Huan Sang
88 Swadesh Adhyayan
Brahmanism. Furthermore, he and his and threw them into the river. Bakhtiyar alone
ancestors, speciallyIndrapala, patronised escaped with a few soldiers accompanying
Tantric form of Buddhism. The Pala kings of him by crossing the full river of the rainy
neighbourig Bengal and Bihar were also season. The army of the Sultans attacked
followers and patrons of Buddhism. There is Kamarupa several times in subsequent times
reference of a number of Pala kings of but with failure. At last the kings of Kamarupa
Kamarupa embracing Buddhism. It is plausibly in order to escape the repeated
noteworthy that it was under the patronage invasions of the Turkish Sultans shifted their
of a king by the title ‘Pala’ in the post Pala capital from Guwahati to distant Kamatapur.
dynasty, SamudraPala (around the beginning As a consequent to this important event which
of the eleventh centuryAD), that a monastery occurred in and around the middle of the
of the Tantric Budhist monks came up in thirteenth century, the kingdom of ancient
Yogihati in Guwahati (modern Ambari). The Kamarupa ceased to exist and a new
stone charter mentioning it is still preserved kingdom called Kamarupa-Kamata or
in the museum at Guwahati. Kamata emerged. The reference to this
Following the kings of the Varman and the kingdom has been made earlier. This
Salastambha dynasties, the Pala kings also kingdom also failed to escape the onslaughts
donated lands to the Brahmanas patronising of the Turkish Sultans and in the wake of the
the Indian religious tradition. During their invasion of Sultan AllauddinHussain Shah in
days, culture and literature also flourished. 1498 the kingdom collapsed. But within a
According to some scholars it was under the short period of time their rule ended and its
patronage of the Pala kings that the ruins emergedthe Koch kingdom.
KalikaPuranawas composed by some Most of the kings of the Kamata
unknown scholar. kingdom were learned and patronised
The ancient kingdom ofKamarupa scholars encouraging them to create literature.
began to decline in the period after It was during this time that scholars like
Dharmapala. During this time Kamarupa was HariharVipra, Hem Saraswati, RudraKandali
invaded by the neighbouring Turks for a created some of the finest Assamese
number of times. There is mention that during literature. Among the literary works, the
the invasion of Mohammad Bin Bakhtiyar in Assamese translation of the Ramayana by
the beginning of 1206 AD, the army of MadhavKandali significantly enriched
Kamarupaunder the leadership of their king Assamese literature. Many scholars are of
Bartu alias Prithu killed the Turkish soldiers the opinion that among all the versions of
 State and its Development 89
translation of the Ramayana to regional authority. The king was entrusted with all
languages, the Assamese version had been rights over land excluding rights over land that
the earliest. was granted in perpetuity.
Administrative system: The expansion and development of the
In the state machinery of Kamarupa, kingdom and the need for its security
the highest position was occupied by the king. necessitated adoption of diverse policies by
Irrespective of his genealogy,the king was
the king. In the frontier and forested territories
always considered as having a divine lineage.
which were not under the direct control of
This divine origin theory for the family of the
kings had evolved from the ancient Sanskrit the king, new villages were set up through
texts. The lineage of the kings of Kamarupa land grants. In most cases such villages or
has been drawn fromNarakasura who was territories were offered to the offices in lieu
mentioned as the son ofVishnu and earth. of salary. These policies in essence ensured
Establishing this form of relation with some not only expansion of the states but also
divinity or Puranic heroes in the past was in ensured its defence. Those land grants with
essence an attempt to legitimise the status of permanent ownership rights often led in
a royal dynasty. In the model of the early
parallel, to the emergence of a class of
Indian kings who were believers in and
zamindars with absolute power. Towards the
patrons of the brahmanical traditions, these
kings performed many sacrifices like later part of the existence of the kingdom,
aswamedha,and often followed the same these zamindars (also called Bhuyans), began
tradition of assuming titles like to rule their territories independently. This led
‘maharajadhiraja’, ‘paramabhattarak’ which to some amount of decentralization of power.
signified sovereign power. The founder of the Agriculture was the mainstay of the economy
Varman dynasty Pushyavarman assumed the though there was some amount of trade. The
title of ‘maharajadhiraja’ and Mahendra
revenue generated from the subjects
Varman twice performed the
constituted the major sources of the state
aswamaedhasacrifice. The king was assisted
by a council of ministers in discharging his treasury. Other sources of revenue included
administrative responsibilities. There were taxes levied on different commodities and
tiers of officers from provincial to village levels forest products like elephant, ivory, precious
in the state administrative system though the timber, medicinal plants, animals etc. In trade
king was the ultimate source of power and and commerce barter had been the medium
90 Swadesh Adhyayan

of exchange though there was circulation of got her name because she was an expert inthe
some amount of coins. Some of these coins art. That sculpture as an art made some
have been discovered. It is not clear if the progress can be known from the fact that a
kingdom possessed a disciplined and salaried number of temples were constructed using
standing army. In case of exigencies however, stones and bricks. The Surya Pahar at
the opportunity of raising an army was Goalpara, Madan-Kamadeva in Guwahati,
maintained. There is reference of a huge navy HayagrivaMadhava at Hajo, Kamakhya
of Bhaskar Varman in the account of Hiuen temple on the Nilachal hills, the Siva lingas
Tsang. During the reign of the Salastambha of the Navagriha hills, architectural remnants
king HarjaraVarmana, there is reference of in and around Tezpur, Deopahar at
the king framing rules for smooth mobility of Numaligarh andremnants of Hojai-Dabaka
the navy on the Brahmaputra. inNagaonstll bear testimonies of heritage in
During the reign of the kings of art and architecture of those times.
ancient Kamarupa there was development It can thus be seen that the ancient
in the sphere of literature and culture as well. kingdom of Kamarupa grew on the traditions
It has already been mentioned that Kumar of ancient India. Aspects like the election
Bhaskar Varman gifted some manuscripts to process of the kings, expansion and defence
Harshavardhana written on the barks of mechanism of the kingdom, formation of the
thesacitree. The Pala king Dharmapala was armed strength, theprocess of aryanisation
a poet and first ten verses of Sridhar Das’s etc. were very significant.Believer and
‘Suduktikaranamrita’ were composed by patrons of Brahmanical traditions, every ruler
him. It has already been mentioned that the of Kamarupagave special emphasis on
KalikaPurana was composed during their maintenance and preservation of the
times. There is mention that Bhaskar Varman varnashrama dharma. Consequently on the
brought from China a ‘Tat’, a religiouscalled one hand there was expansion of varna-
‘Tao-to-king’ and translated in to Sanskrit. jatisystem, and on the other hand, society
The form of art of ancient Kamarupa is not began to be divided on the basis class. A
known since no remains of artistic forms have society divided on the basis of class is always
come down to us. Legendary narrations state congenial for building up of state.
thatChitralekha, the daughter of king Bana,
 State and its Development 91
FORMATION OF THE AHOM KINGDOM IN
THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

The entire Brahmaputra valley got The Ahoms were the descendants of
fragmented politically at the time of the the Shans of the Tai race. Prior to their
decline of the kingdom of Kamarupa. The coming to Assam they were inhabitants of
Kamata kingdom that grew on the extreme the state of Maolung which lied in the area
westalso became devasted, taking advantage connecting northern Burma, and southern
of which the Koches under the leadership of Yunan province of China. Chao lung
young and valorous BiswaSinghaset up the
Sukapha, who led the Ahoms in founding their
Koch kingdom. Moreover, theBhuyans, who
kingdom in Assam, was a member of the
emerged on the resources of the early
royal dynasty of Maolung anda claimant to
kingdom ofKamarupa, spread over different
regions of the kingdom and started ruling the throne. Being deprived of the throne,
independently over their respective territories. Sukapha leftMaolungin 1215 AD along with
On the southern bank of the valley, the his family and a few trusted followers and
Kacharis established their kingdom in the set his foot on the Brahmaputra valley after
region from present Nagaon in the west to crossing Patkai hills of Assam-Burma
Golaghat in the east. Contemporaneously, the frontiers.Sukaphawas accompanied by very
Chutiyas established their kingdom in the few companions and women were almost
extreme east and north-eastern region of the absent. On the other hand the route that
valley. It was during this time that the Ahoms Sukapha took was predominantly inhabited
laid the foundation of their kingdom in the by the Naga, Moran and Borahi tribes which
south eastern part of the Brahmaputra valley made his journey extremely hazardous. But
inhabited by the Morans-Borahis in the first Sukapha managed to establish friendly
half of the thirteenth century. The political
relations with the Morans and Borahis,
scenario has already been discussed earlier.
thereby made them his supporters. Further
It is noteworthy that this fragmented political
by entering in to matrimonial alliances,
situation was brought to an end by the Ahom
kingdom, which by seventeenth century grew Sukaphaalso established family relations with
in to an extensive sovereign state. This these tribes. This politics of friendly relations
sovereign state of the Ahomscame to be aided Sukapha much in establishing his
known as ‘Asam’ and from it emerged the kingdom in Assam. However, with certain
modern state of Assam. tribes like the Nagas he had to resort to force
92 Swadesh Adhyayan
and exchange arms to break through their
stiff opposition. It is to be noted that to
increase his strength and population,
Sukapha embraced into his fold almost all of
the tribes he came across and made them
members of the Ahom community.
Consequently, though Sukapha began his
journey with few followers, by the time he
entered Assam it increased manifold. In 1253
Sukaphalaid the foundation of the Ahom
kingdom by setting up his capital at Charaideo
in the south-eastern corner of present
undivided Sibsagar district after long years
of involvement in skirmishes and alliances.
Sukapha was followed by forty ruling kings
reigning over a period of almost six hundred
uninterrupted years. In 1826, with the end
of the Ahom rule, their kingdom passed over
to the hands of the British, and on 15th Swargadeo Sukafa
August, 1947, with the country attaining During the first three hundred years of
freedom from British rule, Assam also its existence the Ahom kingdom could not
became a part of independent India. expand much. However, since the reign of
The Ahoms were known as ‘Asam’ in Swargadeo Suhungmung alias Dihingia
Assamese language. In his Assamese Raja, the kingdom began to expand towards
translation of the tenth canto of
the west and there was expansion towards
BhagavataPurana,Sankaradeva has referred
north-eastern frontiers as well. It was during
to the Ahoms by the same name. This name,
his reign that Dimapur had become a part of
by which the Ahoms were then known, in
the kingdom after annexation of the Kachari
course of time, became the name of the
kingdom. Further the Chutiya kingdom
kingdom over which they ruled. The
appellation ‘Asam’ is thus a derivation from towards the east was also incorporated into
the Ahoms. the Ahom kingdom, the reference of which
 State and its Development 93
has been made earlier. Apart from that, the Guwahati on the southern bank and the area
feudatory Bhuyans residing on the northern till Barnadi on the northern bank defeating
bank of the river Brahmaputra were defeated the Mughals. As a result, Emperor Akbar
and their territories upto Narayanpur on the acceded to the conquests of the Ahom king
west were annexed by him. It was during the by conducting a treaty at Ghiladhari in the
reign of this king that Turbak, the Muslim year 1639. However, the contest that began
commander from Bengal, invaded Assam, could not be brought to an end by the treaty.
but had to return back after being defeated During the reign of Swargadeo Jayadhvaj
by the Ahoms. In the battle that ensued with Sinha (1648-1663), a subsequent ruler after
Turbak, the Ahom commander PratapSingha, Commander-in-chief of the
Phrasengmung Bargohain along with his wife Mughal army of Aurangzeb ,Mir Jhumla,
Mulagabharu died fighting.Victorious defeated the Ahom king and extended
overTurbak, the Ahom army chased the Mughal supremacy up to the Ahom capital
invaders across the river Karatoya and at Gargaon. However, due to natural
extended their rule on the west up to that calamities and consequent ill health, the
river. Mughal general could not retain his hold for
The westward expansion of the Ahoms a very long time. After signing a treaty of self-
made them contenders of the other political defence in 1662, the Mughal general was
powers on the west. It has already been forced to retreat from Assam. By the terms
mentioned that as a result of the decline and of the treaty the Ahom Swargadeo
division of the Koch kingdom in the 17th consented to pay annual tributes to the
century, the Ahom kingdom was brought into Mughal emperor and thereby entered into a
direct line of confrontation with the Mughals. relationship of subordination. Apart from that
Consequent to it, during the reign of the area upto the riverBharali on the north
Swargadeo PratapSinha alias Buddhi and to Kalang on the south including
Swarga Narayan (1603AD-1641AD), the Guwahati fell to the hands of the Mughals.
Ahom-Mughal conflict continued over three Consequently, large territories acquired
decades at a stretch with neither of the during the days of Swargadeo Pratap
powers finally winning over the other. Singha,were lost to the Mughals again.
However,SwargadeoPratapSinha captured Being humiliated at the defeat and
94 Swadesh Adhyayan

subjugation, SwargadeoJayadhvajSingha their control. However, very soon the Mughal

died after a short while to be succeeded by emperor Aurangzeb sent a contingent to
Chakradhvaj Singha (1663-1669). Assam under Ram Sinha as the general to
Chakradhvaj Singha was a great patriot. recover Guwahati. As it was a contingent sent
Refusing to acknowledge the subjugation of by the most powerful of the emperors of
the Mughals he stated: ‘It is better to die than contemporary Asia, the outcome of the battle
be under the subjugation of the Bangals’. could be easily predicted for Assam was no
He therefore, in consultation with the council match for the mighty Mughals. However, with
of ministers, made plans to recover Guwahati, the indomitable courage and perseverance
the plan in which the chief consultant was the of the Assamese army, support from its
PrimeMinister AtanBurhagohainDangariya. neighbouring kingdoms, the geographical
The two main individuals who were environment of Assam, and most importantly,
instrumental in this attempt to drive the the war strategies of the Ahom general
Mughals out and regain their independence LachitBarphukan and Prime Minister
were the Prime Minister AtanBurhagohain AtanBurhagohain, their political and
andLachit, the Barphukanof Guwahati, son diplomatic astuteness and deep patriotism
of the former Barbarua,MumaiTamuli. Both determined the result in favour of Assam; they
LachitBarphukan and AtanBuragohain were defeated the Mughal army andchased the
great patriots and were astute diplomat and Mughals to the other bank of the river Manah
strategic fighters. Lachithimself was the and determined the western boundary of this
General in this struggle to recover Guwahati state with Goalpara on the south and Manah
from the Mughals and regain freedom. It is on the north. The famous battle fought with
mentioned that all the neighbouring tribes Ram Sinha was known as the ‘Battle of
including the Jayantias and Kacharis joined Saraighat’. The fateful day on which the battle
hands with the Ahom army in this struggle was fought was the fifth day of April, 1671.
against the Mughals. Thus, a fully prepared Since then the office of theBarphukan was
Ahom army under the direction of set up in Guwahati.
AtanBurhagohain and LachitBarphukan Soon after the Battle of Saraighat,
pulled down the Mughal army camps one LachitBarphukan died and AtanBurhagohain
after another and brought Guwahati under left Guwahati for the capital at Gargaon.
 State and its Development 95
Taking advantage of the situation the Mughals machinery had certain similarities, at least the
reoccupied Assam for some time. It was in theoretical dimensions with the ancient
real sense the internal conspiracies at the kingdom of Kamarupa. Like the kings of
capital and subsequent murder of ancient Kamarupa, the kings of the Ahom
AtanBurhagohain that inspired the Mughals dynasty also claimed divine origin connecting
to recapture Guwahati. However, these it with Lord Indra.This theory of the divine
attempts to recapture Guwahati proved short origin of kingship was there also in the Ahom
lived as during the reign of Swargadeo traditional monarchical system. They
GadadharSingha, the Assamese army embraced Vedic Brahmanism in Assam and
defeated the Mughals and incorporated the became patrons of this faith. As a
territory upto Manah again within the frontiers
consequence of Brahmanisation, the Brahmin
of Assam. Practically, till the British took over
prieststheorized the relation of the Ahom
Assam, the western boundary of Assam was
kings with LordIndra. Since then the Ahom
fixed at Manah and Goalpara. The area on
kings came to be addressed as Swargadeo.
the western bank of river Manah in Goalpara
It was the Dihingia RajaSuhungmung
was earlier, since 1757, under the control of
(1497-1539), who became the first
the East India Company as a part of Koch
Swargadeothrough this divine Theory of
Bihar. It was only in 1874 that this territory
Kingship and assumed the title
was attached to Assam by the British. We
need to remember that it was the territory up of‘Swarganarayan’. It was he who apart from
to Manah and Goalpara on both banks of using Ahom system of dates in all documents,
the river Brahmaputra that formed the made a rule of using the sakaera as well.
foundation of the modern state of Assam. The The highest position in the Ahom
principal political role in this development monarchical system was occupied by the
was played by the Ahoms. During the British Swargadeo. But the power to select him was
rule certain tracts from the former Koch and enjoyed by three prime ministers who were
Kachari kingdom were added to the state. the Burhagohain, the Bargohain and the
Thus the geographical boundary of modern BarpatraGohain. The king could be selected
Assam was finally formed. from among the members hailing from the
The Ahom monarchy and its state royal family of Sukapha only. Similarly the
96 Swadesh Adhyayan

members of the council of ministers duty. Similarly, the frontier officers like the
wereappointed only from the select ministerial SalalGohain, MarangikhowaGohain, and
families. It may be mentioned that the way theSadiyakhowaGohainhad independent
the king was selected by the three ministers responsibilities. Apart from maintaining
or the Dangarias, the king too had the right political relations with the neighbouring
to appoint the ministers. Consequently the frontier tribes, they also had to shoulder the
nature of Ahom monarchical system was like responsibility of defence of the frontiers and
a cooperative system where power never expansion of the kingdom by clearing new
remained centred in the hands of one areas of land and setting up new villages. The
individual. This prevented the Ahom kingdom areas ruled by these administrators and the
from becoming one like the Koch kingdom ministers were often called Rajyas. The
where anyone who had access to power Ahom kingdom thus bore the characteristics
could make claims to the throne. The rule of of fragmentary administration.
succession was tight and unbreakable. This The chief characteristic of Ahom
rule of the state machinery was at the genesis system of administration was their intent to
of the uninterrupted rule of the Ahoms for six create a self-dependant society. In that it was
hundred years. mandatory for each peasant to possess a plot
In the state machinery, the king or the of cultivable land. As a consequence there
Swargadeo held the supreme authority and were no landless subjects in the medieval
took the ultimate decision regarding Ahom kingdom unlike in the Mughal
implementation of any policy. However, kingdom. All able bodied men and women
unlike the state machinery in ancient India, in had to work to generate independent income
the Ahom state the king did not hold absolute and for the development of the state. So no
authority. The BurhaGohain, Bargohain and beggars could be seen in the Ahom kingdom
the BarpatraGohain ruled over their individual except in the times of famine. The Vaishnavite
revenue jurisdictions. The Barphukan, who saints did not believe in the ideology of
had his office in Guwahati, while discharging accumulation of wealth through earning and
his responsibilities, could even use the seal instead relinquished whatever they had.
of the Swargadeo while executing his official The state administration was very firm
 State and its Development 97
in its dealings with defence of its frontiers and But the Sufi saints had their own preaching
with foreigners. The king refused to take even centres. For the sustenance of these centres
a grain of rice in the event of a mere inch of or dargahs, the kings are known to have
land falling into the hands of the foreigners. donated land. The dargahof Azan Pir at
Similarly, the subjects were not allowed to SaraguriChapori inSibsagarand that of
mingle with the foreigners;and the latter was GhiyasuddinAulia at Hajo were set up as a
allowed to enter the state boundary unless consequence of the state policy. With the
they fulfilled certain rules and norms. But with beginning of British rule in Assam, Christianity
the neighbouring hilly tribes like theMiri began to be spread among certain sections
(present Mishing), Naga, Dafla (Nishi), Abor of the population. The predominant form of
(Adi), Aka (Hras), the Ahoms followed a religious belief among the Ahom-Koch kings
policy of living in a relationship of fraternal were Shaivism, Saktism, Tantrism,
alliance. So the Ahoms framed the state Vaishnavism and Vedic forms of religion. The
policy in a manner that facilitated these tribes Bhakti tradition preached by Sankaradeva
to procure their essential commodities from was the predominant among them. The
the plains. This system has been referred to namghars and satraswere the main
as the ‘Posa’system in the Buranjis. institutions of this tradition. The main
The religious policy of the state was institutions of Shakti, Saivite and Vedic
one of toleration. Assam being a seat of traditions were the temples. The Shiva, Devi
diverse faiths likeBuddhism, Tantrism, and Vishnu temples at Sibsagar and the
Shaivism, Saktism, Vaishnavism, Vedic and Kamakhya and the HayagrivaMadhava
non-vedicsystems alike, the Ahom kings temple in Guwahati are some of the famous
allowed the followers of each religious faith temples whose relevance have still not waned.
to practice their own tradition and belief Similarly, the tribal and the non-Vedic people
systems. However, there is no reference of too practiced their religious faiths according
the Muslims openly setting up their Mosques. to their traditions.
98 Swadesh Adhyayan
 State and its Development 99
ESSENTIAL FACTS

The appellationKamarupa has been first mentioned in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription
of Sammudra Gupta (350AD-375AD). This inscription was composed by Harisena.
The term ‘Assam’ has been derived after the name of the Ahoms.
Karatoya river: a big river flowing on the eastern boundary of Pundravardhan( North
Bengal) and western boundary of Kamarupa.
According to the Yogini Tantrathe four divisions of Assam: Ratnapith from Karatoya
to Sonkosh, Kampithfrom Sonkosh to Kapili, Swarnapith or Bhadrapithfrom Pushpika
to Bhairabi and Soumarpithfrom Bhairabi to Dikrai.
SadiyaKhowaGohain: the administrative officer appointed by the Ahom king to
administer theSadiya region.
MarangiKhowaGohain: the officer appointed to administer the region of present
GolaghatuptoDimapur.
The eastern segment of the Koch kingdom from the Sonkosh to Barnadi was known
as Koch-Hajo or Kamarupa and the western segment of the kingdom from Sonkosh
to Koch Bihar was known as Koch Bihar.
The founder of the Varman dynasty around the middle of the fourth century was Pushya
Varman, who founded the dynasty around the middle of the fourth century CE.
The capital of the Salastambha dynasty was at Harupeshvar or Hatapeshvar on the
northern bank of the Brahmaputra.
Ratnapala established the new capital at Sridurjaya and built many palaces with much
architectural designs.
MadhavKandali translated the Ramayana into Assamese and enriched Assamese
literature.
Agriculture was the predominant form of economyof the state in early timesthough
there was some amount of trade and commerce as well.
Bhaskar Varman brought the Tao To King from China and translated into Sanskrit.
The Ahoms were descendants of the Shan group belonging to the Tai race.
In 1253 Sukapha established the Ahom kingdom withCharaideo as its capital on the
south-eastern part of modern district of Sibsagar (now Charaideo district).
100 Swadesh Adhyayan

The Treaty of Ghilajhari was signed between the Ahom king PratapSingha and the
Mughals in 1639.
It was ChakraddhvajSinha who said “it is better to die than live in subordination to the
Bangals”.
SuhunhmungDihingia Raja first the first Ahom king to assume the title of Swarganarayan.
In the state machinery the king held the ultimate authority and the decision on
implementation of any policy vested on the king.

EXERCISE
Answer the following questions :
1. (a) Who was the founder of the Varman dynasty?
(b) Who among the Varman kings established friendly relations with HarshaVardhana?
(c) During whose times did Hiuen Tsang come to Assam?
(d) Which king transferred the capital of Kamarupa to Kamatapur?
(e) Who translated the Ramayana into Assamese first?
(f) To which race did the Ahoms belong?
2. Write a note on the geographical boundary of ancient Assam.
3. Describe the role of the royal dynasties in the political rise and fall of ancient kingdom
of Kamarupa.
4. What was the political condition of Assam in medieval times? Discuss the establishment
of the Ahom monarchy in the Brahmaputra valley.
CHAPTER SIX

Society and Social Characteristics

IMPORTANT INFORMATION

People of different race and ethnicities have migrated to Assam since

the ancient times. Assimilation and integration of different groups of
people have led to the creation of a unique culture in Assam. The cultural
and linguistic diversity was enhanced through the process.
102 Swadesh Adhyayan
Social Formation : Social System of amongst the tribes here. Considering the
Castes and Tribes ethnic, linguistic and cultural environment,
An observation of the various tribes these people are only part of the mongoloid
and communities of Assam can make one group that came from neighbouring China,
surmise that people of different tribes and Tibet or Burma (present Myanmar).
ethnicities have been living in the area since Geographically, the entire North east
the ancient times. In the entire North east, India lies at one of the important migration
people belonging to societies of both very routes. That is why, migration of people to
modern culture and ancient tribal culture have this place occurred throughout the ages from
lived together. It is for this reason that the Southeast Asia, Southern Oceanic places and
entire Northeast is called an “Anthropological other parts of India. Scholars surmise that
Museum”. It is therefore not possible to these migrations of people probably took
discuss the tribes of Assam separately from place through three or four entry routes.
the entire Northeast. There is evidence of communication of the
It is not easy to study the history of region with Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and China
the different tribes for certain reasons. The through the passes in the northern mountain
difficulty is primarily related to historical ranges. Minhaj-us-Siraj in his book
sources. Many of these tribes even do not Tabaquat -i- Nasiri mentions 35 mountain
have written literature. The noted passes through which communication was
Anthropologist James C. Scott has stated that possible between Kamrup, Darrang,
though the hill tribes of South East Asia do Goalpara and North Bengal with Tibet and
not have any written literature, yet their oral other neighbouring South East Asian
traditions are very strong. Therefore the countries. Moreover, there was
history of these people is studied mainly on communication between Northeast India and
the basis of their oral traditions. No fossil or Burma through the mountain ranges,
human remains belonging to prehistoric period especially the Patkai pass, located between
have been discovered in this region. As a the two regions. The migration of the Tibeto-
result it is very difficult to ascertain which Burmese people belonging to the mongoloid
group of people came first to this region. race took place through these mountain
Nevertheless, the idea that all the people of passes. It is worth mentioning that even in
Assam and the North east have come and the present, human migration and assimilation
settled from other places is not entirely true. is seen taking place through the borders of
There are many indigenous aboriginal groups Assam-Burma (the present name of Burma
 Society and Social Characteristics 103
is Myanmar), Manipur or Nagaland. Of and India. Scholars also assume that some
course, such continuation of human migration of these people came from the Pacific Ocean
and assimilation is to maintain the social region around Philippines. Discovery of some
relations between homogenous tribal groups. Neolithic sources prove that once upon a
For example, the Singpho tribe living in time, these people inhabited a large part of
Assam and Arunachal may be mentioned in Northeast India. Many Anthropologists
this regard. They have been living on both assume that some sections of the Naga and
sides of the India-Myanmar border. The Mikir (Karbi) tribes share a common ancestry
second route was through the Brahmaputra with the Austro-Asiatic people. The practice
and Ganga valleys. Throughout the ages the of cultivation on hill slopes, domestication of
waterways of both these rivers have helped cows and Mithun, use of Megaliths as
maintain communication of the Northeast with memorials, etc., are some of contributions
other places of India. The Aryan speaking of this group of people. The Austro-Asiatics
people entered Assam through this route. The initially inhabited the Brahmaputra valley,
third route was the sea route. Many people though they had to retreat to the hill areas
from Southeast Asia, South India and Coastal unable to withstand the Mongoloids.
areas entered Northeast India through the Negritos : Bearing lot of similarities
Bay of Bengal. The people of the Dravidian with the inhabitants of Papua and Andaman,
and the Negrito stock mainly migrated the Negritos were one of the earliest to
through this route. migrate to the region. According to some
From the above discussion, it is clear scholars, certain groups of the Nagas
that the aboriginal people of Assam and the inhabiting the present state of Nagaland
Northeast belonged to different racial groups. located to the South of Assam belong to this
Amongst them, the main groups were the group. Their former habitation was in Africa.
Tibeto-Burmans of the Indo-Chin branch of Physically these people are short, dark-
the mongoloid stock, Dravidians, Negrito, skinned and had curly hair. They entered this
Austro-Asiatic and the Aryans. Scholars area through the mountain passes of
assume that the Austric speaking Khasi Northeast ranges and the sea route. The
Syntengs were the earliest group of migrants. custom of hanging the hive of honeybee at
Austro-Asiatic Khasi-Syntengs : the entrance to the houses, the custom of
The Khasi-Syntengs who spoke the Mon- keeping the body of someone who dies
Khmer language of the Austric group unexpectedly hanging on a tree, using
originally lived in the islands of South Asia bamboo to make various fishing implements,
104 Swadesh Adhyayan
belief in the soul after death are some of the through the hilly routes from the East to the
characteristics of their culture. South. Some of them migrated from the
Dravidians: After the arrival of the Northern side moving across Brahmaputra,
Austro-Asiatics a section of Dravidians Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong and Menam
entered the Brahmaputra valley from the river valleys. One section arrived from the
West. Some scholars suggest that the Teesta and Dharla river valley to North-West
‘baniya’ and the ‘kaivarta’ community are the Goalpara and North Bengal. Then they
ancestors of the Dravidians. After the gradually dispersed in the North West hills
assimilation of the Dravidians and the and plains. Excluding the Khasi and Jaintia
Mongolians in the later era, the Dravidians settlement, the present hilly area of Assam
lost their unique characteristics. After this and Brahmaputra valley is dominated by the
assimilation, a new branch came into Mongoloids. Bodo, Koch, Kachari, Moran,
existence called Mongolian-Dravidians. The Matak, Chutiyas, Barahi, Rabha, Mech,
use of turmeric in Assamese marriage rituals Tiwa, Hajong, Mishing, Adi, Apatani, etc.,
is adopted from the Dravidian culture. belong to the same group. However, we
Mongoloids: Most of the groups from cannot designate one particular group as
the hills and the plains in the North East Mongoloids in Assam. Interestingly, the
belong to the Tibeto Burmese section of the assimilations that happened over years make
Indo-Chin branch of the Mongoloids, which it very difficult to identify people on the basis
is evident from folk culture and of race. One cannot depend on the earliest
anthropological sources. Their earliest attempts of anthropological classification of
settlements were the Hwang Ho valley of the Mongoloids. But the flow of Mongoloids
North West China and the upper parts of did not cease at any particular period and is
Yangtze River. But the exact period of their still continuing. The Ahoms migrated to
arrival in the north eastern region of India is Assam in the first part of 13th century. The
difficult to ascertain. Different views suggest Ahoms also belong to the Indo-Chinese
that they have entered this region in different group along with the Khamtis, Phakials,
periods and in groups before 2000 BC. At Aitonias, Khamyangs, etc.. It is also assumed
first one section of them had entered the that the earliest indigenous inhabitants of
Brahmaputra valley and the surrounding hilly Assam are Mongoloids.
areas and the other section had entered first The Mongoloids can be divided into
into Myanmar and then headed to East two broad categories. (a) North Assam
Assam and in the hilly regions of Assam Category (b) Assam-Myanmar category.
 Society and Social Characteristics 105
Presently, the tribes of Adi, Apatani, Nyishi, gradually influenced by this first wave of the
Mishing, Mishmi of Arunachal Pradesh can Aryan migrants to adopt Hinduism which also
be included in the first category. The second accounted for the conversion of various tribes
category includes Ao, Angami, Sema, to Hinduism. Since then the tribal society
Rengma, Lotha of the Naga community as has accepted the Sanskrit rituals and
well as the Bodos. Different sub-tribes of the practices. This is how the various castes
Bodo community at some point of time related to Hinduism originated in Assam. The
dispersed from Sadiya to Dhubri of the rulers of Ancient Pragjyotish - Kamrup who
Brahmaputra valley and also to the hilly areas. invited the Aryans also lured them with a
Garo, Kachari, Chutiya, Rabha, Koch, number of land grants. With this the number
Lalung, Mech, Dimasa, Hojai, Hajong, etc., of Aryans increased along with the use of
also belong to the Mongoloid group. During Sanskrit. However, the number of Aryans
the ancient and medieval periods they were was comparatively lesser than the other tribes
politically powerful and they extended their in the Brahmaputra valley.
kingdom. Scholars state that the Kiratas Some scholars opine that the Alpines
mentioned in the Ancient Sanskrit literature having striking similarities with theAryans also
were the Bodos including the entire migrated to this valley long before the Aryans.
Mongoloid and Austric group of people. They also argued that the Kalitas of Assam
Aryans: Among the various migrant also belong to the Alpine group. According
communities, the Aryans come last in the to Dr. Pratap Chandra Choudhury, the
order which can be known from various evidences related to Aryan settlements were
sources like the Ancient Sanskrit texts written originally Alpine settlements. But this
by the inhabitants of Kamrup or Pragjyotish. statement is not considered valid.
The north east region of India is known as Culture: From the above discussion
the land of Kiratas or Mlechhas. The entry it can be understood that Assam and the
of Aryans and the increasing use of Sanskrit North Eastern region is a land which
happened simultaneously along with the witnessed a number of migrations of different
process of state formation. This also helped communities. However, the Mongoloids are
some sections of the Aryans to migrate to the largest in number in terms of the migrants
the Brahmaputra valley. Many scholars argue who entered Brahmaputra valley. This is why
that the Aryans were invited to provide they have been in power politically since ages.
assistance in the process of state formation. Interestingly, the influence of the Mongoloids
The Local Kirata Mongoloid kings were in the indigenous culture of north east in
106 Swadesh Adhyayan
general and Assam in particular has been Varnashramadharma and (b) Class division
greater than the other communities. It also among the people. With the adoption of
reflects unity in diversity among the different Hinduism by the ruling ethnic groups, the
communities in Assam. subjects also became converted to a
With the arrival of the Brahmanas in particular Caste according to the religious
Assam the traditional culture went through a policy and such tribal groups were always
series of changes. On the one hand the included in the Sudra caste. Along with the
traditional tribal groups became powerful in process of Sanskritization, high and low
their locality through their original customs divisions were created among the newly
and traditions and on the other hand the created castes. Those who rose high in the
Aryans Sanskritized the Non Aryan leaders Sanskritisation process were accorded high
by converting them as Hindus which positions and those who stayed low had to
somehow ignited tussles in between the remain in low position. However, it did not
Brahman priestly (Purohit) class and the change their caste.
tribals. The Aryans also elevated the status The beliefs and practices of the
of the Non-Aryan kings and designated them indigenous people were also quite different.
as Kshatriyas. With the help of their economic The festivities were basically associated with
power and diplomacy, this priestly class agricultural practices and women were
established the first Aryan kingdom in the treated with respect. Goddess Kamakhya
Brahmaputra valley which in turn resulted in and Bihu epitomizes such beliefs. Some
the association of the kings and their families scholars argue that Goddess Kamakhya was
with the Hindu Gods and goddesses and they originally a Non-Aryan Goddess and she
also came to be identified as Hindu. The story was incorporated into the Hindu belief system
of Vishnu making Narakasur the king of through the process of Sanskritization. The
Assam and advising him on governance is tribal names of rivers and places were also
also a reflection of the process of changed to Sanskrit.
Hinduisation. This process of Hinduisation is The different tribes of North east had
also seen among the Varmans, Salasthambha their own Non-Aryan languages which is
families and even among the Ahoms, Koches, prevalent even in the present times. Most of
Chutiyas and Kacharis. the scholars believe that Bodo is one of the
With new ideas of polity and oldest languages among the ancient languages
administration, two strong forces emerged in of Assam. According to Edward Gait, the
the society. They were: (a) Caste system or use of Bodo language in most of the regions
 Society and Social Characteristics 107
of the North East for a long time is evident communication between the kings and the
from the extensive range of Bodo words in Aryan priestly class. Though the Assamese
Assamese language. It is to be noted that language originated from the Indo-European
many names of rivers in Assam have been linguistic stock it is impregnated with words
derived from the Bodo language. Among the used by the surrounding Non-Aryan people.
ruling communities, the Ahoms and the The alphabets used in the Kanai Barasi Buwa
Chutiyas had their own languages. However, rock inscription of the thirteenth century CE
from the beginning of the medieval period, represents the earliest script of the Assamese
the Assamese language came to be used for language.

IMPORTANT INFORMATION

The Ahom rule gave a new dimension to the society in Assam. Assam's
social foundation was reinforced by Pratap Singha who represented the
true rural centric culture and Momai Tamuli Barbarua who reorganised
the Paik system and introduced other policies. It was social system
determined by agricultural and work-based divisions.

THE PAIK SYSTEM OF THE MEDIEVAL

PERIOD AND ITS IMPACT
The Ahoms who entered Assam in carry on the agricultural activities. This is why
1228 CE were primarily agriculturalists. The they had to win the support of the local
first inhabitants they met in Upper Assam people to utilize the collective force for
were mostly tribal and there were plenty of agricultural activities which would not have
unused fertile agricultural land. As the Ahoms been possible otherwise. Eventually with the
had the knowledge of advanced agricultural increase in the territorial extent of the
techniques, they utilized these lands from the kingdom, they needed a larger force to
very beginning and introduced settled protect their kingdom. But the entire force
agricultural practices developing the was primarily engaged in agriculture which
productivity over time. However, the Ahoms made it difficult for them to use the same
did not have enough manpower required to force for military protection. This called for
108 Swadesh Adhyayan
the compulsory participation of the entire These Gots together were called Khel.
working class for military service. This Initially, in a particular area the Paiks of
practice of compulsory military service different Gots were assimilated into a local
eventually led to the creation of the Paik Khel. For instance the Khel of a particular
system. However, it was not possible to area called Dimaruguri was called
recruit people into military service forcefully Dimaruguriya Khel, the same goes for
in a period when the use of money was not Chamguri as Chamguria Khel, etc.. But
widely prevalent. Even the ministers and gradually people skilled in one particular
officers were paid in kind i.e. through land activity were together grouped into one Khel.
grants and labour service instead of payment The Kheldar looked after the overall
in cash. The Paik system thus guaranteed the administration of a Khel. He was required to
regular flow of labour service. make sure that the Paiks could be presented
With the increase in the territorial extent for service immediately at the order of the
of the Ahom Kingdom, it became essential senior officials.
to ensure the smooth functioning of the Paik One Paik among the 4 Paiks from one
system too. Eventually the Paik system particular Got was required to provide his
transformed the tribal society and the service to the kingdom. That Paik was
production process which gave way to a referred to as 'Powa Paik'. Initially 4 Paiks
feudal system in Assam. As a result, the together comprised one Got. One Paik each
concept of private property came up and the had to work for 3 months a year. But this
Paiks were systematically arranged in groups composition soon changed to 3 Paiks in a
for production of different commodities. This Got which means each Paik had to work for
arrangement is referred to as the Khel System. 4 months a year. The first Paik of a Got who
In 1603 AD during the reign of provided his service was called 'Mul', the
Swargadeo Pratap Singha, Momai Tamuli second 'Deval', and the third was called
Barua formally introduced the Paik system. 'Teval'. When the first Paik was engaged in
People belonging to age group 16 to 50 were his services of the kingdom for 4 months, the
recruited as Paiks and each Paik individually Deval and the Teval cultivated the fields of
had to provide service to the king for three the 'Mul' and also took over the
months a year. This practice is referred to as responsibilities of his family. During the times
the Paik system. 3 to 4 Paiks collectively of any invasion, 3/4th or 2/3rd of the Paiks
formed one unit called Got and these Gots had to provide military service for the
together were assigned a particular activity. kingdom. As the Paiks had to work
 Society and Social Characteristics 109
compulsorily without payment for 3 to 4 categories, viz., 'Kari' and 'Chamua'. The
months they were compensated with the Chamua Paiks got relaxation from providing
benefit of being able to cultivate in a fertile compulsory service to the kingdom after
field. This land that was provided to the Paiks paying a certain amount of tax to the king.
in lieu of their service was called Ga-Mati. The officers like Bora, Saikia, Hazarika and
Those two Puras of land assigned to one Barua were recruited only from the Chamua
particular Paik was under the supervision of category. This somehow led to the creation
the Khel he belonged to. However, the of a class system among the Paiks because
physically weak were exempted from this of certain privileges that only the Chamuas
compulsory service with the payment of a enjoyed. But these officers could also be
tax in return. They had to pay an amount of removed and replaced in case they were not
2 rupees per annum to the king for exemption favoured by the Paiks. The Paiks who could
from services. But gathering that amount not avoid compulsory service were called
during that period was not easy for any Paik. 'Kari' Paiks. Moreover the Kari Paiks like
One Khel had upto 3000 Paiks starting the Xunari, Kohar, Tanti and Katoni had to
from 1000. The significant and large Khels contribute a particular amount of their
were placed under the supervision of an production to the king as a tax annually.
officer called 'Phukan'. For instance, the boat A Paik of a particular Khel did not
making Khel was placed under the have the right to engage in the activities of
'Naoboicha Phukan'. The Khels producing other Khels except their own. The Paiks of
gunpowder was placed under the 'Khargharia a particular Khel could not create any
Phukan'. The smaller Khels were placed collective organization to look after any kind
under a 'Rajkhowa' or a 'Barua'. of trading activity. This is why there were no
The state had a very tight control over Guilds during the Ahom rule in Asam.
the Paiks. An officer of a smaller rank was In a period when money economy was
placed above 20 Paiks. He was called not prevalent, land and the materials required
'Bora'. A 'Saikia' was placed above 100 to cultivate those lands were the main assets
Paiks, a 'Hazarika' above 1000 Paiks and a of a person. Some materialist historians point
'Phukan' above 6000 Paiks. Apart from out that the Paik system somewhat resembled
working for the kingdom the Paiks also the practice of slavery which used people as
helped in the household chores of the officers property. They referred to the Paiks as some
of their Khel. kind of organized slave labourers because
The Paiks were divided into two these Paiks were forced to work adhering
110 Swadesh Adhyayan
to some guidelines. Though this argument is attained the maximum age as a worker i.e.
put forward, the Paiks of the Ahom period 50 years, he had to surrender the land to the
cannot be considered slaves. This is because Khel. However this rule was not very stringent
they enjoyed freedom to some extent. They and was not practiced strictly. Instead of
could even escape from compulsory service transferring the land to the Khel the Paik
after paying a certain amount of tax and could transferred the assigned land to his son. This
even cultivate two Puras of land without is why buying and selling of land was not
paying any revenue. Moreover, the Paiks prevalent. But if one observes carefully, it can
worked for a period of only three to four be understood that the idea of ownership of
months for the kingdom and spent the rest of land was communal not private.
the time for his personal activities. This is why The Paik system facilitated the
one cannot compare the Paik system with exploitation of the peasant labour class. The
the barbaric slave system. The Paik system Paiks lost individual freedom and were
involved the participation of the Paiks as constantly kept in check by the officials above
soldiers or labourers but it cannot be socially them to make them provide compulsory
compared to the slave system. However, the service as soldiers and labourers. This
demand for compulsory service for a fixed coupled with the mandatory requirement to
period of a year somehow curtailed the become soldiers in time of war, frustrated
individual freedom of the Paiks and made many Paiks who developed escapist
them half slaves. Though they were always tendencies. Rather than regularly providing
busy with the production process, they could physical labour both in time of war and peace,
not enjoy the fruits of production totally. This many paiks preferred to be menial workers
is why a section of the Paiks turned mutinous (lagua likchow) in the households of the
towards the king during the Moamoriya officers or serve as bhakat or devaliya paiks
rebellion. in the temples.
The Paiks were not private Thus it is seen that the primary base of
landholders. They could be transferred from the Paik system was the self dependency of
one place to another at the orders of the king. the contemporary Assamese society where
Moreover, the two Puras of land that the the economy of the state sustained through
Paiks cultivated were not registered in their the simple barter system without any
commercial relations. There was no scarcity
name but to their Khel. He enjoyed the right
or plenty in the society. Overall, the Paik
to cultivate only because he was a member
system represented a production system
of the Khel. On the other hand, once the Paik
where the agricultural surplus was nil.
 Society and Social Characteristics 111

NECESSARY INFORMATION

Nation making is an evolutionary process. All the tribes and communities

in Assam have contributed to the process of social formation. The cultural
diversity has been developed by the different groups of people that
migrated in different periods.

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSAM

Assam is a state primarily inhabited by Varnashrama, though in a limited way. As a

tribes. In ancient Sanskrit literature the words result, the caste system also developed
Mlecha or Kirata were used to denote the during the period of the ancient state of
people of the region. Though the words Kamrup. But the greater society was still
Mlecha and Kirata are literally not dominated by the tribal culture and the
synonymous, yet in the case of North east Brahmanical culture was not able to
India, athe two words are used transform it completely within a short period
synonymously. In general terms the words and even in the portion where Brahmanical
were used to denote those people who were culture could spread, the tribal characteristics
outside the ambit of Vedic or Sanskrit culture. did not wither away completely. Moreover,
However, by the beginning of the Christian the Varnashrama system did not expand in
Era, the state formation process began in the any significant way in the upper part of the
Brahmaputra valley and there started a regular Brahmaputra valley at least till the medieval
inflow of Brahmanical culture to the region period as the state formation process was
that struck its roots with the help of invitation slow and the Kamrup state could not expand
and patronage from the ruling class. Through geographically towards that direction in any
land grants, state administrative system and significant way. Moreover, the state formation
rules and regulations, temple building, process was also comparatively weak in this
extension of the state boundary, etc., the area as a result of which there was no
tribal society gradually came under the ambit significant progress in the formation of
of Brahmanical culture. Royal support slowly professional castes or guilds. Even the
led to the growth of the caste system or professional castes like the Katani, Sonowal,
112 Swadesh Adhyayan
Komar, Kumar, etc., which were created Moran, Barahi and others as its indigenous
during the Ahom rule remained identified by population. Though they could preserve their
their community and not by their professions. own identity, yet through matrimonial ties
As a result, during the ancient period, the many of them got assimilated with the Ahoms.
caste or varna system did not mature and in At the beginning, the Ahoms considered all
a general sense did not spread in entire the natives of the mongoloid groups to be
Assam. Moreover, from the very beginning equal and so mixed freely with them without
assimilation has been an influential element any hesitation. In spite of that, the
of culture here. Almost every medieval ruler respectable Ahom aristocrats tried to
of Assam indirectly encouraged the culture maintain their own aristocracy. There were
of assimilation. As a result, unlike in other seven families of Ahom aristocrats who were
parts of India, in Assam, caste based division called as the Satgharia Ahoms. The families
and discrimination could not progress rapidly were the royal family, the Buragohain family,
or become sharp and acute. Nevertheless, the Borgohain family and the Deodhai,
the Varnashrama religion or caste system was Mohan, Bailung and the Chiring families.
not unknown to Assam. The castes and tribes According to some the latter four families
of Assam together laid the foundation of the were - Lahon, Sandikoi, Dihingia and
Assamese society at one point of time. Dowerah. Moreover, there were native
An attempt is made in the following to families from other indigenous groups who
give a historical shape to the process of social were promoted to the Ahom Khel .
formation in Medieval Assam. Amongst the people that were within
Demographic transition - Caste the pale of the Hindu caste system, the ones
and Class : who received higher status or positions were
The Ahom kingdom was the principal the Brahmins, Kayastha, Ganak and the
kingdom in the Brahmaputra valley during the Kalitas. Moreover, there were several other
medieval period. The foundation of this major communities of people like the Keot,
kingdom was laid in the extreme south-east Koch, Boria or Sut, Katoni or Jogi, etc.. The
portion of the Brahmaputra valley that was majority of the Koches lived in the lower part
largely inhabited by tribes like Moran, of the Brahmaputra valley and they were still
Barahi, Chutiya, Kachari, etc.. As the Ahom in the tribal stage. At the time of establishment
kingdom was established in an area inhabited of the Koch kingdom by a young Koch
mostly by tribes like Moran, Barahi, etc., the leader Bishu alias Biswa Singha in the
kingdom initially comprised of a majority of beginning of the fifteenth century CE, the
 Society and Social Characteristics 113
Koches belonging to the Mech Kachari group existence of Keot, Kaivarta, Kalita, Jogi,
inhabited the areas comprising Goalpara, Kumar and such other castes during the
Bhutan border, the present day North Bengal period.
and some areas of Bangladesh. It may be During the period of Ahom-Mughal
mentioned that many among these people conflict, some Sikhs and Rajputs came from
became Muslims after having accepted the other parts of India. Towards the close of
Islam religion in the early part of the thirteenth eighteenth century Tai groups like Khamti,
century, when Islam spread to Bengal. The Phakial, Aitonia, Kamyang, Turung and
help provided by Ali Mech who accepted others entered Assam from the east. These
the Islam religion and who lived outside the people were followers of Buddhism religion.
territory of old Kamrup kingdom to Buddhism is prevalent even today among
Muhammad - bin - Bakhtiyar in his invasion these people. Presently they inhabit parts of
of Kamrup is known from contemporary Namsai in Arunachal Pradesh and Tinsukia,
narratives. Expert Anthropologist E.T. Daton Dibrugarh and Lakimpur in Assam. The
has forwarded some information on the Lalungs (Tiwa), Hojai, Hajong, Garo,
spread of Islam among the Mech-Kacharis. Rajbonshi, Rabha and other people of the
However, with the beginning of the state Bodo group inhabited parts of Nagaon
formation process the Mech-Kacharis who district and other areas towards the west.
were becoming part of the Hindu Brahmanic Amongst them, the Rajbonshis or the Koches
fold also started a process of their socio- from early on were comparatively advanced
cultural transformation. It is mentionable that in knowledge of settled cultivation than the
amongst the Mech Kacharis in the initial others. At one point of time, individual tribal
period, only the members of the royal family beliefs were prevalent in all these groups of
who were within the Hindu fold advanced people. Another community or group of
with education and otherwise. It is worth people that came to Assam during the
mentioning in this context that during the medieval period were the Ahoms. The name
period of the Kamrup kingdom i.e., from 4th Ahom is from the Assamese language and
century CE to the end of the twelfth century the process of their caste formation also goes
CE, the caste system developed especially back to the medieval period. Siukapha and
in the lower part of the Brahmaputra valley; his followers from Maulung comprising of a
as a result of which apart from the Brahmins, small number of families incorporated people
some professional and ethnic castes were that they met on their migration route and in
also created. Mention is made of the Assam within the Ahom fold and thereby
114 Swadesh Adhyayan
formed the Ahom caste. That is why there lived in Assam during the Ahom period, and
are in many ways, differences in ancestry of under the patronage of the state a process
the Ahom royal family and the aristocracy was on to bring the various tribal communities
who came with Siukapha with the other within the fold of Hinduism. The process of
Ahoms. The Paik system of medieval Assam incorporation of the tribes within the Hindu
was mainly associated with the Ahoms. The society especially under the influence of
advent of the Ahoms in Assam has already Vaishnavism continued till the end of the
been discussed. (Amongst the numerous old Ahom era.
caste and communities of Assam the Ahoms Most of the people of the kingdom
were significant). were agriculturalist - artisans. They were the
The Muslims constitute another Paiks. Economically this class was very weak
community that emerged during the rule of and exploited; though they were the very
the Ahoms, Koches and Mughals. This caste foundation of the state.
grew out of the Muslims who came to Assam In such way, a pluralistic social system
through Royal invitation, as prisoners of war, developed in the multi-ethnic Assamese
as artisans and for administrative society. Nevertheless, the prevailing policy
assignments. During the time of the Ahom of mutual sympathy, respect and
Swargadeos, they were engaged in artisanal accommodation among all the people has led
and agricultural production under the Paik to the establishment of a new Assamese
system. In this way, people of different society based on 'unity in diversity'.
communities and believers in different religions Facts to Learn

IMPORTANT POINTS

The entire North Eastern region may be considered as an 'Anthropological Museum'.

People have migrated to North East India throughout the ages from South East Asia,
southern coastal regions and other places of India.
Many Anthropologists surmise that some sections of the Naga and Mikir (Karbi)
tribes are descendents of the Austro-Asiatic group.
Most of the indigenous people inhabiting the hills and valleys of North-East India are
Tibeto-Burmans of the Indo-Chin branch of the mongoloid stock.
Bodo, Koch, Kachari, Moran, Matak, Chutiya, Barahi, Rabha, Mech, Tiwa, Hajong,
Mising, Adi, Apatani, etc., belong to this group
 Society and Social Characteristics 115
The Mongoloids can be broadly divided into : (a) Northern Assam division and (b)
Assam-Burmese division.
Each tribe of North East India had their own language and all these languages were
non-Aryan.
The alphabets used in the Kanai Barasi Buwa rock inscription of the thirteenth century
CE represents the earliest script of the Assamese language.
The Paik system ensured labour supply in the Ahom kingdom.
During the reign of Swargadeo Pratap Singha, Momai Tamuli Barbarua introduced
the Paik system in an organized form in the year 1609 CE,
The Paiks were divided into two categories : 'Karhi' and 'Chamua'
Paiks and slaves were not the same.
Within the people of the Hindu varna system, the Brahmins, Kayasthas, Ganaks and
Kalitas received high status or positions.
The descendents of the royal family who were within the Hindu fold initially advanced
in education and otherwise.

EXERCISE
Answer the following :
1 (a) Who wrote Tabaquat-i-Nasiri?
(b) What were the routes through which the Mongoloid people entered Kamrup?
(c) Who introduced the Paik system?
(d) What were the two categories of Paiks?
2. Give a brief idea of the migration of people to North East India.
3. Write a note on the contribution of the Mongoloid people in the nation-making process.
4. Discuss the changes brought about by the advent of Indian culture in Kamrup.
5. What is the Paik system? How was it necessary for the agricultural society of medieval
Asssam?
CHAPTER SEVEN

INTELLECTUAL, CULTURAL AND

RELIGIOUS HERITAGE

ESSENTIAL INFORMATION

Literature represents an entire community. Literature can be divided

into many categories: Ancient Literature, Medieval Literature and
Modern Literature. Literary sources help in the study of contemporary
social system. Beyond this, paintings, dances and songs are also a medium
of expressing the creative human emotions. In Assam from ancient time
onwards these arts have flourished which are of a very superior quality.
 Intellectual, Cultural and Religious Heritage 117
Intellectual Heritage: Buranjis or chronicles and the Koch kings
Literature is like the mirror of social their genealogies composed in the Assamese
life. So, literature belonging to a particular language. There was creation of literature in
period tells us about the history of that period. the kingdom of Kamata as well. The rock
The literature of Assam and the neighboring inscriptions and the Copper Plate grants
areas are very important historical sources written in Sanskrit are still bearing evidence
for the study of early Assam. But, compared of the art and culture of ancient Assam. It
to the medieval period only a meagre amount should however be noted that such patronage
of literary sources are available for the study of Assamese and Sanskrit languages
of ancient Assam. Thus to study the history consequently led to the death of many local
of ancient Assam one has to rely on the indigenous languages. The Kalika Purana
Indian Sanskritic literary traditions. These which was composed in about circa 10th
intellectual heritages have contributed century CE in Assam provides us with
immensely to the development of Assamese detailed description of the contemporary
culture. political and cultural scenario of Assam. It
The ancient literary traditions of Assam also throws light on the ancient social and
are a significant aspect of the cultural life of cultural practices.
the state. In Assam literatures were created The sixteenth century text Yogini
in both Assamese and Sanskrit. Many claim Tantra also written in Assam, mentions about
that the Upapurana called Kalika Purana the geographical location as well as cultural
was composed in ancient Assam itself. life of Assam. Similarly, the Haragouri
Moreover, some scholars would go to say Samvada also supplies us with information
that the Charyapada or Charyagitas too were about the kings of Kamarupa. Another
a part of the early phase of Assamese important historical source is the tantric
literature. Scholars of literature are of the religious text called Dipikachanda. We
opinion that these Charya songs were come to know about Mina Natha and
composed in the period of circa 7th-8th Goraksha Natha through the texts such as
centuries CE. The Hinduized rulers of Assam Paag-Soma-Jon Jhan, Darkanava,
themselves patronized the development of Koulagyan Nirnaya, Akulbira Tantra,
Sanskrit literature. This patronization of Goraksha Vijoy, Goraksha Samhita,
Sanskrit literature was in fact an attempt on Kularnava, Kamratnatantra and so on.
their part to attain the highest stage of Apart from this, other important historical
literary sources are Haragourivilaas to
sanskritisation. The Ahom kings got their
Bhuyanr Puthi or Adicharita and so on.
118 Swadesh Adhyayan
The literature of the Ahom period can Assamese language. Apart from having
be divided into the following categories: information about Ahom statecraft, economic
buranji or chronicles, religious texts, and political situation, the buranjis also
translations and other literature, grammar and provide us with historical accounts of the
works on medicine. The writing of history of contemporary neighbouring kingdoms such
the state was made a rule by the Ahom as Koch, Kachari, Chutiya, Jayantiya,
Swargadeos.During their rule therefore a Tripura, and so on. During the reign of king
number of chronicles were written. Initially Rajeshwar Singha (1751-1769) of the
however, the practice of using sanchipat for Tungkhungiya family, many buranjis were
writing purpose was not prevalent among the burnt by Kirtichandra Barbarua to satisfy his
Ahoms. It is presumable that they followed own selfish motives. Among the published
the same practices as the Chinese did and buranjis available to us, the most significant
wrote on bamboo or mat patches. Thus, the are- the Ahom Buranji translated (into
early histories of the Ahoms were very brief English from Tai) by Raisahab Gulapchandra
in nature. Barua, Purani Asam Buranji, Kamrupar
The practice of writing buranjis was Buranji, Asam Buranji obtained from the
an indispensable part of Ahom culture. In Tai family of Sukumar Mahanta, Satsari Asam
language ‘buranji’ means storehouse of Buranji, Tungkhungiya Buranji, Asam
knowledge for the ignorant (Bu- ignorant, Buranji by Harakanta Barua, Deodhai
ran- learning, ji- granary). According to the Asam Buranji, Asamar Padya Buranji,
famous linguistic Greerson, it was a custom Kachari Buranji, Jayantiya Buranji,
of the Ahoms that every member of their high Tripura Buranji, Padshah Buranji, Asam
families must have knowledge of the buranjis. Buranji by Kasinath Tamuli Phukan and so
The founder Ahom king Sukapha had on. An important buranji is the Weissalisa
instructed the scholars of his court to record which has been translated into English from
each and every significant event of the the Ahom/ Tai language and published. There
kingdom including information about births are a number of other buranjis which have
and deaths. As a result, a corpus of the not yet been published. These unpublished
buranjis was produced in the period starting buranjis like the published ones are equally
with his reign till the end of the Ahom rule. valuable as sources.
Initially, the buranjis were written in Tai The Koch kings and some of their
language and later, once the rulers embraced feudatories also had the tradition of writing
Brahmanism, they were written mainly in the genealogy. These genealogies contain the
 Intellectual, Cultural and Religious Heritage 119
historical accounts of those dynasties and the the Assamese society. Charitaputhis written
activities of the rulers in a chronological order. in both prose and verse forms are
Thus under the direction of the Koch King hagiographic literature on the lives of the
Samudranarayan (1791-1806) of the Vaishnava saints of Assam. These
Darrang branch of the Koch dynasty, poet charitaputhis are very valuable historical
Suryakhari Daivagya composed the Darrang sources for the study of the Assamese society
Raj Vamsavali, a genealogical account of the and culture of the 16th-18th centuries. Among
Koch kings. This genealogical text covers the published charitaputhis the most
the history of Koch kings from the time of important are- Katha Guru Charita (or
the first Koch king Biswa Singha till Guru Charita Katha), Guru Charita by
Dharmanarayan, who was established as a Ramcaran Thakur, the Mahapurush Sri Sri
feudatory by the Ahom King Pratap Singha Sankardeva and Sri Sri Madhavdeva
(1603-1641) in the year 1516. The Darrang Charita by Daityari Thakur, Guru Charita
Raj Vamsavali throws valuable light on the by Ramananda Dvija and the Mahapurush
political, social and cultural life of the Sankardeva by Bhushan Dvija and so on.
contemporary neighbouring states as well. A Apart from the Charitputhis and the
valuable text among the many unpublished genealogical literature for studying the history
genealogical texts belonging to this dynasty of medieval Assam, there are other literary
is the ‘Rajopakhyana’. This work has been sources such as the Vaishnava literature. The
published from Koch Bihar in Bengali literature produced by Mahapurusha
language. Moreover, the tradition of writing Sankaradeva, Madhavdeva and other
genealogical work was also prevalent among contemporary saints belongs to this group of
the Satradhikars of the various Satras of literature.
Assam. These genealogical works are A significant number of translated
indispensable for a study of the Satriya culture works was produced in the courts of the
of Assam. Ahom and the Koch kings. The chief among
The propagation of Vaishnavism in the this was the Assamese translation of
land led to the translation of many scriptural the’Brahma Vaivarta Purana’ by Kabiraj
texts, such as the Bhagavata Purana into Chakravarti. The same poet-writer had
Assamese language. Sankaradeva’s ‘Kirtan translated a text on astrological sciences
Ghosha’ and Madhavdeva’s ‘Nam called ‘Suryasiddhanta’ into Assamese and
Ghosha’ which were written for the common named it ‘Bhashwati’. Apart from this, other
people have become the treasured trove of Tantrika texts like theYoginitantra and the
120 Swadesh Adhyayan
Kamarupa Tantra, were also written during Kamrup gifted King Harsavardhana of
the rule of the Ahom kings. During this period Kannauj with painting items such as
Sukumar Barkaith wrote the equipments to paint, vases/ pots to contain
‘Hastividyarnava’ a medical treatise on painting colours and manuscripts written on
elephants similar to Sambhunath’s the sânci bark. These items reflect the passion
‘Gajendrachintamani’. The medical text on in the contemporary society for the art of
horses called ‘Ghora Nidan’ was also painting. Men used sancipat, tulapat (paper
composed during the Ahom period. Over made of cotton lump) and later also cloth.
and above these works, many other literary The brushes required for painting were made
works were produced during the Ahom- with locally available resources such as bird
Koch rulers. However these literatures feathers, horse tail hair, cotton, and so on.
produced ubder the state patronage could The most ancient text of Assam with paintings
not do much for the uplift of the common which was prepared using such minimum
people. But the tradition of reading and resources is Srimanta Sankaradeva’s ‘Adi
recitation of the religious scriptures in the Dasham or the 10th Canto of the Bhagavata
Satras and the village Namghars that was Purana. But, the original text of the work has
introduced towards the later part of the not yet been discovered. Scholars say that
medieval period did much for their welfare. the manuscript of the’Chitra Bhagavat’
Cultural Heritage: found at the Balipara Satra is not the original
Men have taken refuge in creative arts one but a copy of the work done later. There
in search of recreation, and self- glorification are three schools of paintings found in
since early times. These creative arts include Asssam- (a) Satriya (b) Royal Court and (c)
song, dance, painting, music and so on. Popular
Art of Painting: Srimanta Sankaradeva used painting,
Men have been using the art of painting dance, music and musical instruments for the
as a medium of expressing their inner spread and popularization of Neo-
thoughts. Apart from decorating parts of their Vaishnavism which was preached by him.
bodies with various paintings the prehistoric Sankaradeva also used the medium of drama
men used to etch the walls of caves with or bhâonâ to enable the illiterate sections of
paintings depicting hunting strategy, warfare the society to realize the Bhagavat (the
techniques and so on. In case of Assam too Supreme Reality) and therefore, he painted
we do not see a break in this tradition. In the the seven vaikunthas and exhibited it to the
7th century CE King Bhaskaravarmana of public. Since Sankaradeva also used the term
 Intellectual, Cultural and Religious Heritage 121

Art of Bhagawat

‘Yatra’ to mean drama, the name Singha (1695-1713) and Siva Singha. It is
‘sihnajatra’ therefore means a drama noted that the paintings of this period
presented through paintings. There are two reflected both local style as well as the
components within this drama- image of influence of the Mughal-Rajput style of
Vaikuntha on canvas and presentation of the painting. This influence can be seen widely in
stories of Krishna. The paintings found on the translated text of Kabiraj Chakravarti’s
the Vrindavani vastra and the ‘Gita Govinda’ of the time of Rudra Singha
chitrabhagavata show that the standard of and the ‘Ananda Lahari’ of Siva Singha’s
painting as an art in Assam was at par with time. The paintings done under royal
the rest of the Indian sub continent of the time. patronage reached its zenith in the works of
The development in the technique of painting the painters Dilbar and Dosai as reflected in
is also represented by the paintings of the the works like the Ghora Nidan and the
various incarnations of Vishnu, trees and ‘Hastividyarnava’, the latter written by
vines on the walls of the namghars, the Sukumar Borkaith, under patronage from
wooden images, pillars and plinths of the Rani Ambika. Some of the best examples of
various buildings of the Satras. such paintings can be seen in the works like
Many texts produced under the the Darrang Raj Vamsavali (by Surya Khari
patronage of the Ahom kings were also Daivajna), Tirtha Kaumudi, Sankhachud
illustrated with paintings. Under the Badh, Gajendra Chintamani,
patronage of the Ahom- Koch kings,vast Dharmapuran and so on.
mass of paintings of secular nature The common people of Assam too
developed. Painting as an art reached its were connoisseurs of the art of painting.
zenith during the reigns of Swargadeo Rudra Paintings of various types of vine, animal, bird
122 Swadesh Adhyayan
and human beings were made on texts of the categories of music were pursued in ancient
sânci bark. Texts which were adorned on Kamarupa. Margi music was performed
all sides with vines or lata were termed during the religious ceremonies conducted by
‘latakata’ text. the royalty, and the deshi music was
To conclude, we can say that the art performed in the courts for general
of paintings in Assam was a mixture of entertainment. There is evidence to show that
aesthetic beauty, talent and skill wherein the there was cultivation of music in the time of
indigenous styles of painting had fully king Bhaskarvarman. The copper plate issued
developed. by Vanamaladeva in 9th century CE has given
Use of Colours: detailed description of the capital city of
The Assamese painters used to Haruppesvara which had many temples
prepare painting material from locally dedicated to lord Shiva. This copper plate
available resources such as hengul gives detailed description of the music
(vermillion), haital (yellow arsenic), silikha performed in these temples by the devadasis.
(terminalia citrina) and other materials like Similar evidence we get from the Bargaon
burnt clay, palas flower, dhutura, majathi, Copper Plate of king Ratnapala, the
etc. By using these natural colors with the ‘Kalikapurana’ and in the account of the
help of brushes they created various images Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang.
using the styles of writing or ‘lekhoni’ and Bhaskaravarman received Hiuen Tsang in his
sketching or ‘rekhoni’. court and musical performances were
Music and Musical Instruments: arranged for his honour. This shows the
Song, dance and musical instruments popularity and prevalence of the musical arts
are included in the broad category of music. in the contemporary society of Assam.
From the ancient time onwards within the This current trend in the cultivation and
category of music we find the practices of pursuit of music became more enhanced and
two distinct types: Margi and Deshi. The accelerated during the Neo- Vaishnavite
margi category of music is strictly done Movement. In this context we may bring to
according to certain rules applying on the light the devotional songs- Bargits composed
tune, verse and beat.These rules applying on by Srimanta Sankaradeva and Madhavdeva.
the margi style are unchangeable. On the Composed in the Brajawali language the
other hand, deshi music is performed for Bargits are performed in specified rhythmic
entertainment in the popular level. The forms (Aata) and melodies (râga). But
historical sources show that both these two Sankaradeva used them popularly for
 Intellectual, Cultural and Religious Heritage 123
cultivation by all. Similarly, the popular differences, these musical instruments have
Ojapali and Charyapadas of Assam contain been divided into various categories such as
traditional styles of râgas and tâlas. Avanaddha, Susir, Ghana and Tata musical
In such way music as an art form instruments.
stayed in tandem in Assam since early times. A few of these instruments have been
Folk musical forms too such as bihu discussed below:
git, biya nam, ai nam, baremahi git, tukari Avanaddha Musical Instruments:
git, loka git and so on flourished in Assam. The very famous musical instrument
Ajan Fakir contributed to spiritual awakening ‘dhol’ belongs to this category. From the
through his composition of ‘Jikir’ and ‘Jari’ ancient time onwards the various indigenous
on the lines of Assamese folk songs. The tribes of Assam used the percussion
Hindustani classical music was introduced in instrument called ‘dhol’ profusely in their
the Ahom court by Swargadeo Rudra Singha. festivals and rituals. For example, during the
The musical instrument pakhowaj became festivals such as Bihu, Ali-Aye -Lrigang, and
popular here from his time onwards. The so on the beats of ‘dhol’ infuse the spirit of
Ahom Swargadeos also created a post called festival in the minds and bodies of the people.
‘Gayan Barua’ to look after the department Among the various types of dhols, the most
of music and musical instruments. popular ones are- Jai Dhol, Dhepa Dhol,
Folk Musical Instruments: Bor Dhol and Kamrupi Dhol. This category
Musical Instruments are necessary also includes instruments such as dhak, doba,
accompaniments of art forms such as music dagar, dholak, nagara and mridanga. One
and dance. From ancient time onwards these of the most widely used musical instrument
instruments are being used in the state till the within this category is the khol. Khol played
present day. The most popular among these a very important role in the spread of Srimanta
folk musical instruments are flute or ‘banhi’, Sankaradeva’s bhakti movement which used
various types of percussion instruments like songs and dances as a medium to
‘dhol, ‘’khol’, ‘mridanga’, ‘daba’, ‘pepa’ communicate with the common Assamese
or horn, jaw ‘gogona’ or hurp, ‘taal’ or clash masses. Charita Puthis mention that khol
symbals, chordophone instrument or was used by Srimanta Sankaradeva for the
‘veena’, conch shell or ‘shankha’, bells or very first time in the performance of his sama
‘ghanta’, and so on. On the basis of their sihna yatra where he got it made by potters
124 Swadesh Adhyayan
from the bank of the river Kapili. Musical vibration of strings. In the ancient Assamese
instruments of the Avanaddha category were literature we find examples of a few kinds of
made with soil, wood, bamboo or metal tata musical instruments such as Bipanchi,
structure, and animal skin. Rudrak Bilas and Rudra Veena. Certain
Susir Musical Instruments: locally popular instruments of this category
Those instruments which produce are Lao Tukari, Khamak or Ananda Lahari
musical sound through the intake and outtake and Dutora or Tokari.
of wind are called susir musical instruments. Ghana Musical Instrument:
The most ancient susir instrument of India is This category of musical instruments
the conch shell or sankha. Other important includes the ones made of metal, wood or
susir instruments are singa, pepa, kali, bamboo, made sometimes in pairs of equal
gogona, sutuli, banhi, and so on. These size, which produces musical sound when hit
instruments are used as accompaniments in or hit on one another. The most popular
most musical forms as its tune is very ghana musical instruments of Assam are Bor
appealing. kanh, Saru kah, Tal of various sizes,
Tata Musical Instrument: Khanjari, Ghanta, Nupur, Taka, and
This category includes those Junuka.
instruments that produce music through

NECESSARY INFORMATION

The innermost feelings of people towards super human power can be

defined as religion. From the time before the advent of the modern legal
institutions, religion played the role of social cohesion and moral
regulation. Assam too is not an exception to that. Here also religions
like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam and Christianity emerged and
or spread. A major stream of Assam’s religious belief is the Bhakti Pantha
developed by Srimanta Sankaradeva. Known also as the Nava-
Vaishnava dharma, it had its root in Indian religious tradition; but in
Assam it is also distinguished by its local elements/ characters.
 Intellectual, Cultural and Religious Heritage 125
Religious Heritage

Religious Tradition- Tribal Traditions, Brahmaputra valley along with Brahmanical

Buddhist-Saiva-Sakta Traditions, Vedic ‘Hindu’ religion based on
Traditions, Bhakti Movement, Islamic varnasramadharma. There was the
and Christian Traditions. practice of Vedic sacrifices and rituals along
The period of Ahom rule in Assam is a with worship of deities such as Siva, Visnu,
very long period. During the six hundred Durga, Ganesh, Indra, Lakshmi,
years of Ahom rule in Assam from 13th Saraswati and so on. We get references to
century to 19th century a number of changes certain Brahmanical rituals and sacrifices in
occurred in the religious beliefs of the people. the land grant charters of the Kamrupa kings
Initially, the entire region of the Brahmaputra of ancient Assam. Some land grants have
Valley including the present territory of Assam mentioned that the fragrance of flowers and
was not under the direct rule of the Ahom the holy smoke emanating from the Vedic
kings. In this context, it is necessary to be altars of the Brahmans-Purohits during the
pointed out that religion plays a very important religious rituals made the air of Haruppesvara
role in the evolution of a state and its fragrant. In this period there was wide spread
subsequent development in the ancient and practice of rituals associated with Sakta and
medieval times. The establishment of a Buddha religious tradition as well in the region
dynastic or a king’s supreme authority and stretching from Kamakhya temple to Tezpur
their legitimation was mainly done through (Haruppesvara), Deopahar, Doiyang-
religions. During the ancient and medieval Dhansiri valley, Nagaon’s Doboka,
times this legitimizing religion was the Malinithan, Basudevthan and so on, on the
Brahmanical Hindu religion. Most royal north bank of Brahmaputra. It is however a
families except the Islamic royal families of fact that by the time when Ahom rule was
the land gained the legitimacy and authority established, and especially by the time of
for ruling from Hindu Brahmanical religion. Srimanta Sankaradeva these religious
During the ancient or medieval period the practices did not retain their original status
rulers therefore always patronized such and popularity. It has been mentioned that
religions from which they could derive the Kamakhya temple which was discovered
benefits. by Biswa Singha (1515-1540), the Koch
In the beginning of the 13th century king, and rebuilt later by his son Naranarayan
various tribal religious beliefs existed in the was discovered in a condition of ruins
126 Swadesh Adhyayan
surrounded by dense vegetation. Similarly, religious practice was very popular. The
the Hayagriva Madhava Temple of Hajo worship of various female deities was also
was also in a state of ruins in this period. equally popular in the society. Thus
During the Ahom war against the Kacharis Jayanteshwari Devi was worshipped among
led by king Suhungmung alias Dihingiya the Jayantiyas, Tamreshwari or
Raja, the Ahom paik army did not find any Keshaikhaiti Devi among the Chutiyas,
evidence of a temple in the area of Deopahar, Kamateshwari Devi at Kamatapur,
but they did find traces of existence of a Tripurasundari Devi at Tripura, and so on.
tantric-yogi in the area. Gradually, The goddess Kamakhya had been absorbed
Brahmanical Hinduism was absorbed and in the pan Indian Brahmanical tradition by
adopted by the Ahom royal households and this period but certain pre- Brahmanical
rituals and pujas also found spaces there. traditions still continued to thrive there.
Even in the king’s personal establishment the Evidence suggests that the worship of
royal priest performed the religious rituals for Chandi Devi continued in the region till the
the Ahom royal fanilies. The Ahom royal emergence of Mahapurusha Sankaradeva
households also patronized the religious in the socio-religious scenario of Assam. Men
rituals and festivals in the temples or dauls believed in tantra- mantra and magic. It is
dedicated to Siva-Visnu and other gods. also known that Goraksha Natha the
Swargadeo Rudra Singha had brought from preceptor of Nathism, had used his magical
Bengal a Tantric Purohita Krishnaram powers to enter the kingdom of Kadali to
Bhattacharya and established him to perform rescue his Guru Matsyendra Nath from
at Kamakhya Temple. captivity. A fictitious text called ‘Adi Charita’
Due to royal patronage to Vedic rituals which is believed to have been written during
and norms it became popular among a the late 18th and early 19th century, with the
particular class of people but among the pen- name Madhava mentions about a
masses a variety of religious practices magical work called Dhatu Tamrakshari
involving propitiation of the various gods, preserved in the family of Sankaradeva. This
goddesses and spirits were in vogue. In the text further claims that Sankardeva kept this
lower Brahmaputra valley the worship of text close to him till the end of his life when
Bathowbrai or Sivarai was popular among he stayed at Koch Behar. The ‘Dhatu
the indigenous tribes such as Koch, Mech, Tamrakshari’ written on copper plates is also
Bodo and so on. As a whole, in the entire called ‘Kalpataru Sastra’. It is known to
region of north east the Sakta system of all that the ‘Adi Charita’ was a fictitious work
 Intellectual, Cultural and Religious Heritage 127
and had been written to spread lies. Still, this Pratap Singha had sacrificed Ramchandra,
text is very significant as it tells us about the son of the Mughal Commander Satrajit to
magic and occult practices pursued by the Devi Kamakhya on the Nilachala hill of
people of that period. Many believed that Guwahati. On the other hand regular human
the founder of Mayamora Vaishnav Pantha sacrifices were offered at the Tamreshwari
Anirudhadeva gained a large number of temple of Sadiya. Sources reveal that the
followers through his magical powers. Ahom Swargadeos used to offer a minimum
Similarly, people believed that the wives of of 12 people per year as human sacrifice to
Nahar Khora, Radha and Rukmini, used the goddesses Tamreshwari and Kamakhya.
magic to shield themselves with their ânchal This practice of making human sacrifices to
from bullets during the Moamaria rebellion. deities caused resentment among the
Another popular belief was that Harihara common people. Thus, from ancient time
Tanti, a Moamaria rebel from the north bank onwards there were efforts being made to
of the Brahmaputra, possessed supernatural stop the practice of human sacrifice and
powers which helped him in acquiring and specifically to stop it at Kamakhya. This is
organizing new forces. This is worth noting worth noting that Gorakshanath
that most texts of this period depicted Assam (approximately circa 10th-11th century CE),
in both inside and outside as a land of magic chief architect of Brahmanization of Bauddha-
and sorceress. According to oral sources Tantrism had made the first attempt at
Ram Singha who came to invade Assam stopping the practice of human sacrifice at
brought along with him five Muslim ‘peers the temple of Kamakhya perhaps with the
and the Sikh guru Teg Bahadur to protect intention to kill two birds with a single stone.
themselves from the impact of magic and Still, the practice of human sacrifice did not
other occultist practices pursued by people disappear completely at Kamakhya. We
of Assam. The text called Baharistan-i- come to know about the continuance of this
Ghaybi by Mirza Nathan mentions about the practice till the reign of Swargadeo Gaurinath
various occultist and magical practices Singha in the end of 18th century. Eventually,
prevalent at Kamarupa and Koch Behar. he brought an end to the practice of human
The practice and belief in human sacrifices at Kamakhya. Swargadeo
sacrifices in the worship of Devi existed in Gaurinath Singha himself has mentioned that
the temples such as Tamreshwari, to satisfy the goddess Kamakhya he offered
Jayanteshwari, and also to an extent at 1 lakh animals and birds as sacrifice in 1782.
Kamakhya. History tells us that Ahom king In the early medieval period the
128 Swadesh Adhyayan
religious environment of northern India was refers to is completely intellectual in character.
more or less similar in character. In that Thus, his philosophical successors like
period even in Northern India three schools Ramanujcharya (1017-1137), Nimbarka
of religious beliefs and philosophies were (1130-1200), Madhavcharya (1238-1317)
current. They are Shankaracharya’s Advaita and Ballavacharya (1479-1531) have
philosophy, Tantricism and Yoga or questioned the purpose of this emphasis on
Hathayoga. Shankaracharya’s philosophy of knowledge. They are skeptical of the
Advaita had influenced Buddhism and outcome of Shankaracharya’s Vedantic
Jainism as well. On the other hand Tantricism philosophy of Advaitavada and through their
made a deep impact on both Hinduism and different explanations have shown that the
Buddhism. But, the most popular among the idea of Shankaracharya’s ‘knowledge’ is a
three philosophies was yoga or hathayoga. very high standard of intellectual knowledge.
The believers in this philosophy of yoga It is not easy and possible for common people
created even a religious community called to acquire the knowledge for achieving
Siddha-Yogi or yogi. salvation; instead they popularized the
Gradually, Shankaracharya’s concept ‘bhakti’ in place of knowledge as a
philosophy of Advaita became very popular medium of worshipping the Lord who is now
across the Indian subcontinent. The central identified with Vishnu as the Supreme Being.
belief of Shankaracharya’s philosophy is this Bhakti is a much easier path to pursue than
that, there is no separate identity ofSiva and pursuing the knowledge of Shankaracharya.
the Isvara, the Param Brahma; in every living It not a very complicated concept since it is
being there exists God. That Supreme Being outside the ambit of intellectualism. Many
is the eternal creator and all pervasive; all scholars believe that the philosophy of Bhakti
deities are under him. Thus, Shankaracharya popularised by Ramanuj, Madhavcharya,
by establishing the ideas of monism and Nimbark and Ballavacharya laid the ground
monotheism in place of polytheism, wanted for the beginning of the all encompassing
to reform existing religious systems. The best Bhakti Movement of India in the later times.
way to realize the Supreme Being or salvation The meaning of Bhakti is simply: to
is through knowledge (jnana). But, the love. Panini has defined the term Bhakti in
question is: whether it is possible for all men his text ‘Ashtadhyayi’ as to love someone
to attain that category of knowledge to realize else a lot or to worship someone with love
the formless Supreme Being or ‘Atman’? and devotion. He has defined the term by
Because, the knowledge Shankaracharya associating it with a specific object or person.
 Intellectual, Cultural and Religious Heritage 129
The word ‘Bhakti’ has emerged from the root movement was successful in reducing the
word ‘bhaj’ with the suffix ‘ktin’. The existing social inequalities of the society by
meaning is to worship or praise or loving opening its doors for everyone. This
someone. movement faced a lot of opposition from the
According to some historians, the practitioners of Vedic rituals and customs and
coming of Islam into the subcontinent the Brahman priesthood, as it translated the
prepared the foundation of Bhakti movement Sanskrit sastric literature into the local
in India. According to them monotheism is languages and made it possible for common
the chief feature of Islam. Monotheistic Islam people to access this knowledge. The
compared to the pluralistic Brahmanical concept of ‘ekdev ek-sev’ (worship of One
Hinduism was a simple belief system and Sole Supreme God) reformed the plural
devoid of complicated rituals and concepts, nature of worship and belief on multiples of
which attracted people towards it. Further, deities finally.
Islam did not have any practice similar to the The reasons behind the popularity and
varnasramadharma of Brahmanical emergence of the Bhakti movement can be
Hinduism. Thus, Islam became a contending found in its above mentioned distinct
force for the contemporary Brahmanical characteristics. The practice of magic,
Hinduism of that period. Thus, Bhakti occultism and other tantric practices within
movement was a policy of self protection most of the contemporary religious traditions,
consequent to this expected challenge posed the complex rites and rituals of the
by Islam towards Hinduism. But, this entire Brahmanical priest-ridden Hinduism, where
argument is wrong to a large extent as Bhakti emphasis was given on following
as philosophy existed in the subcontinent from varnashrama based social system and the
the ancient time onwards. entry of Islam in the Indian subcontinent
The Bhakti movement contains contributed to the growth of the Bhakti
elements of both reformation as well as Movement. The chief aim of this movement
protest. Specifically, Bhakti movement made was simplification of the complicated rites and
the worship of gods a simple and easy rituals of Hindu religious tradition, and
process by removing the Varna-class develop a tradition of devotion that will be
differences from the society. They did it by acceptable to people from both Hindu and
introducing the concept of devotion to the Muslim communities.
Supreme Deity through the medium of The chief proponents of this new Bhakti
devotion and nâma- kirtana. Thus, this Movement within Assam was Mahapurush
130 Swadesh Adhyayan
Sankaradeva (1449-1568), Madhavdeva Thus, we can see that the chief
(1489-1596), Harideva and Damodardeva characteristic of this religious tradition is its
(1488-1598). Both Sankaradeva and philosophy of monotheism. This Supreme
Madhavdeva were sujects of the Ahom state. Deity is Vishnu or Krishna. The followers of
Sankardeva travelled extensively across this tradition were prohibited to worship any
India for a period of 12 years, during which other god or goddesses other than Him. In
he collected knowledge regarding the this tradition all the followers were
ongoing Bhakti movement of India. After considered equal, their caste or varna or
returning to Assam he started his religious religion was not taken into consideration at
reformation movement in Assam during the all. This ideology of religious and social
reign of Swargadeo Suhungmung alias equality attracted and unified common people
Dihingiya Raja (1497-1539). He started from various communities. This religious
preaching his monotheistic Vaishnavism which tradition was very simple; if one completely
was based on the Bhagavata Purana, the surrenders oneself to the Lord, the Lord
Bhagavad Gita and the Bhaktisutra of would deliver his devotee from all dangers,
Narada and Sandilya. His reformative and all sins and problems. It is stated that the
religious system is called ‘monotheistic amount of sin that the Name (pronounced
Vaishnavism’ because he emphasizes the once) of the Supreme Lord could destroy, is
worship of only one god (Vishnu or Krishna) more than a sinner can commit it.
with singular devotion rather than “Ekenam e Yata Pap Samharite
worshipping numerous gods and goddesses. Pare, Tatek Pataki Pap Karite Napare.”
This religious tradition is also called A very important characteristic of Neo
‘Bhagavati Dharma’ as its idea of monotheism Vaishnavism is the importance it accorded
has been derived from the Bhagavata to communal worship and other common
Purana. It is also called ‘Mahapurushiya activities rather than personal devotion.
Dharma’ as the chief proponents Sankardeva According to Dr. Banikanta Kakoti, “This
and Madhavdeva were called ‘Mahapurusha’ religion does not consist of secret rites and
by their followers. This religious tradition rituals. It was announced in communal
believes in the path of Bhakti. The chief way religious gatherings and public places of
to worship in this tradition is to take and congregation, when people within their
remember His name through nam-kirtanas. mundane daily lives searched for the
So, sometimes this religion is also called contentment of their souls through recital of
‘Nama- Dharma’. songs, then this mighty religion emerged”.
 Intellectual, Cultural and Religious Heritage 131
Sankaradeva established namghar for such traditions which were composed at that time.
communal worship and devotion. On top of that the Ramayana,
Mahabharata and other texts were also
translated into Assamese. Sankardeva
and his followers not just composed
dramas and other literature but also
compiled the important hymns of the
Bhagavadgita, Upanishads which were
written in the Sanskrit language. One
such text is Madhavdeva’s ‘Bhakti
Ratnawali’. This text was originally
composed by Bishnupuri Sanyasi of
An image of naamghar and its rituals Varanasi in Sanskrit language based on the
There was felt the need of certain ideas of the Bhagavata Purana.
literature that will help in preaching this religion Madhavdeva translated this text into
of Mahapurushiya Vaishnavism. Thus Assamese on the request of Sankaradeva.
Sankardeva and his followers preached this In a similar way Sankaradeva composed the
religion with the help of music, drama, stories, text ‘Bhakti Ratnakar’ in Sanskrit by
devotional songs etc. Sankaradeva gave collecting and collating the substantial verses
public performances through singing songs of the various scriptures. Thus the bhakti
and acting in dramas. In this way he saints by creating a genre of devotional
communicated his religious ideas to the literature developed an intellectual revolution
common populace in a language they could in Assam.
comprehend. As a consequence of the Bhakti This tradition of literary creativity
movement, regional languages emerged all continued long after Sankaradeva and
across India and gradually the Sanskrit Madhavdeva. In the later period Bhattadeva,
language lost its predominance in the religious Gopaldeva or Gopal Ata, Anirudhadeva and
sphere. Apart from the Epics many of the others created religious literature. Biographies
Puranic literature including the Bhagavata of the religious leaders were written from
Purana was translated into Assamese circa 17th century onwards. These were
language. The Kirtan Ghosha of Sankardeva called ‘Charita Puthis’ or ‘Guru-Charita’.
and the Nam Ghosha of Madhavdeva are The chief institution through which
gems of the treasure of Assamese literary Sankardeva preached this religion is Satra
132 Swadesh Adhyayan
or Namghar. Through the medium of Satra this new awareness, the soul and mind were
or Namghar the people were congregated offered to these Satras. These regional
and then in simple and easy language the institutions framed moral laws and kept under
teachings of this religion were explained, its jurisdiction the other activities of the
which made it equally attractive for all society as well. The namghars of the villages
sections of the population. But in reality, the were designed as micro forms of the Satras.
full development and establishment of the These namghars functioned as decision
Satra and Namghar occurred only after the making bodies, village courts, schools and
death of Sankaradeva, during the time of his places of worship all at once. These
disciples Madhavdeva and Damodardeva. institutions provided some stability to
The Neo- Vaishnava Ekasaraniya Assamese societies on the face of continuous
Bhagavati Pantha is a unique contribution of political changes and instability. ... These
Sankaradeva to the society and culture of institutions became very popular as centers
Assam. He gave equal status to tribal and of security and stability during both good and
lower caste peoples, with the upper castes bad days.”
in his religious tradition and thereby upheld Islam
the principles of religious equality. As a result, The Muslims arrived in Assam through
issues of caste based conflict became greatly the medium of war. In 1205 CE Muhammad-
reduced. He simplified the difficult ideas of bin-Bakhtiyar, Governor of Bengal, attacked
the Dharmasastras into easily understood Kamrup with the intention of extending their
language and thereby he achieved two feats- territory. But he was not successful in his
one, he made the foundation of his mission. Minhaj-ud-din-Siraj in his work
Vaishnavism stronger and two, he opened the Tabaqat -i- Nasiri has mentioned the main
way for intellectual uplift of the common motive of Bakhtiyar behind attacking Kamrup
people. Another valuable contribution of his was to find a way to conquer Tibet, China
was the namghar, a public place of and Turkistan through Kamrup. But , the
congregation and worship. It was in these Muslim soldiers were defeated here as they
namghars that regularly organized nama- could not withstand the natural disasters and
kirtana was held, and critical and difficult fight in an unknown geographical situation.
concepts of his religion were discussed and The king of Kamrup was one Prithu or Bartu
explained. at that time. This defeat of the Muslim
In the words of Dr Banikanta Kakoti invaders has been described briefly in the
“the Satras were established as centers of Kanai Barasi Rock Inscription of North
 Intellectual, Cultural and Religious Heritage 133
Guwahati. There is no evidence to suggest Hazarika. Thus, some of the Assamese
that any Turkish soldier stayed back at Assam Muslims fought valiantly against the Mughals
after this battle. But, we come to know about in defense of Assam. The feeling of
a person called Ali Mech who showed nationalism was given preference over
Bakhtiyar Khilji the path of invasion and who sectarian religiosity. In medieval Assam
was converted to Islam. He belonged to the Muslims had adopted the Assamese identity
Mech community. His conversion to Islam completely, though the religious differences
indicates that some local people were later were there. The best example of secularism
on converted to Islam. can be seen in the example of Chandsai who
After this attack, there was a series of was a Muslim but converted to Neo
attack in quick succession, such as those by Vaishnavism preached by Sankaradeva
Ghiyasuddin (1227 CE), Nasiruddin (1228 which emphasized on social equality. The
CE) and Tughrel Khan (1257 CE) one after essence of Vaishnavism is reflected in the
another. To sum up, we can say that the songs composed by Chandsai or
contact of the Muslims with Kamrup took Chandkha. In his devotional songs the tone
place through their invasions. During such of the devotional songs of the bhakti saints
invasions, the Muslim armies also converted is apparent. Similarly, Ajan Pir or Shah
some members of the indigenous people to Miran, who came to Assam from Baghdad
Islam for their use as guides. Similarly, after composed jikir and jhari on the line of the
such battles many Muslim soldiers did not Assamese ‘Dehbicarar Git’. Ajan Pir or
return, instead they settled down in the Ajan Fakir thus gave a fillip to the Sufi ideals
Brahmaputra Valley permanently. They also in Assam.
established harmonious relations with the Christianity
local population and even married locally. After the treaty of Yandaboo, the
Many lower caste Hindus also accepted British gained political control over Assam,
Islam as it did not have any social stratification and began the process of religious
like the Varna system. And this gave a new proselytisation at the name of social reform
dimension to the growth of the Muslim by inviting the Christian missionaries to the
population here. state. Though at that time the religious
During the Ahom rule the Muslims also scenario of Assam was such that the local
received official titles just like others. One populace was very much connected with
such Muslim officer put in an important their own religious belief systems, the
millitary post was Siddique Hazarika or Bagh Christian missionaries were not much
134 Swadesh Adhyayan
successful in their mission. But, eventually missionaries published the Arunodoi, the first
Christianity was embraced by a section of Assamese newspaper in the year 1846. They
the socially backward and exploited sections also published the Assamese chronicles for
of the society. Initially, the missionaries made the first time. Thus these missionaries by
Jaipur their headquarters but eventually they publishing books and journals made a
shifted it to Sivasagar in 1841. The two commendable contribution in the field of
leaders of the missionaries in Assam were Assamese literature.
Nathan Brown and Miles Bronson. The first Christianity flourished by making the
person to be converted in Assam was an society’s backward sections their social base.
orphan called Nidhiram Keut, whom they They even embraced those who were not
gave the name Nidhi Levi Farwell after accepted within the ‘Hindu’ religious fold.
conversion. Later, Atmaram Sarma also One can observe that Christianity especially
converted himself to Christianity and attracted people from tribal backgrounds.
translated the Bible into Assamese. The first They usually adopted Christianity in their
book to be published in Assamese was this attempt at social mobility to a higher position.
bible. Though the main motive of the In many cases it had negative impacts on the
Christian missionaries was to proselytise but life and culture of these people also. Still, one
it led to the development of Assamese cannot deny that Christianity played an
language and literature. They also brought the important role in bringing knowledge to the
first printing machine to Assam. The Christian lower classes of the society.

IMPORTANT POINTS

In Tai language ‘buranji’ means ‘dumb’ or a storehouse of knowledge for dumb people
(Bu- dumb or without knowledge, ran- learning, ji- granary).
The early Buranjis were written in Tai language.
Many valuable buranjis were burnt by Kirtichandra Barbarua to satisfy his own selfish
motives.
The Darrang Raj Vamsavali was written by Suryakhari Daivagya.
Many translated literature was created in the courts of the Ahoms and Koch rulers.
Sankaradeva also used the term ‘Yatra’ to refer to his dramas.
Ajan Fakir composed the jikir and jhari on the line of the Assamese ‘Dehbicarar Git’.
 Intellectual, Cultural and Religious Heritage 135
Religion played an important role in the process of nation building and development in
the ancient and medieval ages.
Sankaradeva’s bhakti movement derived its main strength from existing Indian traditions.
The root of the word ‘Bhakti’ is ‘Bhaj’.
The founder of Neo-Vaishnavism in Assam was Mahapurusha Sankaradeva.
The contact between Kamrup and Muslims was initiated through battles.
The best example of secularism can be seen in the example of Chandsai who was a
Muslim but converted to Neo Vaishnavism by Sankaradeva .
The two leaders of the Christian missionaries in Assam were Nathan Brown and Miles
Bronson.
Arunodoi was the first Assamese newspaper published in 1846.

EXERCISE
1. (a) What is the meaning of the word ‘Buranji’?
(b) Who has composed the Darrang Raj Vamsavali?
(c) Who composed the ‘Hastividyarnava’?
(d) Which particular philosophy was preached by Sankaracharya?
(e) Where did Sankaradeva receive the essence of Bhagavata sastra from?
(f) Who made the paintings of ‘Hastividyarnava’?
2. What are the Buranjis? Describe its usage in understanding contemporary social
situation.
3. Discuss the growth of religious traditions through time in Assam.
4. Discuss the role of Neo-Vaishnavism in the development of social life in Assam.
5. Provide a note on the importance of art of painting in the cultural life of Assam.
6. What is music? Discuss the chronological development of music in Assam with
reference to various types of musical instruments.
CHAPTER EIGHT

MATERIAL HERITAGE

ESSENTIAL INFORMATION

Our fore-fathers have through their various activities left behind a number
of tangible and intangible resources. Their knowledge and intelligence
have created cultural excellence, a political and administrative system
and numerous architectural monuments, of which we are proud even
today. These are our material culture. The sense of pride and love which
we have for the objects, instills patriotism and necessitates its
preservation.
 Material Heritage 137
The material heritage left by our Numaligarh, Nagaon, etc are examples of a
ancestors are observed in the following few excellent architecture of the period. These
objects- were generally built with stones bricks and
a. Temples, monastries, Mosque, mud . On the face of the stones, figures of
Gurudwar etc. god and goddesses, tress, animals, birds etc
b. Royal palace, houses. are engraved. In addition to stone, metals like
. Ponds gold, silvers, copper, bell metal etc. were also
d. Roads. used to make statues of God and
e. Stone bridges. Goddesses. In Ambari , of Guwahati, some
f. Forts terracotta statues of Gods and Goddess have
Besides these monuments there are been excavated.
many items made of different metals. Among In Asom Buranji, Dr. Dambarudhar
them are the iron implements like the canons Nath had mentioned that most of the things
(Bortop), sword (Hengdan), knife of the Ancient period excavated in Assam
(Daa),etc, different type of ornaments made are not as polished as those found in the
of gold and silver, different type of utensils other parts of the country. Though the statues
made of bell metal like Bankahi, Banbati, were made in the same pattern with the rest
Maihong Bati, Borkahi, Berakahi, of India, they however reflect characteristics
Chariya, Dhowakhoa, Bhogjora, and a indigenous to the region.
considerable number of gold and silvers Large scale use of bricks are seen in
coins All these material remains are found the constructions of temples and monuments
scattered in different places and many of the of Assam belonging to the medieval period.
movable remains are also displayed in the Stone and terracotta were also used to a
museum. lesser extent. In the ancient period, in Assam
Historical Monuments of the Ancient and the bricks were prepared of lime and mortar.
Medieval Period But during the reign of the Ahom rulers, a
special type of cementing material was
a. Temples, Monuments, Mosque, prepared using indigenous technology. This
Gurudwar etc : indigeneous cement called ‘Koral’ was
The remains of ancient temples, widely used in the construction works.
monuments ( doul-devalaya) etc are spread Koral was prepared from a mixture of the
over different places of Assam. The existing traditional sticky rice (called bora-caul),
remains around Guwahati, Goalpara, jaggery, Borali fish, one variety of pulse
Kasomari, Deopani, Tezpur, Malinithan,
138 Swadesh Adhyayan
(Matimah), limestone, mustard oil, duck’s organ fell in this place. Hence it is believed
egg etc. A new trend evolved in architecture. to be a holy place of fertility cult. Another
The walls of the monuments began to be legend states that the ruler of Pragjyotishpur,
decorated with the sculptures made of stone, Narakasur built the temple for Kamakhya
terracotta, bricks etc. Most of the remnants and the steps approaching the temple within
of the sculptures existing today can be dated a single night. However buranjis mention that
to the the Ahom period. the temple was destroyed by Kalapahar, the
Herein a short description is given of commander-in-chief of the ruler of Gaura,
some of the important material remains in Suleiman Karani. But there are many opinions
Assam of the Ancient and medieval period. regarding the identity of Kalapahar. In a later
The Kamakhya Temple period, in 1565 Koch king Narnarayan
The Kamakhya temple is the most (1540-1587 CE.), got the temple rebuilt by
important Sakti shrine of Assam and one his chief architect ‘Meghamukdum’. In the
among the fifty one holy places of India. The Darrang Rajbongsawali it is mentioned
temple is situated on the Nilachal hill which that while constructing the temple, the bricks
exists in the western part of Guwahati. The used were burnt in ghee. The temple standing
today reveals the architectural acumen of
the Koch kingdom.
The copper plates of the Ahom king
Rajeswar Singha( 1751-1769 CE.) and
Gaurinath Singha (1780-1794 CE) are found
in the Kamakhya Temple. The statues of
Narnarayan and his brother Chilaray exist in
the entrance of the temple. Besides the
temple is surround by the sculptures of
different Gods of the Hindu pantheon and
Kamakhya Temple floral and animal representations. Mention
sanctity of the place is explained through may be made of Bhairav, Vishnu, Shiv-
different legends. It is believed that when Parbati, Kartika, Ganesha , Gandarva ,
Shiva was moving around carrying the dead lotus flower, lion etc.
body of Parvati, Vishnu with his discus Being the centre of Tantric worship,
the temple attracts a number of devotees all
(sudarshan chakra) had cut the corpse into
throughout the year. An important festival
different parts. The yoni or the reproductive
 Material Heritage 139
associated with the Kamakhya temple is the the form of Bhayananda. There is a legend
annual Ambubachi Mela. There is a myth attached to it. It is believed that, here Shiva
that from the 7th to the 10th day of the month burnt Kamdeva, the Hindu cupid God with
of Ahar (third month from the Assamese the sight of his third eye, when he tried to
calendar)) mother earth, in order to recoup interrupt Shiva during his meditation. Hence
her fertility, goes through a process of the place is also known as Bhasmachal or
menstruation. Goddess Kamakhya too is Bhasmasailya ( Bhasma- ash and Sailya-
considered to be in the same phase, as it is Stone). The British named the island as
considered to be a centre of fertility cult. The Peacock island as the structure of the island
Ambubachi Mela takes place during this looks like a peacock. In the two ancient text
period. During this period the temple remains of Assam, Kalika Puran and the Yogini
closed for three days based on some Tantra , the island of Umananda is mentioned
astronomical calculation. Every year as Bhasmachal, Bhasmasailya and
thousands of devotees throng from different Bhasmakut.
places to be a part of the celebration . The present temple on the island of
Umananda Mandir Umananda was built by the Ahom ruler
The Umananda temple stands on a Swargadeo Gadadhar Singha (1681-1696
small rock island, in the river Brahmaputra, CE.). His minister Gargaya Handique Phukan
towards the north of Guwahati city. supervised the construction of the temple. In
According to Hindu mythology, Shiva dwelt 1616CE Swargadeo Gadadhar Singha
presented a copper plate to the temple
granting revenue free lands. Even Swargadeo
Shiva Singha also gifted a silver image on a
throne with an inscription. Here the Maha
Shiv Ratri festival is celebrated with a lot of
fervour. Every day hundreds of devotee visit
the temple.
Basithasram
Basisthasram stands on the
Shandhyachal hill in the south- east corner
Gate of Umananda Temple in River
of the city of Guwahati. The temple and the
Brahmaputra
ashram of sage Basistha is situated on the
in this island for the pleasure of his wife
confluence of the three mountain streams
Parvati. Shiva is said to have resided here in
140 Swadesh Adhyayan
originating in the hills of Meghalaya - temples of Assam. The temple is situated at
Sandhya, Lalita and Kanta. According to the Majgaon in North Guwahati, on the northern
legend sage Basistha was the son of Lord banks of the river Brahmaputra. There are
Brahma. He was cursed by the many legends associated with the temple.
Suryavamgshi king Nimi and so lost his According to one such legend, when Shri
physical identity. To get rid of the curse he Krishna eloped Rukmini from Vidarbha to
went to Lord Brahma who in turn advised Dwarka , the horse fell tired and rested here.
him to meditate Lord Vishnu , seeking his Another legend states that after Krishna
blessings. Basisthta started his meditation on killed Narakasur, the king of Pragjyotishpur,
the Shandhyachal hill. Lord Vishnu was the horses of the chariot of Krishna felt tired
satisfied with his prayer and with the blessings and rested in this place. Therefore this place
of Vishnu, he brought the waters of the Ganga came to be known as Aswaklanta, meaning
(a holy river of the Hindus) to the place in the place where the horses became tired.
the form of three streams -Sandhya, Lalita
and Kanta. The meeting point of these three
streams is called Basistha- Ganga. Basistha
took bath which is called trisandhya , as it
is on the meeting point of the three streams,
and was able to regain his physical entity.
Therefore it is believed that one can get rid
of his sins by taking bath in this holy water at
dusk.
The existing Basistha temple was built
during the reign of Ahom king Rajeswar A Part of Aswaklanta Temple
Singha( 1751-69 CE.), which is evident from
There are two temples on the hills of
the inscription on the walls of the temple. It
Aswaklanta. The temple situated on the lower
is believed that foot prints of sage Basistha
reaches is the Kurma Janardhana temple.
exists inside the temple. During solar and
A stone replica of the Kurma incarnation of
lunar eclipses, devotees come in large
Vishnu is present in the temple. The other
numbers to take bath in the confluence of
temple on the top of the hill is dedicated to
the three streams.
Lord Vishnu, in his eternal rest. The existing
Aswaklanta Temple
temple was built by the Ahom King Shiva
Aswaklanta temple is one of the oldest
Singha( 1714-44 CE). On a wall of the
 Material Heritage 141
temple an inscription of king Shiva Singha is –twelft century CE., during the time of the
engraved. Besides it also holds the Pala kings. On the walls of the temple are
impressions of the ten incarnations of Lord seen images of gods and goddess of the Hindu
Vishnu. On the day of Ashokastami, a large pantheon like Uma, Shiva etc. The are also
number of people come to Aswaklanta to shiva linga, animal figures, several errotic
take bath in the river Brahmaputa. images of men and women in their intimate
Navagraha Temple relationship etc.
The Navagraha Temple is situated on
the Chitrachal hill of Guwahati. The temple
is devoted to the nine (Nava) planets
(grahas)- Navagraha, associated with Hindu
astrology. In the temple distinct spaces are
marked for the worship of the nine different
planets with one, stated as the sun God, in
the middle. Besides being a place of worship
it was also the centre for astrology in Ancient
Kamarupa. According to the legends, Madan Kamdev Devlaya
Brahma, the creation God, created the stars
and the planets here, and so the place came From the point of architectural style
to be known as Pragjyotishpur. and the content it carries, many images of
There is no information regarding who the Madan Kamdev temple bears affinity with
built the original temple, but the existing temple the temple of Khajuraho at Madhya Pradesh.
was rebuilt by the Ahom ruler Swargadeo Hayagriva Madhava Temple
Rajeswar Singha (1751-1769CE). An The Hayagriva Madhava temple is
located, on the northern bank of the river
inscription of King Rajeswar Singha is
Brahmaputra, in the Manikut (also known
engraved on a wall of the temple. A large
as Maniparbat) hill of Hajo. Based on
number of devotees come to the temple
legends, it is believed to have been built by
everyday.
sage Urva (Urvarishi). The story goes that
Madan Kamdev Devlaya
once when Urvarishi was in deep meditation
The Madan Kamdev Devlaya is
of Lord Vishnu, he was disturbed by the
situated in the Madanchal or Dibangiri region
Asuras. In a fit of anger Vishnu assuming the
of North Guwahati. Archaeologist assume
incarnation of Hayagriva Madhava , killed
that this temple was built around the eleventh
the Asuras. Thereafter Vishnu remained on
142 Swadesh Adhyayan
the Manikut hill in the form of Hayagriva The temple is also a pilgrimage site for
(Haya: horse, Griva : neck). The temple of the Buddhists. There is a belief that Lord
Hayagriva Madhava was built at the place Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana in the
where Urvarishi had meditated Lord Vishnu. site. Buddhist followers from Tibet, Bhutan
According to another legend, when God and other places come to visit the place
Vishnu was in deep slumber, two Asuras, regularly. Everyday hundreds of people visit
namely Madhu and Kaitabh emanated from this temple.
his body. The Asuras seized the Vedas from Poa Makka
Brahma, the God of creation. When God Poa Makka is situated at the top of
Brahma offered prayer in the name of Vishnu the Garurachal hills at Hajo. It is an important
to recover the Sastra from Madhu and pilgrimage site for the Muslims. There is
Kaitabh, Vishnu took the incarnation of hearsay that the vehicle of Lord Vishnu,
Hayagriva Madhava. He slayed the Asuras, Garuda (a bird) consumed meal on the
rescued the Vedas and remained back on the Garurachal hill. Another view holds that on
Manikut hill. the occasion of full moon day (Purnima) of
The present day temple of Hayagriva the Assamese month of Jeth (second month
Madhava was rebuilt by the Koch king in the Assamese calendar), the Garuda bird
Raghudevnarayan . Within the precints of the became immobile and took shelter on the
temple there exists inscriptions of hills. Thus the hill came to be known as
Raghudeva, the Ahom kings - Pramatta Garurachal hills.
Singha( 1744-1751CE) and Kamaleshwar
Singha(1795-1811 CE). The Fakua Doul
situated within the temple premises was built
by the Ahom ruler, Swargadeo Pramatta
Singha. The deities present in the interior of
the temple are Burha Madhab of
Subhrabahan, Hayagriva Madhava,
Chalanta Madhava, Basudeva and
Garuda. In addition to these, in and around
the temple there exists a number of stone
sculptures of Hanuman, the ten incarnations
Poa Makka
of Vishnu, images of different Gods and
Goddess and figures of lions besides some Poa Makka was built by Ghiyasuddin
stone pillars. Auliya, a Sufi saint. There are different views
 Material Heritage 143
regarding the origin of the name ‘Poa Azan Pir also mastered Assamese language
Makka’. It is held that the preacher, within a short period of time and learned
Ghiyasuddin Auliya brought a quarter of earth about Vaishnavism and the Assamese
(poa) from the sacred land of Makka and devotional songs and ballads. He started
mixed it with the earth on this hillock .That is composing a genre of unique devotional
why, the place came to be known as Poa songs where the teachings of the Quran were
Makka. Another view holds that the pilgrims sung in the traditional rhythm of the Assamese
who visit Poa Mecca attains one-fourth of songs. These unique spiritual songs came to
spiritual attainment of what could be gained be known as ‘zikir’. The zikirs became
by visiting Makka. In this way, the mosque popular among the Hindus and Muslims alike
came to be known as Poa (one-fourth) within a short period of time.
Makka. There is a mosque attached to the To prove that Azan Pir was the
Mausoleum of Ghiyasuddin Auliya. It is repository of spiritual power, there exists a
believed that he constructed the mosque. number of legends. One such legend says that
Pilgrims belonging to various faiths come to the minister of the Ahom king, deputed to
visit the place. look after the activities of the Muslim settlers,
Azan Pir Dargah could not tolerate the popularity of Azan
Azan Pir Dargah is a sacred pilgrimage Fakir. Out of jealouy he falsely presented
site for the believers of Islamic faith. Shah Azan Fakir as a spy of the Mughals. The King
Miran or Milan, came to Assam from assuming it to be true ordered that his two
Baghdadalong with his brother Nabi and
eyes be pulled out and be thrown into the
other disciples to spread the teachings of
river Dikhow. After this incident the river
Islam. He entered India through the Khyber
Dikhow started flowing backwards,
Pass and first settled at Ajmer. Then he came
submerging the Ahom capital, Gargaon . Even
to Assam via Gauda. He spent a few months
the royal palace Hollong-ghar got tilted in
at Hajo and then came to Chunpora, a place
the process. But the place where Azan Fakir
near the Ahom capital of Garhgaon. He built
read the Quran was left untouched by the
a mosque there and recited azan to call the
waters of Dikhow. This made the power of
Muslims living in the area for prayers. He also
Azan Fakir apparent and the king got a
composed devotional songs to attract the
monument constructed at Saraguri Chapari
masses living in the nearby villages, towards
spiritual pursuits. Gradually, he came to be at the confluence of the rivers Dikhow,
known as Azan Fakir for his spiritual Darika and Brahmaputra.
accomplishments. After his death , Azan Fakir was buried
144 Swadesh Adhyayan
at a place adjacent to the monument. Even
today Azan Pir’s Dargah at Saraguri Mauza
of Sibsagar district is considered as a holy
place and a place of tourist attraction.
Sri Surya Pahar
Situated near the town of Goalpara,
the rock sculptures of Sri Surya Pahar are a
notable example of pre-Ahom sculptures.
Circular carvings can be found on the A view of Sri Surya Pahar
Southern side of the hills which have been The main attractions of Sri Surya Pahar
associated with Sun (surya) worship and the are the rock sculptures in the rock cut caves
site was thus named accordingly. Consisting for which the site is well-known.
of seven hills and hillocks, the site is also The rock cut cave named Sepasil
known as the Satali Pahar. located on the site contains various
Numerous rock-cut sculptures, stupas sculptures, one of which is identified to be of
and shiva lingas can be found dotting the Ganesha and the other has been identified
hills. A multi-roomed brick housing structure as Chandra, the Moon deity. The Shivalinga
has also been discovered at the Sri Surya measuring up to nine feet is the largest one in
Pahar site. Apart from sculptures of deities the site. The various adornments and detailing
of the Hindu pantheon, numerous sculptures on the rock-cut altar is a beautiful specimen
relating to Buddhism and Jainism are also of sculptural art. The Sri Surya Pahar attracts
found here. On the banks of a stream that a number of tourists.
flows close by, numerous sculptures have Sikh Gurudwara in Dhubri
been discovered among which some have Towards the south-east of Dhubri
been identified to be of Vishnu and Shiva. A town is located a Sikh Gurudwara which was
rock-cut sculpture of a twelve-armed deity established by the ninth Sikh Guru Tegh
atop a lotus flower holding two trishuls Bahadur who had accompanied Ram Singha,
(trident) on both sides might be considered the Rajput general of the Mughal Emperor
as the most impressive one. According to Aurangazeb (1658 – 1707 CE), in his Assam
scholars, most of the rock sculptures of Sri expedition. While camping with the Mughal
Surya Pahar date back to the eight century soldiers at Dhubri, Guru Teg Bahadur was
AD while some Buddhist remains are mesmerized by the scenic beauty of the
believed to pre-date the rest. Brahmaputra River and its surroundings. He
 Material Heritage 145
Tezpur town. In this hill, the remains of seven
ancient temples have been discovered which
have been assumed to date back to around
eight to ninth century CE by scholars. These
temples have been associated with Vishnu,
Shiva and other deities from the Hindu
pantheon. Among the remains, the notable
remains are rock-cut doors, windows and
entrances. Moreover, there are numerous
Sikh Gurudwara in Dhubri rock segments with intricate and detailed
decided to lay the foundations of a carvings of flowers, human figurines, tigers,
Gurudwara here. This Gurudwara holds a crocodiles, and a lion mounting an elephant.
sacred prominence among the followers of In one of the segments, there are depictions
Sikhism. of different avataras of Vishnu like
Temple Remains of Tezpur Narasimha, Parashurama, Varaha, Rama
Situated at a central point of Tezpur etc, and of Balaram carved in the rocks.
are the remains of an ancient temple which Other notable rock sculptures include the
has been associated with many historic figures images of Nataraja, Durga, Ganesha and
like Banaraja and fables like the story of Naramundaha Devi / Chamunda.
Usha and Aniruddha, the battle of Hari – Da-Parbatia Remains
Hara etc. Within the remains of the temple The remains of architectural sculptures
complex, one temple has been identified as discovered at Da-Parbatia near Tezpur, are
a Shiva Temple, another as a Surya Temple considered as a fine specimen of sculptural
and the deity of the third temple still remains art of ancient Assam. Scholars have estimated
unidentified. This temple complex contains these architectural remains to date back to
numerous impressive rock-cut sculptures and around fifth century CE.
carvings of Shivalinga, deities like Shiva, The entrance to the rock-cut temple
Brahma, Ganesha and Surya, male and of Da-Parbatia is well known for its display
female figures, lion, elephant and flower vines of skilled craftsmanship. The door frame of
among others. the entrance gate to the temple is adorned
Bamuni Pahar with impressive carvings of goddesses
Bamuni Pahar is located on the banks Ganga and Jamuna, while the lintel is by
of the Brahmaputra river towards east of the Garuda bird, flying geese, male and
146 Swadesh Adhyayan
female human figurines and flower vines. temple. The ancient ruins of this temple are
Other notable rock sculptures in this site assumed to have been rebuilt and restored
include those of Vishnu, Har-Gauri and by the rulers of the Salastambha dynasty
Shiva. The Da-Parbatia temple remains is a around the fifth to ninth century CE. This
popular destination for pilgrims. temple also attracts numerous pilgrims.
Ranachandi Temple of Maibang
Maibang, located in the North Cachar
Hills, was the capital of the Kachari kingdom
from mid-sixteenth century to mid-eighteenth
century CE. It is stated that Maibang was
established as the capital at around 1576 CE
by King Meghnarayan or Nirbharnarayan.
To the north of this historic Maibang town
lies the famous Ranachandi temple.
According to a rock inscription carved in the
temple wall, this temple was built around
1721 AD by a king named Hidimbeswar
Harishchandra. This monolithic temple,
carved out of the upper portion of a huge
boulder on the banks of the Mahur River
looks like a complete roofed hut. However
the interior of the hut is not hollow.
Da-Parbatia Remains Architectural influence from Bengal is evident
Mahabhairav Temple in the roof structure of the monolithic hut.
The Mahabhairav Temple is located Deo-pahar Shiva Temple
in the northern outskirts of Tezpur town. The There are remains of a rock-cut Shiva
Shivalinga of this Shiva temple is said to have temple at Deopahar, situated about 3 km
been established by the legendaryBanaraja south of Numaligarh refinery under Golaghat
. It is said that it was here that King Bana did district. The word Deo in ‘Deopahar’ comes
penance and was granted the boon to make from the words Deva or Mahadeva which
him a great warrior like Sahashrabahu and is another name for Shiva. The temple
Shiva. Banaraja’s daughter, Usha is also remains contain impressive images of gods
said to have offered her prayers in this and goddesses like Shiva, Vishnu, Lakshmi
 Material Heritage 147
etc . Besides there are a doorkeeper once, there existed a Shiva temple on the
(dwarapal), kalamakaar, flying nymphs, south of the Dihing (Brahmaputra) River, that
demons (Yaksha), sages (rishis), mermaid, flowed through Negheriting. However it got
male and female figures singing, dancing and destroyed in the event of a natural calamity
playing instruments, battle scenes, scenes and the Shivalinga got lost under the dense
from socio-cultural life, and animals carved vegetation of forest. Later this region came
in stone. The stone slab of the roof and base under the Ahom rule and when the Ahom ruler
of the temple are also adorned with intricate Pratap Singha (1603-1641CE) chanced
details. upon this Shivalinga, he built a Shiva temple
at a place called Sheetal Negheri and re-
established the Shivalinga. This temple too
fell into ruin due to frequent floods of the
Brahmaputra and heavy soil erosion. Later,
Ahom king Swargadeo Rajeshwar Singha
(1751-1769CE) built the currently existing
temple atop a hillock. However, he died
before the temple could be completed. His
successor Swargadeo Lakshmi Singha
(1769-1780CE) therefore took up the work
and completed it. He established a
Shiva Temple at Deo-pahar “Banalinga” as the primary item of worship
There are similarities in the architectural of the Shiva Doul with a tank devoted to it.
sculptures of Deopahar temple and those The Ahom kings were specially
situated in various sites of Tezpur. Scholars devoted towards the Negheriting Shiva Doul.
therefore assume that this rock-cut temple It was a rule during their time that everyday
might have been built by a king from sacred offerings from the temple would be
Salastambha dynasty in around eighth or taken to the king through the road (Bar Ali)
ninth century CE. that connected Dergaon to the capital at
Negheriting Shiva Doul Rangpur, without which the king would not
The historic site of Negheriting Shiva partake his meal. Apart from the land grant,
Doul is situated at Negheriting in Golaghat the Ahom king also donated a copper drum
district, a few kilometres north of National (doba), silver coated tray (xorai, bhogjora)
Highway No.37. etc.
According to a historical narrative, Around this beautifully adorned temple,
148 Swadesh Adhyayan
there are numerous other Douls, devoted to GhanashyamDaul
gods and goddesses like Vishnu, Durga,
Ganesha, Surya, etc. These douls are made
of bricks and their pinnacles are fluted/
grooved like a starfruit. Many pilgrims visit
the Doul every day.
Joydol
In order to commemorate the death
of his mother Joymoti, Swargadeo Rudra
Singha (1696- 1714 CE) built this temple at
Jerenga Pathar and excavated a tank. Named
after his mother the temple is called Jaidaul
and the tank is called Jaisagar. Jaidaul is also
known as Keshavrai Vishnu Daul. The
chamber of the Daul is covered with flower
vines. The façade of the temple is beautifully
carved with various images of elephants,
horses, deer, tigers, alligators, crocodiles etc,
and Kurma, Narasingha, Arjuna’s
Lakshyabhed, meditating sages, gandhab,
eunuch, kings and queens etc. There are also GhanashyamDaul
scenes of hunting. Ghanashyam Daul is located on the
western bank of the Jaisagar tank. The
structure of the Daul does not resemble that
of other Dauls and therefore it is believed
that this dual was used as a residence by the
builder architect named Ghanashyam, who
was brought by Swargadeo Rudra Singha
(1696 -1714CE) from Koch Behar to build
the Rangpur town and other structures.
According to some scholars, this daul is
named Natigohain Daul because they believe
Joydol that this structure was built by Swargadeo
 Material Heritage 149
Rajeshwar Singha (1751-1769CE) for gold top, which measures about five hand
Parbatia Gosain’s grandchildren from his span in height. There are also Vishnu daul
daughter’s side. and a Devi daul in the site built during the
Other dauls like Shivadol, Devidol reign of the same king.
etc. are also located on the banks of the
Joysagar Tank.
FakuaDaul
Fakua Daul is located near Borduwar
of the capital city of Rangpur. It is known
that Swargadeo Rudra Singha (1696 -
1714CE) had made a gold statue of his
mother Joymoti Konwari and buried it under
a maidam, above which he built this Daul.
Ranganath Daul
Swar gadeo Rudra Singha built the
Ranganath Shivadaul adjacent to the
Fakuadol in the year 1704.
Gaurisagar Daul
Devidaul, Shivadaul and Vishnudaul
are situated on the northern banks of
Gaurisagar Tank located by the side of the
National Highway No. 37 which is about 12
Shiva Daul
km from Sivasagar town. These dauls were
built by Bar-Raja Phuleshwari Konwari, the Walls of the temples are decorated
wife of Swargadeo Shiva Singha (1714- with floral designs, sculptures of various gods
1744CE). and goddesses, the avataras of Vishnu, birds
Shiva Daul of Sivasagar and animals, and figures of the yogis.
The Shiva Daul on the banks of the This important daul was constructed
Sivasagar tank, located at the central point by Swargadeo Shiva Singha’s queen Ambika
of present Sivasagar town, is considered to in the year 1734. Thousands of people visit
be the most important daul in Assam. The this Shiva Daul every day. The Shivaratri
height of the daul is almost 40 m. The fluted/ festival is celebrated with pomp and grandeur
grooved pinnacle of the temple includes the here.
150 Swadesh Adhyayan
Malini Than craftsmanship of the sculptor is noticeable in
The Malini Than is an ancient this rock-cut temple.
Shaktipith located in the southern Siang Hundreds of people visit the ancient
district of Arunachal Pradeshadjacent to Shakti peeth MaliniThan every day.
Assam. This than is located north of Assam’s Apart from the afore mentioned dauls
Dhemaji district. According to the legend, and devalayas, there are numerous other
after kidnapping Rukmini, daughter of king monuments constructed by the Ahom kings.
Bhismaka of Vidarbha, Krishna had stopped Some of the notable ones are Yogeshwar
here to rest and was welcomed by Shiva Devalaya, Saubhagya Madhava
and Parvati with flower garlands. Krishna Devalaya, Holeshwara Devalaya,
then bestowed the name Malini to Parvati Hatigarh Devalaya, Rudrapad Devalaya,
and hence this than came to be known as Chatrakar Devalaya, Siddheswara
Malini Than. According to another legend, Devalaya, Agnibaneshwara Devalaya,
this place was named after a woman named Parihareshwara Devalaya, Nagshankara
Malini who, on pursuing Lord Shiva’s love, Devalaya, Suryamadhava Temple, Chandi
invoked the wrath of Parvati and was Temple, Dhareshwar Shiva Temple,
beheaded. This legend exists because Kamaleshwar Shiva Temple, Rudreshwar
remnants of an ancient Shivalinga and a Temple, Manikarneshwara Temple,
statue of a headless woman have been found Dirgheshwari Temple, Jaidurga Temple,
here. Bilbeshwar Temple, Dipteshwar Temple,
The region where MaliniThan is Har-Gauri Daul, Pandunath Daul,
situated used to be under the Chutiya Baneshwar Daul, Maghnowa Daul,
kingdom and its architectural sculptures are Thaora Daul, Barpatra Daul of Kalugaon,
assumed to date back to the pre-Ahom Kenduguri Barpatra Daul, Namti Daul,
period. Excavations have brought forth Keri Rajmao Daul,Bogi Daul, Rudrasagar
remains of a rock-cut temple, shivalinga, Shiva Daul, Sesamukh Daul, Guta Daul
statues of lions, tuskers and of gods like of Charaideo, Katahaguri Daul, Dhemesi
Indra, Ganesha along with his mouse, Bejor Daul, Ghughuha Daul of Dhemaji,
Kartika on his peacock carriage Nafuki Rajmao Daul, Raidongia Daul of
(mayurvahan), Surya in his chariot, Nandi Lejai, etc.
wearing a garland of bells, a yogi with a Residences, Rajkareng etc
trishul (trident) and Kamandalu (a water The residences of the common people
pot), and Durga etc. The expert and the royal palatial houses of ancient and
 Material Heritage 151
pre-Ahom period, are assumed to have been and tear of time, the palaces like the Rang
mostly built of wood and bamboo. Although Ghar, Kareng Ghar , Talatal Ghar the
the use of bricks was known to the Kacharis forts in various places and some of the stone
before the Ahom period, the remains of bridges built during this period still stand as
residences are that of the raj-kareng of the evidence of the architectural standard of the
Kachari kingdom in their capital at Dimapur, Ahom period.
Maibang or Khaspur have still not been found. During the Ahom period, the common
The remains of the palace of the Kachari people used to live in duchalia (slanting roof
king Sishu Pani found at Rajabari in the with two sides) houses made of wood or
Doiyang Dhansiri valley, including certain bamboo. It is said that the Ahoms previously
specimens of architectural work such as, an used to reside in the chang-ghars (houses
intricately carved rock pillar, structure of the built on raised platforms). Even the king’s
Singhadwar , remains of the fort spanning palace consisting of the place for the
over 4 kms in Duborani region on the banks throne(Pat ghar), the coronation hall
of Dhansiri river and the tanks and the (Singari ghar), the court (hollong-ghar) -
remains of the brick houses. These are some all were two-storeyed platform houses
of the testimonies brick houses are (chang-ghar) made of wood or bamboo.
testimonies of the architectural craftsmanship Etchings of flowers, vines and animals were
of the Kachari kingdom. carved into the wooden tie-beams and pillars
Apart from the architecture of the which were then coated with vermilion and
temples and religious buildings, there are a yellow arsenic paint. According to historical
few royal palaces where the architectural sources, the Ahom kings built hip-roofed
craftsmanship under the Ahom rule can be royal palaces replicating those of the Borahis.
well guessed, There are some palace buildings However the ministers (dangorias) were
like the Rang Ghar, Talatal Ghar, Gola only allowed to build residences with gable-
Ghar at Rangpur and the Karen Ghar at roofs. The Ahom architectural work reflect
Garhgaon which are still found almost in influence of three style: North India’s Nagara
perfect condition. style, the Perso-Mughal style and the Bengal
Some works of architectural value of style besides their own native style. The bricks
the Ahom period can still be found in good and the mortar, locally called koral, used
condition. Despite damages created due to during the Ahom period were made of
the earthquakes, floods, and other causes, indigenous materials. The bricks were made
damages done by the invaders and the wear of different sizes out of clay and hardened in
152 Swadesh Adhyayan
brick kilns. To make these bricks tougher, Talish, the Mughal chronicler, who had
wet clay was mixed with mortar and baked accompanied Mir Jumla in his Assam
in fire. The Ahom kings organized the labour expedition, the length of the Hollong Ghar
into various guilds, each assigned specific was 120 cubit and the width was 30 cubit.
duties like mixing the mortar etc. According There were 66 pillars which stood at a regular
to scholars, the temples mainly resemble the interval of 4 hand span. These pillars, walls
Nagara architectural style of North India; but and doors were decorated with beautiful
the Nati-Gosain Daul on the banks of the detailings. It is stated that polished brass
Joysagar Tank resembles the Gauda style. mirrors were fitted to the walls and pillars in
Kareng Ghar of Garhgaon both the interiors as well as exterior of the
Gargaon is situated towards the east Hollong Ghar. According to Shihabuddin
of present Sivasagar town. The building of Talish, such craftsmanship in wood work was
the Kareng Ghar here is almost intact. Ahom extraordinary; and he could see such
king Swargadeo Suklengmung alias Gargaya craftsmanship nowhere.
Raja (1539 – 1552CE) fortified the entire The extant building of the Kareng
area and transferred the Ahom capital here. Ghar was built by Swargadeo Rajeshwar
Singha in the year 1751. It was then a seven-
storied structure. However, at present, only
the upper four storeys are visible over
ground. The lower structure goes three
storeys underground from which the palace
is said to have connected to the banks of the
Dikhow river via secret tunnels which served
as escape route for the king in times of danger.
However the underground levels and tunnels
of the structure are yet to be completely
discovered. Numerous tourists come every
day to see the Kareng Ghar.
Kareng Ghar Talatal Ghar of Rangpur
He was therefore called Gargaya Raja. The Swargadeo Rudra Singha after his
previous royal court (kareng ghar) was ascession to the throne, transferred the capital
made of bamboo and wood and was known from Gargaon to a place called Meteka and
as Hollong-ghar. According to Shihabuddin renamed it Rangpur. Two of the most
 Material Heritage 153
famous edifices built at Rangpur are Talatal separate rooms for separate functions and
Ghar and Rang Ghar. activities like Barcara, Bulani Ghar,
PaliGhar, DeoGhar, maranghar, Puja
Ghar etc. There were also provisions to
accommodate the king’s bodyguards and
soldiers. The walls of this palace are carved
with beautiful sculptures. Hundreds of tourists
flock every day to see the Talatal Ghar.
Rang Ghar
The historic Rang Ghar is situated in
the southern part of the present Sivasagar
Talatal Ghar town and to west direction from the Talatal
Ghar. The Rang-ghar is essentially an
The Talatal Ghar used to be the royal
ampitheatre, built on what was the called
residence of the king. It is said that a part of
Rupahi Pathar . Swargadeo Rudra Singha
this structure was built by Swargadeo Rudra
(1696-1714) initially constructed it with
Singha himself. But the construction could
wood as a raised platform house (Chang
only be completed during the reign of
Ghar). The Ahom rulers with the members
Swargadeo Rajeshwar Singha (1751 – 1769
AD) only. This brick royal palace derieves
its name Talatal Ghar due to its seven storey
(tala) structure. Three of its storeys are
known to be underground while the rest four
storeys are over ground. The Talatal Ghar
might be considered to be the finest specimen
of Ahom architecture. The entry and exit
ways of this palace were made using
unconventional techniques. Similarly, the
Rang Ghar
lowest underground storey is said to have
been connected to the banks of Dikhow of the nobility used to enjoy the exhibition of
River and the Kareng Ghar of Garhgaon via the various sports, animal fights, Bihu dance
two tunnels. These provisions were made for etc from here. The Rongali Bihu was
the security of the king. The palace had providedwith a royal status by Swargadeo
154 Swadesh Adhyayan
Rudra Singha and it is said that he had between the members of the royal family and
organized a seven day Bihu celebration there. those of the common people.
The existing two storied Rang Ghar was built
by Swargadeo Pramatta Singha(1744-51) in
the year 1751. The roof of the ampitheatre
was built with two slopes like that of a
thatched house. At the tip of the ridge on both
the sides there were two statues of
crocodiles. Therefore some scholars would
like to opine that the building was constructed
in the shape of a sports boat of that period.
There also exists a picture of Kaiseng- Maidam
mungkukura above the stairs in the West
For the burial of the king the dead
side leading to the second floor. There are
body is carried in the Rung Dang, to the
two large rooms in the middle of the Rang
burial ground i.e. the place of the maidam.
Ghar on both the floors with two small rooms
There a house was built with pieces from the
on the sides .
Sal tree. This is known as Ka rang rung
Everyday a considerable number of
dam. Later on when the use of brick became
visitors come to this place.
popular, this house was constructed with
Maidam
bricks. Here the body was taken out from
Word of the Ahom (Tai) language the
the Rung Dang, some rituals were
term Maidam means the burial place of the
performed, the dead body was bathed,
dead. According to the custom of the Ahoms,
dressed with new clothes and then placed
the body of the dead person is placed in a
on a bed inside the Ka rang rung dam with
coffin which is called Rung Dang. It is made
the head placed towards the east while the
of wood called Urium ( Bischofiajavanica)
feet towards the west. Hiteswar Barbaruah
tree. The coffin is then buried in earth after
in his book Ahomar Din mentions that, in
performing a number of rituals. The top of
the place where the king’s body was laid to
the maidam bears a semi-circular shape. The
rest, a number of items made of gold and
entire process is called Maidam Dia.
silver were also kept. Mention may be made
Therefore Maidams are considered as a
of Sangti Sanduwar, which is a seven
distinctive class of Ahom architectural
layered gold beaded artifact, usually placed
monument. But the process of burial differed
at the top of the coffin or room where the
 Material Heritage 155
body of the Ahom king was kept. There Lakshmi Singha(1769-1780) onwards, the
exists a bed of wood called Salpira or a low dead bodies of the Ahom kings began to be
raised bed embellished with a golden mirror, cremated and the remaining ashes and bones
around which there were four golden stands were buried at Charaideo. Thereafter the
(khuti). A net made of gold too was tied with rituals became Hinduised.
the help of these four stands. Near the bed The dead body of a large number of
are kept a sword (Hengdang) with a golden Ahom Kings and Queens were buried at
knob studded with diamond and semi Charaideo, the first capital of the Ahom kings.
precious stones; on the ground are placed The Ahom rulers had a special guild called
four to five gold and silver tray (Sarai), a Maidamia to look after the maidams. Thieves
small golden tray (Bota), a gold coated box and plunderers attacked and looted maidams
to keep slaked lime, another such box to frequently because of the riches which it
keep tobacco, a gold knife and betel leaf contained. According to ShihabuddinTalish,
and areca nut were placed. On the Sorai’s Mir Jumla looted gold and silver from the
were placed a gold Bhog-jora and few maidams worth 90,000 rupees. Strangely,
golden jewellery, treasure chest etc. Next to it was mentioned that a betel leaf found in a
the feet of the body were placed a Dhowa box from a maidam of a queen which were
Khowa- a tobacco pipe with a long flexible buried 80 years ago was still raw, unripe and
tube connected to a container, made of gold, fresh ( when Mirjumla excavated it).
with a silver covered tobacco pipe. After Charaideo was the main site for
arranging the above mentioned things and building the maidams of the Ahom kings.
artifacts around the body of the king inside Here is also a worshipping place called
the maidam, the door of the “Ka rang rung Deosal, where the kings originally propiated
dam” was finally closed”. Moreover except their worshipping deity. Besides charaideo
a few Ahom rulers, the maidam of the other there are still a few maidams in different
kings had brick construction and a hard top. places of upper Assam. Some Ahom families
From this it is evident that items of daily still follow the maidams and burial system
necessity like golden utensils, food, clothes, of the old.
jewellery, along with some persons (men or Tanks
women) to serve the king were buried along While discussing about tanks, one
with the dead body in the maidams. generally recalls the structures of the Ahom
After adopting the Hindu religion period alone like the Jaysagar, Gaurisagar,
specially from the reign of Swargadeo Athaisagar, Rrudrasagar etc. But there also
156 Swadesh Adhyayan
exist some tanks called pukhuri of the pre- Maticheleka who could find out the water
Ahom period scattered over different parts source and was considered to have
of Assam. Mention may be made of Dighali possessed knowledge of the properties of
Pukhuri at Guwahati, Padum Pukhuri and the soil. Another officer titled Darabdhora
Hazarapukhuri at Tezpur, and a few big was also associated with tank excavation
tanks at Dimapur dug by the Kachari rulers. work.
The tank architecture of the Ahom When the excavation is almost
kings has some distinct characteristics. The complete the workers put a large pillar of
tanks excavated by the Ahom kings, and the sal tree called Nagmari. It is stated that
which were large enough, were called sagar immediately after the pillar was posted water
i.e. sea. For instance, the big tanks like starts ozzing through it from the bottom. Then
Joysagar, Gaurisagar, Sivasagar excavated Rah or Mercury was poured into the copper
around 250-300 years back, have never pots placed on the solid bottom of the tank
dried u; on the contrary the same level of to keep the water clean. Then the tank
water still remains. Moreover, the water of eventually becomes filled up with clean water.
these tanks are cleaner and clearer in A few big tanks of the Ahom era are ——
comparision to the river water. Writing about Jaysagar tank
the architectural technique of the Ahoms, Dr The tank is located at Jaysagar to the
Lila Gogoi had stated in his Buranjiye south of the present Sivsagar town.
Porosa Nagar that, the royal officers Swargadeo Rudra Singha(1696-1714C.E)
selected land for excavating tanks first by had this tank excavated on the third day of
testing the ground through licking it. Then on
a dark night, some earthen lamps of mustard
oil are lit up at that place. If the candle wipes
out even when there is oil, they marked the
spot by putting a few post. Then a bigger
lamp filled with more oil and wick is put at
the posts and kept under observation. If the
same happened also to the bigger lamp,
excavation starts keeping the post, with the
bigger lamp in the centre. Jaysagar tank
It is worth mentioning that during the the month of Aghon in 1619 saka(1697 C.E)
Ahom period there was an officer called in memory of his mother Jaymoti Kunwori in
 Material Heritage 157
the Jerengapathar, to the south of the capital Bishnusagar, Mesagarh pukhuri, Rajmau
city of Rangpur .This is the biggest tank of pukhuri, Rahdoi pukhuri, Mitha pukhuri,
the Ahom era.The area of the tank including Tenga pukhuri, Sha-Dhoa pukhuri, Petu-
its banks is 210 puras 1 bigha 2 katha and Dhoa pukhuri, Nitai pukhuri, Dhitai pukhuri
10 lecha. etc are mentioned by Dilip Kumar
Gaurisagar Tank Burhagohain in his work Buranjir Paras.
To the south of the present NH 37, is Roads and Lanes
the Gaurisagar tank. Bar Raja Phuleswari The roads and lanes of ancient and
Kunwori, the queen of king Siva Singha had middle ages in Assam have not been
the tank excavated near the Namdang sil sako discovered or identified completely till date.
on the NH 37. The land area covered by the There were very few roads and lanes during
tank is 113 puras 1bigha , 2 katha and 15 these periods connecting the important places
lecha. of the state. It is assumed that waterways
Sivasagar Tank were primarily used for communications and
This tank is located in the centre of the transportations. The powerful navy of the
present Sivasagar town. Queen Ambika kings of the ancient Kamrupa kingdom and
alias Madambika Kunwori of king Siva of the Ahom era and also the use of various
Singha had the tank excavated in the types of boat called Nao like Bar nao, Mar
year1733. The land area of the tank is 194 nao, Chora nao, Panchoi nao, Gotia nao,
puras 2 bighas, 2 katha and 6 lechas. Hiloi Chora nao,Khel nao, Par nao,
Chengeli nao, Lai nao, Magari nao,
Bachoru nao, Jap nao, Chilapatia nao etc
indicate that during those periods rivers and
other waterways were largely used for
communication, trade and business, warfare
etc.
Among the already mentioned limited
highways, the discovery of the ruins of three-
brick highways of the time of the Kachari
kings connecting Tengani forest area to
Sivasagar Tank Sisupani, the Dhansiri- Doiang meeting point
and the Dimapur in Dhansiri Doiang valley
In addition to these, references of
proves the existence of a system of roads
many other two hundred twelve tanks of the
and lanes in Kachari kingdom. Likewise, the
Ahom era like Rudrasagar, Lakshmisagar,
158 Swadesh Adhyayan
Koch king Naranarayan had the Gohain built adjacent to the construction site. As
Kamal Ali built from Narayanpur to Koch camps implied Chauni in the local dialect the
Behar under the guidance of his brother road was named as Cheuni Ali, according to
Gohain Kamal, These roads and lanes show the popular saying. A part of this road from
that there were more other roads and lanes Kamargaon to Janji-Garmur has now formed
in the region. a part of the present day NH 37. Likewise
In Upper Assam ,especially in the Janji –Garmur to Gaurisagar which was
erstwhile undivided Sivasagar district, the called Machkhoa garh has also formed a part
core area of the Ahom kingdom, and also in of this national highway..
Besides these well known roads there
lower Assam, many roads and lanes were
were roads and lanes like the Naga Ali ,
built. Some of them were-
Chotai Ali, Joboka ali,Bokota ali,
The Bar Ali
Haripara ali,Bhomoraguri ali,Teliadongar
Built during the reign of Swargadeo
ali, Dauki ali, Barphukan ali, Rohdoi ali,
Pratap Singha (1603-1641CE) this road Khorikotia ali, Dubori ali, Bohi Khoa
stretched from the capital Gargaon to Borphukanar ali, Barpatra ali, Solguri ali,
Negheriting in Dergaon along the river Tarimua ali, Meteka ali, Deka Barbarua
Dikhow by the south bank of the ali, Halou phukan ali, Romoni ali, Nahar
Brahmaputra. It is said that King Pratap ali, Shensoa ali, Khargharia Doba ali,
Singha used to receive the holy flowers Namti ali, Mahmora ali, Na ali,
offered at the Negheriting Siva Doul Mohbondha ali, Komarbondha ali,
everyday at the capital at Gargaon brought Borgohain ali, Bhadoi ali, Teton Tamulir
through the road. ali of Tezpur, Boragi ali of Guwahati built in
The Dhodar Ali different parts of the state. Many of them now
Swargadeo Gadadhar Singha(1681- cease to exist due to lack of repair and
1696CE) had this road built from Jaipur near conservation or due to the factors like flood
Naharkatia to Kamargaon near Golaghat. It and erosion.
is said that this road was built by the Stone bridges
labourers who were reluctant to work (termed There were also a few stone bridges
dhod in Assamese) and so it was called built during the Ahom period. Those stone
Dhodar Ali. bridges built across tributaries, streams and
The Cheuni Ali rivulets are examples of an advanced
King Joydhvaj Singha (1648-1663) architectural achievement of this period. It is
built this road. It is stated that the said that the Ahoms started building stone
responsibility of constructing this road was bridges at least since the 16th century. These
given by the king to one Baduli Phukan. bridges were constructed by using piece-
Popular tradition have it that while building rocks of different shapes and sizes. According
the road, the labourers were kept in camps to Dilip Kumar Burhagohain the stone bridges
 Material Heritage 159
of the Ahom era were built out of round little to the east from the Darika stone bridge.
stones making steps vertically and binding From the very name of the tributary it gained
them with flat stones. Latches were put into the name Dijoikhona.
the flat stones to keep the structure tough Stone bridge at Naphuk
and then they were fastened with high quality Bar Raja Phuleswari Kuwari built this
mortar. It is often believed that the workers stone bridge over the river Naphuk in the
could thus build a stone bridge overnight. year 1723.
Stone bridge at Namdang Besides these stone bridges, there are
King Rudra Singha(1696-1714 CE) references to some other such bridges like
had the stone bridge built in the year 1703 several other rock bridges like the Hahchora
bridge at Hahchora, the Dimou bridge and
others which were built during the Ahom era.
Ramparts:
Assam had made commendable
advance in the making of ramparts since
early times. Kings of the land had built high
and impenetrable ramparts around their
capitals for the sake of security. These
ramparts were built mainly with earth in
strategically important places as a measure
of security and defence.
Stone bridge at Namdang Foreign invaders of the land have high
CE over the Namdang river. This appreciation of the rampart building
bridge near Rangpur is still intact and has been technique of the Ahoms. In the book Niti
in use. It is said that this bridge was Latankan, written by one Vagish Pandit
constructed out of a large rock.The length, under the patronage of King Kamaleswar
width and breadth of the bridge are 202 feet Singha(1795-1811), we find the building
, 21.5 feet and 5.5 feet respectively. techniques of ramparts and stockades. It is
Stone bridge on the Darika river mentioned by Sarbananda Rajkumar that the
The stone bridge was built by King Ahoms fought with the help of ramparts and
Pratap Singha (1603-1641 CE) across the stockades. They dug out ditches around the
Darika river to the east of Gargaon. It is said towns and built ramparts and planted a
that there were various sculptural works special kind of thickly grown bamboo called
imprinted on it which have now been washed Kotoha on it, so that the enemies could not
out.. cross the bamboo grooves even though they
Dijoikhona stone bridge could cross the ramparts. There were
King Gadadhar Singha (1681-1696 ramparts of this sort around the towns like
CE) had this stone bridge constructed across Barkala, Gargaon, Rangpur etc. The
the Dijoikhona river on the Rohdoi Ali, a remnants of the ramparts of the Ahom era
160 Swadesh Adhyayan
are still found in many places of Assam .Most Contemporary records name various
of them were earthen built. But at some ramparts of the period such as the Samdhara
places bricks were also used along with earth. garh, Suwatal Garh, Rangali Garh, Simalu
Many such bricks are discovered from the Garh, Chintamoni Garh, Katarikhamar
site of the rampart in the east of Sarania hills Garh,Raj Garh, Kotoha Garh, Mera
in Guwahati. The ramparts were of sufficient Garh,Nimona Garh, Machkhowa Garh, Hati
height and width and the top was always plain Garh, Bibuddhi Garh, Momaikota Garh etc.
like a road. Some of them are still used as The remnants of some ofthese ramparts are
roads at some places. The Mughal invaders still found. Many of them have been
have recorded their praise of the rampart converted into roads.
building techniques of the Ahom kings in their Historical sites and monuments are
books like Padshah Nama, Baharistan- i- found almost in all the places of Assam.
Ghayabi . Students can rediscover them through
field studies.

THINGS TO KNOW

Kamakhya Temple is the oldest centre of Shakti worship in Assam.

The Hayagriva Madhava temple is a holy place of worship for the followers of Hinduism
and Buddhism.
The Siva daul on the banks of the Sivasagar tank is the tallest of the daul / temple of
the Ahom period.
During the reign of the Ahoms rulers, a special type of binding material was prepared
using indigenous technology. This indigeneous cementing compound is called Karal .
Koral was prepared from a mixture of the traditional sticky rice (called bora- caul)
,jaggery(gur), Barali fish, one variety of pulse (Matimaah), limestone, mustard oil and
duck’s egg.
The monuments and temples of the Ahom period were generally constructed with
bricks. Sometimes stones were also used. Sculpted panels and terracotta plaques of
Gods and Goddesses, flora and fauna and other decorative designs were inserted into
the body of the structure.
During the Ahom period the people constructed their houses with wood, bamboo,
straw and reeds. Only the king could construct houses with bricks.
The houses of the common people were like huts. The Ahom kings built hip-
roofed (dutopia) royal palaces replicating those of the Borahis. However the officers
(dangoriyas) were only allowed to build residential houses with gable-roofs(atopia).
The Namdang stone bridge is 202 feet in length, 21.5 feet in breadth and 5.5 feet
wide.This bridge was so well constructed that till today, it is in use without much repair
 Material Heritage 161
All the monuments of the Ahom period, where bricks were used belongs to the
Tunghungkia dynasty of the kings.
The bricks of the Ahom period were of different shapes and sizes like triangular,
quadriangular, round, grooved, studdedwith holes etc.
The multi storied royal palace called Talatal ghar , is an excellent piece of Ahom
architecture.
The temples and monuments of the Ahom period bear resemblance with the Nagara
style of North India. However local influence too is evident.

EXERCISE
1. Answer the following questions :
a. On which hill is the Kamakhya temple situated?
b. Which island of Assam was called the peacock island by the British?
c. Name the Ahom ruler who built the Basistha temple?
d. What is the most famous art activity of the Dah Parvatiya temple?
e. Where in Assam do you find the confluence of the three streams Sandhya Lalita
and Kanta?
f. Name the hill on which the Hayagriva Madhava temple is located?
g. On which hill in Hajo is the Poa Makka situated?
h. Which is the biggest man made tank in Assam?
i. Which Ahom ruler built the Dhodar Ali?
2. Write short notes :
a. Ambubachi Mela.
b. Sri Surya pahar.
c. Poa Makka.
d. Dargah of Azan Pir.
e. Malini Than.
f. Maidam.
3. What do you mean by tangiblel heritage? Write a brief note on the archaeolgical remains
of ancient Assam?
4. Discuss briefly the archaeological remains of the Ahom period’
5. What do you know about the tank architecture of the Ahom period?
6. Write a brief note on the roads of the medieval period.
7. Write briefly about the ramparts and stone bridges of the Ahom period.
 CHAPTER NINE

Field Study

Need of Field study and its Scope : students will be attracted towards the
The Field study makes the students sustainable tourism.
Familiar with the applied knowledge of the The knowledge acquired by the
subject and the theme. Visual experience in students about the local places of historical
the real world field inspires the students to peep importance, the report prepared will
into the depth of the subject matter. Studying definitely reflect from their perspective the
the fields of historical and the archaeological technique and skill, personal experiensce and
sites personally can acquire knowledge on other related sides. On the otherhand the
contemporary history-archaeology, technical viva-voce conducted will definitely reflect
skill. The consciousness that has developed their way of vocabulary and speaking
recently for preservation and maintanance of technique along with the mentality for
historical and archaeological sites can only conservation.
be materialised through gaining personal The teachers should give special
knowledge of the sites in question. Thus the importance on field study technique and
methods.
 Field Study 163

Survey Schedule
Q For geographical study one must incorporate in the survey schedule/questionnaire :
The location, Physiography, Climate, Settlement, Transport and Communication etc.
Q For historical field study the report should contain the origin and characteristics, evolution
and present status of people and settlement (evolution and pattern) changes through
time etc.

Survey Schedule/questionnaire
Schedule No :
Surveyor’s Name :
Date :
Place : District :
Village/Town,
ward/road
Lane/House No
Police Station
1. Name of the household :
2. Family Status : Use (D) wherever necessary

Educational Qualification
Serial No Relationship age sex Illiterate Primary Secondary HSSLC Dgree PG Other
of person
1 Male/Female
2 ,,
3 ,,
4 ,,
5 ,,
6 ,,
7 ,,
8 ,,
164 Swadesh Adhyayan
3. Occupation and income :
Household No Unemployed Daily wage earner Peasast Trade Govt employee Private Monthly income
PPP (in Rs.)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

4. Residential information :
No of houses Foundation roof wall

1/2/3/4/5 Kacha (not of concrete)/ thatch/tin/chat bamboo/cement/brick

Concrete

5. Household articles/property :
Car Scooter/Bike Bycycle T.V/cable/ disc Refrigerator Mobile Radio

Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No

6. If agriculture, producing crop (with amount) :

7. Essential primary Facilities :
(a) Source of drinking water : pipe / tubewell / well / pond / river
(b) Medium and means of coocking : fire wood /LPG /electricity
(c) Sanitary facility : Toilet type
(d) Bathroom facility : yes/no. (inside / outside / open / closed)
8. Description of pets (domisticated animal) :
Species Cow Buffelo duck Fowl others
Number