36 Structure

CI/SfB (J)
David Adler and Norman Seward Uniclass: U31
UDC: 624
Senior Lecturer, Department of Engineering, University of Wales, Newport

KEY POINTS: 1.04

• Current Codes of Practice require experts for the analysis and
design of the specific type of structure and material
There are three important factors in structural analysis and design:

• Simplified approximate analysis and design methods do exist, • accurate assessment of the behaviour of the structural form
but should not replace a rigorous final approach. • full knowledge
accurate identification and calculation of all the forces acting
• of the properties of the structural materials.
Contents An outline of the methods used is given below.
1 Introduction
2 Basic structural theory
3 Structural materials
2 BASIC STRUCTURAL THEORY
4 Masonry
5 Timber 2.01
6 Reinforced concrete This section will summarise basic structural concepts and the terms
7 Structural steelwork and other metals that might be met in dealing with structural matters. Examination
8 Glass in greater depth may be found in the references given at the end of
9 Other materials the chapter.
10 Foundations
11 Bibliography
2.02 Limit state
Current techniques in the majority of structural engineering Codes
of Practice are based on the concept of limit state design.
1 INTRODUCTION Traditionally, design involved calculating the maximum stress and
deflection in a member under working load. That stress was com-
1.01
pared with the stress in that material known, through experiment, to
Structural engineering ensures that the loads of the building and its
lead to failure. Safe design included a margin, called the factor of
contents are transmitted safely and economically to the ground,
safety, between the working and failure stress values. This tradi-
allowing for considerations of function, aesthetics, internal and
tional method was generally referred to as permissible stress design.
external environment and incorporating restraints imposed by
It is however important to anticipate how the form of the structure
other members of the building team, legislation, etc.
will behave under increasing load as factors other than excessive
Structural engineering requires the use of mathematics to deter-
stress can cause building failure. These are known as limit states and
mine the forces in the framing elements of a structure (structural
must all be considered for satisfactory design. Apart from collapsing
analysis). Sizing of these elements is then carried out based on
completely (limit state of collapse or ultimate limit state), a building
interpretation of guidance provided in Codes of Practice relevant to
may crack locally so badly as to let in the weather, it may deflect
the material being used (structural design). A competent structural
until the users feel unsafe (limit state of deflection or serviceability
engineer will have suitable training and be experienced in the
limit state). The task of the structural designer is to ensure that none
required analysis and design techniques. Innovative and non-
of the possible limit states is ever reached.
standard structures may require special consideration with the use
In the case of the ultimate limit state, this is done by making sure
of model testing to confirm analytical assumptions and member
that ultimate material stresses are not exceeded under critical ulti-
sizing.
mate load combinations. Ultimate stresses are derived by dividing
the material failure stress by a prescribed material safety factor and
ultimate loads are calculated by multiplying the loads (see para.
1.02 2.03) by prescribed load factors. Both material and load factors are
In recent years, mathematical methods prescribed in new Codes of listed in the Codes of Practice relevant to the material being used.
Practice, particularly the Eurocodes, have become more complex, The serviceability limit states of cracking and deflection are
making the use of computer programs essential. checked using working loads rather than ultimate loads, as the
actual crack width and deflection in service is of interest.

1.03
2.03 Loads
The treatment of the subject in this chapter is necessarily brief. It
In paragraph 2.02, reference was made to loads. A load is an
will be even less comprehensive than in previous editions, but will
example of a force, and the term is usually used to describe those
still try to give the architect something of a feel for structure, and
outside forces that act on a building structure. In Eurocodes, all
help him or her in discussions with a structural engineer. Because
loads and factors producing stress or deflection are called actions.
of the complexity of the methods now used, Local Authorities are
Actions are of four types:
increasingly insisting on the submission of calculations prepared
by a Chartered Engineer from the recognized qualifying bodies, the
Institution of Structural Engineers and the Institution of Civil
• Dead loads: from the weight of the structure itself and that of other
fixed parts of the building such as cladding, finishes, partitions, etc.
Engineers who are entitled to use the designations CEng.
MIStructE or CEng MICE, respectively.
• Imposed loads: from the weight of people, furniture and of
materials stored in the building.
36-1
36-2 Structure

• Dynamic loads: these are of many origins. The most common

dynamic load on a building is that caused by wind, which can
Table II Densities of bulk materials

kg/m3 kN/m3
produce horizontal and vertical pressures and suctions. Other
dynamic loads are produced by moving machinery such as Aggregates
overhead cranes in large workshops and by earthquakes. For Coarse
the purposes of design, dynamic loads were often transformed Normal weight, e.g. natural aggregates 1600 15.7
Fine
into approximate equivalent static loadings. The widespread Normal weight, e.g. sand 1760 17.3
availability of sophisticated analytical software now allows Bricks (common burnt clay)
more accurate dynamic analysis to be carried out. Stacked 1602–1920 15.7–18.8
• The fourth type of action is one that is not produced by an
outside force, but by internal factors such as thermal expansion.
Cement
Bags 1281 12.6
Concrete, plain
Aerated 480–1600
brick aggregate 1840–2160
2.04 Force units Clinker 1440 14.1
Forces, including loads, are measured in Newtons (N). One stone ballast 2240 22.0
Newton is the force required to give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration natural aggregates 2307
Concrete, reinforced
of 1 m/s2. A tip to remember is that a Newton is about the weight of 2% steel 2420 23.7
an apple. Most forces in structural engineering are expressed in kN Glass
(kilonewtons). Table I gives conversions from and to SI, MT and Plate 2787 27.3
FPS (Imperial) units for loadings of all types. Gypsum
Plaster 737 7.2
Metals:
2.05 Mass and weight Aluminium cast 2771 27.2
Iron
Confusion often arises between the terms mass and weight. Outside Cast 7208 70.7
nuclear physics, the mass of an object is a fixed quantity which is a Wrought 7689 75.4
Lead:
basic property of that object. Its weight will depend on the mass, cast or rolled 11 325 111.1
but also on the value of the gravitational effect on the object. This
Stone
is not a constant, but can vary, not only in extra-terrestrial condi- Bath 2082 20.4
tions but even very slightly on different places on earth. However, masonry, dressed 2403 23.6
Granite 2643 25.9
for all practical purposes the acceleration of gravity is taken as Marble 2595–2835 25.4–27.8
9.81 m/s2, so that the weight of a kilogram mass is 9.81 N. This Slate:
figure is invariably rounded up to 10 for ease of computation. Welsh 2803 27.5
Timbers:
Ash (Canadian) 737 7.2
2.06 Loading assessment Balsawood 112 1.1
Beech 769 6.9
Perhaps, the most important calculation the structural engineer Birch 641 6.3
carries out relates to the accurate assessment of loading. Table II Cedar, western red 384 3.8
Deal, yellow 432 4.2
Ebony 1185–1330 11.6–13.1
Table I Various conversions for loadings Elm
English 577 5.6
Fir:
Point loads Douglas 529 5.2
1 N ¼ 0.102 kgf ¼ 0.225 lbf Silver 481 4.7
1 kN ¼ 101.972 kgf ¼ 224.81 lbf ¼ 0.1004 tonf Hemlock, western 497 4.9
1 MN ¼ 101.972 tf ¼ 224.81 kipf ¼ 100.36 tonf Iroko 657 6.4
1 kgf ¼ 9.807 N ¼ 2.205 lbf Larch 593 5.8
1 tf ¼ 9.807 kN ¼ 2.205 kipf ¼ 0.9842 tonf Mahogany: (African) 561 5.5
1 lbf ¼ 4.448 N ¼ 0.4536 kgf Maple: 737 7.2
1 kipf ¼ 4.448 kN ¼ 453.59 kgf ¼ 0.4536 tf Oak: English 801–881 7.8–8.6
1 tonf ¼ 9.964 kN ¼ 1.016 tf Pine: New Zealand 609 6.0
Linearly distributed loads Plywood 481–641 4.7–6.3
1 N/m ¼ 0.0685 lbf/ft ¼ 0.206 lbf/yd Plastic bonded 721–1442 7.0–14.2
1 kN/m ¼ 68.5 lbf/ft ¼ 0.0306 tonf/ft Resin bonded 721–1362 7.0–13.4
1 kgf/m ¼ 9.807 N/m ¼ 0.672 lbf/ft ¼ 2.016 lbf/yd Poplar 449 4.4
1 tf/m ¼ 9.807 kN/m ¼ 0.672 kipf/ft ¼ 2.016 kipf/yd ¼ 0.3 tonf/ft ¼ 0.9 tonf/yd Spruce Canadian 465 4.6
1 lbf/ft ¼ 14.59 N/m ¼ 1.488 kgf/m Sycamore 609 6.0
1 kipf/ft ¼ 14.58 kN/m ¼ 1.488 tf/m Teak, Burma or African 657 6.4
1 ton/ft ¼ 32.69 kN/m ¼ 3.33 tf/m Walnut 657 6.4
1 tonf/yd ¼ 10.90 kN/m ¼ 1.11 tf/m Whitewood 465 4.6

Superficially distributed loads Water 1001 9.8

1 N/m2 ¼ 0.0209 lb/ft2
1 kN/m2 ¼ 20.89 lb/ft2
1 MN/m2 ¼ 9.324 tonf/ft2
1 kgf/m2 ¼ 9.80665 N/m2 ¼ 0.2048 lbf/ft2 ¼ 1.843 lbf/yd2
1 tf/m2 ¼ 9.80665 kN/m2 ¼ 0.2048 kipf/ft2 ¼ 0.0914 tonf/ft2 ¼ 0.823 tonf/yd2
1 lb/ft2 ¼ 47.88 N/m2 ¼ 4.88 kgf/m2
1 kipf/ft2 ¼ 47.88 kN/m2 ¼ 4.88 tf/m2 below shows the loads of various materials which may comprise
1 tonf/ft2 ¼ 107.25 kN/m2 ¼ 10.93 tf/m2
1 tonf/yd2 ¼ 11.92 kN/m2 ¼ 1.215 tf/m2 the fabric of a building that may be included in the dead load
Densities
computation. It also gives the densities of materials that may be
1 N/m3 ¼ 0.00637 lbf/ft3 stored within it: part of the imposed loads. The figures are given
1 kN/m3 ¼ 6.37 lbf/ft3 both in the usual mass density form: kg/m3, and also in the more
1 MN/m3 ¼ 2.844 tonf/ft3
1 kg/m3 ¼ 0.0624 lb/ft3 (mass density) convenient weight density kN/m3. Some loadings are more con-
1 t/m3 ¼ 62.4 lb/ft3 veniently calculated from superficial or linear unit weights, and a
1 lb/ft3 ¼ 16.02 kg/m3 1 lbf/ft3 ¼ 157 N/m3 few are given in Table III. For a comprehensive list of weights of
1 ton/ft3 ¼ 35.88 t/m3 1 ton/ft3 ¼ 351.9 kN/m3
1 ton/yd3 ¼ 1.33 t/m3 building materials, reference should be mad to BS648 Schedule of
weights of building materials.
 Structure 36-3

Table III Superficial masses of materials in kg/m3 and weights in N/m2. Table III (Continued)
This is based on figures in BS 648:1964, and should be taken as approximate
kg/m2 N/m2
kg/m2 N/m2
Steel
Aluminium sheet Mild, sheet Corrugated (1 mm) 15.6 153
Corrugated (BS 2855) (including 20% added weight 2.9 28
Stonework, natural
for laps ‘as laid’) 0.71 mm
Note: For cramps add 80 kg/m3 (5 Ib/ft3)
Battens
Slating and tiling, 40  20 mm softwood 3.4 33 Limestone
100 mm gauge Light, e.g. Bathstone
100 mm thick 206.6 2026
Blockwork, walling (per 25 mm thickness) Medium, e.g. Portland stone
Clay 100 mm thick 225.9 2215
Hollow 25.5 250 Heavy, e.g. marble
Concrete 20 mm thick 53.7 527
Stone aggregate Sandstone
Cellular 40.0 392 Light, e.g. Woolton
Hollow 34.2 335 100 mm thick 221.1 2168
Solid 53.8 528 Medium, e.g. Darley Dale
Lightweight aggregate 100 mm thick 230.7 2262
Cellular 28.3 278 Heavy, e.g. Mansfield Red
Hollow 25.5 250 100 mm thick 240.3 2357
Solid 31.7 311 Granite
Aerated Light, e.g. Peterhead
Based on 560 kg/m3 14.4 141 50 mm thick 129.7 1272
Based on 800 kg/m3 19.2 188 Medium, e.g. Cornish
100 mm thick 52.4 514 50 mm thick 134.5 1319
115 mm thick 56.9 558 Heavy, e.g. Guernsey
Brickwork (all per 25 mm thick) 50 mm thick 144.2 1414
Clay Thatching
Solid Reed (including battens) 300 mm thick 41.5 407
Low density 50.0 490
Medium density 53.8 528 Tiling, roof
High density 58.2 571 Clay
Perforated Plain Machine made, 100 mm gauge 63.5 623
Low density, 25% voids 38.0 373 Concrete
Low density, 15% voids 42.3 415 Stone aggregate
Medium density, 25% voids 39.9 391 Plain
Medium density, 15% voids 46.2 453 75 mm gauge 92.8 910
High density, 25% voids 44.2 433 100 mm gauge 68.4 671
High density, 15% voids 48.0 471 115 mm gauge 61.0 598
Concrete 57.7 566 Interlocking (single lap) 48.8  7.3 479  72

Flagstones
Concrete 50 mm thick 115 1130
Natural stone 50 mm thick 56 549 Table IV indicates minimum imposed loads that should be allowed
Floors for in designing buildings for various purposes. These figures are
Hollow concrete units (including any concrete topping
necessary for constructional purposes) intended to allow for the people in the building, and the kind of material
100 mm 168 1650 normally stored. However, these loads sometimes need to be checked
150 mm 217 2130 against the figures in Tables II and III for more unusual circumstances.
200 mm 285 2800
Glass
Float 6 mm 16.7 164
2.07 Structural elements
Gypsum panels and partitions For convenience of design, large structures are broken up into
Dry partition
65 mm thick 26.5 260 elements. These are of different types according to the function
Lathing they perform in the building. Before describing each type, it will be
Wood 6.3 62 necessary to explore the forces that are found internally in the
Lead sheet (BS 1178) materials of the structure.
0.118 in (3.0 mm) 34.2 335
Plaster
Gypsum 2.08 Stress and strain
Two coat, 12 mm thick If a bar of uniform cross-section has a force applied at each end,
Normal sanded undercoat and neat finishing 20.8 204
One coat, 5 mm thick, neat gypsum 6.7 66 36.1, it will stretch slightly. This stretch is called the strain in the
Lime (non-hydraulic and hydraulic) 12 mm thick 23.1 227 bar, and is defined as the extension divided by the original length.
Lightweight
Vermiculite aggregate, two coat, ditto 10.5 103
The stress on this bar is the force on the cross-section divided by
its area. The relationship between the strain and the stress is an
Plasterboard, gypsum
Solid core important factor in structural engineering. 36.2 shows a graph of
9.5 mm 8.3 81 this relationship for steel. The length OA is a straight line and is
12 mm 10.6 104
18 mm 16.1 158
called the elastic zone. In the elastic zone, the ratio of stress to
strain is a constant called Young’s Modulus. At A, there is a sudden
Plywood
Per mm thick 0.6  0.1 61 change called the yield point. Hooke’s Law, which says that stress
Rendering
and strain are proportionate, only applies in the elastic zone.
Portland cement: sand (1:3) 12 mm thick 27.7 272 Beyond this point along the curve AB there is no constant relation-
Screeding ship between the stress and the strain. In fact, even if there is no
Portland cement: sand (1:3) 12 mm thick 27.7 272 increase in stress, the strain can increase over time until the bar
Slate breaks at B. This length of curve is known as the plastic zone.
Welsh In 36.3, OAB shows the actual stress/strain relationship for a
Thin 24.4 239
Thick 48.8 479 typical concrete. This, for many practical purposes can be substi-
tuted by OCD. OC is the elastic and CD the plastic zone.
Table IV Typical minimum imposed floor loads extracted from BS 6399 – 1 Loading for buildings: Code of practice for dead and imposed loads

Type of activity/or Examples of specific use Uniformly distributed Concentrated load (kN)
occupancy for part of the load (kN/m2)
building or structure

A Domestic and residential All usages within self-contained single family dwelling units. 1.5 1.4
activities (also see Communal areas (including kitchens) in blocks of flats with limited use
category C) (see note 1) (for communal areas in other blocks of flats see C3 and below)
Bedrooms and dormitories except those in single family dwelling units 1.5 1.8
and hotels and motels
Bedrooms in hotels and motels 2.0 1.8
Hospital wards
Toilet areas
Communal kitchens except in flats covered by note 1 3.0 4.5
Balconies Single family dwelling units and 1.5 1.4
communal areas in blocks of flats
with limited use (see note 1)
Guest houses, residential clubs Same as rooms to which 1.5/m run concentrated at
and communal areas in blocks of they give access but with the outer edge
flats except as covered by note 1 a minimum of 3.0
Hotels and motels Same as rooms to which 1.5/m run concentrated at
they give access but with the outer edge
a minimum of 4.0
B Offices and work areas not Operating theatres, X-ray rooms, utility rooms 2.0 4.5
covered elsewhere Work rooms (light industrial) without storage 2.5 1.8
Offices for general use 2.5 2.7
Kitchens, laundries, laboratories 3.0 4.5
Rooms with mainframe computers or similar equipment 3.5 4.5
Factories, workshops and similar buildings (general industrial) 5.0 4.5
Balconies Same as rooms to which 1.5/m run concentrated at
they give access but with the outer edge
a minimum of 4.0
C Areas where people may Public, institutional and communal dining rooms and lounges, cafes 2.0 2.7
congregate and restaurants (see note 2)
C1 Areas with tables Reading rooms with no book storage 2.5 4.5
Classrooms 3.0 2.7
C2 Areas with fixed seats Assembly areas with fixed seating (see note 3) 4.0 3.6
Places of worship 3.0 2.7
C3 Areas without obstacles Corridors, hallways, aisles, stairs, Corridors, hallways, aisles, etc. 3.0 4.5
for moving people landings, etc. in institutional type (traffic foot only)
buildings (not subject to crowds Stairs and landings (foot 3.0 4.0
or wheeled vehicles), hostels, traffic only)
guest houses, residential clubs,
and communal areas in blocks of
flats not covered by note 1.
(For communal areas in blocks of
flats covered by note 1, see A.)
Corridors, hallways, aisles, Corridors, hallways, aisles, etc. 4.0 4.5
stairs, landings, etc. in all other (foot traffic only)
buildings including hotels and Corridors, hallways, aisles, etc. 5.0 4.5
motels and institutional subject to wheeled vehicles,
buildings trolleys, etc.
Stairs and landings (foot 4.0 4.0
traffic only)
Balconies (except as specified in A) Same as rooms to which 1.5/m run concentrated at
they give access but with the outer edge
a minimum of 4.0
C4 Areas with possible Dance halls and studios, gymnasia, stages 5.0 3.6
physical activities (see
clause 9)
C5 Areas susceptible to Assembly areas without fixed seating, concert halls, bars, places of 5.0 3.6
overcrowding (see worship and grandstands
clause 9) Stages in public assembly areas 7.5 4.5
D Shopping areas Shop floors for the sale and display of merchandise 4.0 3.6
E Warehousing and storage General areas for static equipment not specified elsewhere (institutional 2.0 1.8
areas. Areas subject to and public buildings)
accumulation of goods. Areas Reading rooms with book storage, e.g. libraries 4.0 4.5
for equipment and plant General storage other than those specified 2.4 for each metre of 7.0
storage height
File rooms, filing and storage space (offices) 5.0 4.5
Stack rooms (books) 2.4 for each metre in 7.0
storage height but with a
minimum of 6.5
Dense mobile stacking (books) on mobile trolleys, in public and 4.8 for each metre of 7.0
institutional buildings storage height but with
a minimum of 9.6
Plant rooms, boiler rooms, fan rooms, etc. including weight of machinery 7.5 4.5
F Parking for cars, light vans, etc. not exceeding 2500 kg gross mass, 2.5 9.0
including garages, driveways and ramps

Note 1. Communal areas in blocks of flats with limited use refers to blocks of flats not more than three storeys in height and with not more than four self-contained single
family dwelling units per floor accessible from one staircase.
Note 2. Where these same areas may be subjected to loads due to physical activities or overcrowding, e.g. a hotel dining room used as a dance floor, imposed loads
should be based on occupancy C4 or C5 as appropriate. Reference should also be made to clause 9.
Note 3. Fixed seating is seating where its removal and the use of the space for other purposes is improbable.
 Structure 36-5

Most materials other than cables, wires and chains can be used to
carry compression. However, there is an instability phenomenon
that occurs in compression members called buckling. For some
members, particularly those that are slender in comparison with
their length, increase in compressive load will cause bending until
36.1 A bar of uniform cross-section under a tensile force
failure occurs in tension on one side. It is this buckling effect that
can be the cause of the collapse of slender towers and high walls of
masonry construction.

2.12 Pin-jointed frames

Some structures are designed and constructed of members that act
as struts and ties. Analysis methods assume that the members are
pin jointed at their ends, which allows only the development of
compressive or tensile forces in each member. A roof truss is
typical of this type; the general term for which is pin-jointed
frame. In practice, very few such structures are actually physically
pin-jointed (although some have been built), but the use of flexible
bolted connector plates adequately approximates the theoretical
assumption of a pin at member ends.
36.2 Stress–strain diagram for steel showing the yield point where
Hooke’s Law (stress is proportional to strain) no longer operates.
Dotted line shows deformation caused when stress is reduced 2.13 Bending
after the yield point, material does not return to its original form Unlike struts and ties which transmit only compressive and tensile
forces along their length, beam members support loads by bending
action. Internal forces known as bending moments are developed
within the beam allowing it to support loads acting at right angles
to its length. An example of beam action is that of a lintol spanning
an opening and carrying the applied loads from floor and walls
above safely around the opening.
Bending is the phenomenon by which a single member of sig-
nificant depth develops both compression and tension across its
section. Consider the case of a beam supported at each end with a
load in the centre of the span, the deflected shape is a downward
sag resulting in maximum compression in the top layers of the
beam, and maximum tension in the bottom layers. Somewhere in
the middle of the beam will be layer with no stress at all. This layer
is known as the neutral axis, 36.4. The externally applied bending
moment is resisted by an internal moment in the beam which is a
function of the product of the compressive and tensile forces and
the distance between their lines of action.

2.14 Materials in bending

Since the internal moment of resistance of a beam depends upon the
development of both compressive and tensile forces, only materials
36.3 Stress–strain diagram for a typical concrete
that are strong in both compression and tension are generally suita-
ble for beams. Steel and timber are good examples of such materials.
2.09 Units of stress Stone, being weak in tension, makes poor bending members. The
The basic SI unit of stress is the N/m2 (which is also called the Pascal, ancient Greeks had to construct buildings with closely spaced col-
Pa), but this is too small a unit for practical purposes. The correct umns, as stone lintols would not span very far. Only when the arch
form for the normal unit is the mega Pascal, MPa or mega Newton had been invented could the spans be increased, because the arch is
MN/m2 but this is expressed by engineers in units of N/mm2. wholly in compression. Cast iron is weak in tension, although not as
weak as stone. The bottom flanges of cast iron beams were often
larger than the top flanges to allow for this inequality in strength.
2.10 Tension members Concrete is also poor under tensile force, so steel is used in the
If the stress in a member tends to lengthen it, it is said to be in tension zone (which is usually at the bottom, except for cantilevered
tension. Elements in tension are called ties. In many ways, this is and continuous beams – see below), to reinforce concrete beams.
the simplest kind of stress. Some materials, steel members in
particular are ideal for resisting it. Cables, wires and chains can
be used to carry tension. Materials such as stone, cast iron and
unreinforced concrete have little or no resistance to tension.

2.11 Compression members

If the stress a member tends to shorten it, it is in compression.
Elements in compression are called struts, columns, piers or stan-
chions. The term used depends on their location and the material of
which they are made. 36.4 Structural member under pure bending
36-6 Structure

2.15 Beams
Beams can be categorised as follows:
• lintols
Lintols, 36.9. Beams that are supported on brickwork, such as
over doorways and windows, are not considered structu-
rally encastré, and are normally designed as simply supported.
• completely
Simply supported, 36.5. The beam ends are assumed to be
free to move rotationally resulting in zero moment
at each end. In addition, one end is assumed to be supported on a 2.16 Bending moments
roller bearing allowing freedom of movement in the direction of In order to design a beam, an engineer first calculates the bending
the beam length resulting in zero horizontal reaction at the roller moments at critical sections generated by the worst case loading
bearing end. If the loading is uniformly distributed along the combination. Maximum internal stresses are then computed at
length of the beam then the bending moment will be a maximum those sections. For anything other than the simplest structure, this
at mid-span. This type of beam is known as statically determi- can be a time-consuming and complicated matter. For a large
nate as the support reactions and bending moments can be number of the simpler cases, the moment at midspan of an assumed
calculated using the basic equations of equilibrium. simply supported beam will suffice to give a safe answer, if not
• Cantilever, 36.6. This beam type is supported only at one end
where it is fixed in both position and rotationally. The bending
perhaps the most economical. Table V gives maximum bending
moments and deflections for the common cases likely to be met.
moment will be zero at the free end and a maximum at the
support causing tension in the top of the beam. 2.17 Bending stresses
• Encastré or fixed end, 36.7. This beam is built-in at both ends.
This type of beam is statically indeterminate as the values of the
Once the bending moment M is known, the stress f at any layer at
distance y from the neutral axis can be found from elastic or plastic
bending moments are not calculable by normal statistical theory relationships. The choice of elastic or plastic design theory is
methods. These values actually depend on a number of impon- dictated by the code of practice for the material being considered.
derables, such as how much fixity exists at each support. For elastic design, the relationship is:
Maximum moments will occur in encastré beams either at mid-
M f
span or at one, other or both ends, depending upon the disposition ¼
of the loads. y I
• Continuous, 36.8. A beam on several supports is known as a
continuous beam. Generally, the maximum moments occur over
The stress in the extreme fibre of a beam therefore depends on the
second moment of area (I) of the cross-section. While a full
the supports. Tension in the beam section over the supports exposition of this parameter is beyond the scope of this chapter,
occurs at the top but occurs at the bottom at midspan. values for a number of common cross-sectional shapes can be
Continuous concrete beams have to be reinforced accordingly. found in Table VI. Note that in most cases the I value is directly

36.5 Simply supported 36.7 Encastré beam

beam under uniform
loading 36.6 Cantilever beam

36.8 Continuous beams 36.9 Lintol

 Structure 36-7

Table V Standard Beam conditions

1 Cantilevers

Wx2 Wa
MX = Mmax =
2a 2

Smax = RL = W

Wa3
M =
8EI
Wa3 4b
max = R = 1+
8EI 3a

b
Mmax = W a +
2

Smax = RL = W

max = R

W
= (8a3 + 18a2b + 12ab2 + 3b3 )
24EI

MX = Px Mmax = Pa

Smax = RL = P

Pa3
M =
3EI
Pa3 3b
max = R = 1+
3EI 2a

2 Simply supported beams

Wx x
MX = 1–
2 L
WL
Mmax =
8
W
RL = R R =
2
5 WL3
max at center =
384 EI

W x2 – a2
Mmax =
b 2

when

b
x = a + RL
W
W b
RL = +c
L 2
W b
RR = +a
L 2

if a = c

W
M = (L + 2a)
8
W
max = (8L3 – 4Lb2 + b3 )
384EI

1 2X2
MX = WX –
2 3L2
WL
Mmax =
6
W
RL = R R =
2
WL3
max =
60EI

If = 60° M = 0.0725 wL3

R = 0.217 wL2
36-8 Structure

Table V (Continued)

2 Simply supported beams, continued

PL
Mmax =
4
P
RL = RR =
2
PL3
max =
48EI

ab
Mmax = P = Mp
L
Pb Pa
RL = RR =
L L

max always occurs within 0.0774L of the center of the beam.

When b > a
3
PL3 a a
center = 3 –4
48EI L L

This value is always within 2.5% of the maximum value.

2 2
PL3 a a2
p + 1–
3EI L L

a b
MML = M MMR = M
L L
M
R A = RB =
L

when a > b

Mab a b
M = – –
3EI L L

ML – MR
RL = –RR =
L

when ML = MR ,

ML2
max = –
8EI

wN2
ML = MR = –
2
WL2
Mmax = + ML
8
L
RL = RR = w N +
2
wL3N
p = q = (1 – 6n2 –3n3 )
24EI
wL4
max = (5 – 24n2 )
384EI
N
n =
L

3 Fixed end beams

WL
ML = MR = –
12
WL
MM =
24
W
RL = RR =
2

Points of contraflexure 0.21L from each end

WL3
max =
384EI
 Structure 36-9

Table V (Continued)

3 Fixed end beams, continued

W
ML = –
12L2b

[c3(4L – 3c) – c2 (4L – 3C)]

W
MR = –
12L2b

[d3(4L – 3d) – a3(4L – 3a)]

a+b = d

b+c = e

When r = reaction if the beam were simply supported.

ML – MR
RL = rL +
L

MR – ML
RR = rR +
L

When a = c,

W
max = (L3 + 2L2a + 4La2 – 8a3 )
384EI

WL
ML = MR = –
10

5WL WL 9WL
MM = – =
32 10 160

W
RL = RB =
2

1.3WL3
max =
384EI

As
ML = MR = –
L

where AS is the area of the free bending moment diagram

W
RL = RR =
2

ASx – A1x1
max =
2EI

PL
ML = MR = –
8

PL
MM =
8

P
RL = RR =
2

PL3
max =
192EI
36-10 Structure

Table V (Continued)

3 Fixed end beams, continued

Pab2
ML = –
L2
Pba2
MR = –
L2
2Pa2b2
MM =
L3
b2 a
RL = P 1+2
L2 L
a2 b
RR = P 1+2
L2 L
Pa3b3
m =
3EIL3
2Pa2b3
max =
3EI(3L – 2a)2
L2
at x =
3L – 2a

4 Propped cantilevers

WL
ML = –
8
9WL
Mmax = at x = 5⁄8
128

M = 0 at x = 1⁄4
RL = 5⁄8W
RR = 3⁄ W
8
if m = 1 – X

WL3
= (m – 3m3 + 2m4 )
48EI
WL3
max =
185EI

at X = 0.5785

Pb
ML = – (1 – b12 )
2

(maximum 0.193PL if b = 0.577)

Pb
MM = (2 – 3b + b13 )
2

(maximum 0.174PL if b = 0.366)

RR = 1⁄2 Pa12 (b + 2)

Pa3b2
m = – (4L – a)
12EIL3

If As = area of free bending moment diagram

3As
ML =
2L
W ML
RL = +
2 L
W ML
RR = –
2 L

max at X where area Q = area R

area S X d
max =
EI
 Structure 36-11

Table VI Properties of sections

Section shape Area of Distance (y1 ) of Moment of inertia Modulus Radius of gyration
section A extremity of section about neutral axis
from neutral axis X (Ix ) Ix Ix
Zx = k =
Y1 A

a a4 a3 a
a2 = 0.289a
2 12 6 12

d 1 1 d
bd bd3 bd2 = 0.289d
2 12 6 12

a a4 2 a
a2 = 0.707a a3 = 0.118a3 = 0.289a
2 12 12 12

bd d bd3 bd2 d
= 0.236d
2 3 36 24 18

a+b a + 2b d a2 + 4ab + b2 a2 + 4ab + b2 a2 + 4ab + b2

d d3 d2 d
2 a+b 3 36(a + b) 12(a + 2b) 18(a + b)2

d2 d d4 d3 d
= 0.7854d2 = 0.0491d4 = 0.0982d3
4 2 64 32 4

d d4 – d14 d2 + d12
(d2 – d12 ) (d4 – d14 )
4 2 64 32 d 4

d2 2d 9 2
– 64 (9 2
– 64)d3 9 2
– 64d
= 0.3927d2 = 0.212d = d4 = 0.007d4 = 0.024d3 = 0.132d
8 3 1152 192(3 – 4) 12

bd d bd3 bd2 d
= 0.7854bd = 0.0491bd3 = 0.0982bd2
4 2 64 32 4

d bd3 – b1d13 bd3 – b1d13

(bd – b1d1 ) (bd3 – b1d13 ) 1
⁄4
4 2 64 32 d bd – b1d1

d 1 bd3 – b1d13 bd3 – b1d13

(bd – b1d1 ) (bd3 – b1d13 )
2 12 6d 12(bd – b1d1 )

d 1 bd3 – b1d13 bd3 – b1d13

(bd – b1d1 ) (bd3 – b1d13 )
2 12 6d 12(bd – b1d1 )

d 1 bd3 – b1d13 bd3 – b1d13

(bd – b1d1 ) (bd3 – b1d13 )
2 12 6d 12(bd – b1d1 )
36-12 Structure

Table VI (Continued)

Section shape Area of Distance (y1 ) of Moment of inertia Modulus Radius of gyration
section A extremity of section about neutral axis
from neutral axis X (Ix ) Ix Ix
Zx = k =
Y1 A

bd2 – 2b1d1d + b1d12 (bd2 – b1d12 )2 – 4bdb1d1 )(d – d1 )2 (bd2 – b1d12 )2 – 4bdb1d1(d – d1 )2
(bd – b1d1 ) –
2(bd – b1d1 ) 12(bd – b1d1 ) 6(bd2 – 2bdd1 + b1d12 )

bd2 – 2b1d1d + b1d12 (bd2 – b1d12 )2 – 4bdb1d1(d – d1 )2 (bd2 – b1d12 )2 ) – 4bdb1d1(d – d1 )2

(bd – b1d1 ) –
2(bd – b1d1 ) 12(bd – b1d1 ) 6(bd2 – 2bdb1 + b1d12 )

bd2 – 2b1d1d + b1d12 (bd2 – b1d12 )2 – 4bdb1d1(d – d1 )2 (bd2 – b1d12 )2 ) – 4bdb1d1(d – d1 )2

(bd – b1d1 ) –
2(bd – b1d1 ) 12(bd – b1d1 ) 6(bd2 – 2bdb1 + b1d12 )

d 1 b1d3 + bd13 bd13 + b1d3

(bd1 + b1d) (bd13 + b1d3 )
2 12 6d 12(bd1 + b1d)

d 1 b1d3 + bd13 bd13 + b1d3

(bd1 + b1d) (bd13 + b1d3 )
2 12 6d 12(bd1 – b1d)

d 1 b1d3 + bd13 bd13 + bd1d3

(bd1 + b1d) (bd13 + b1d3 )
2 12 6d 12(bd1 + b1d)

proportional to the cube of the depth of the section. Suffice it to say Table VII Maximum span/depth ratios (rule-of
that the larger the depth of the section, the smaller will be the thumb) for preliminary sizing
maximum stress. It is therefore beneficial to choose cross-section
Concrete beams 20
shapes that have large I-values for the given area of material. For Concrete slabs 30
this reason, the most common shape of cross-section for a steel Steel beams (I-section) 25
beam is an I, a greater distance between the flanges results in a Timber joists 20
reduction of material for the required second moment of area.
There is a limit to this, however. Since the top flange is in
compression, if it becomes too slender it can buckle. This is
particularly significant in the design of steelwork and is the reason 3 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
that beams have to be checked for lateral torsional buckling when
the compression flange is not fully restrained. 3.01
The third major factor in structural design is an adequate knowledge
of the behaviour of the materials used. The basic palette of materials
2.18 Shear consists of masonry (stone, brick and block), timber, steel and
In addition to internal forces generated by bending moments, most reinforced concrete. Design in new materials such as plastics, fabric
beam cross-sections will also have to carry a force in the plane of and glass are becoming more widespread Table VIII compares some
the section, called a shear force. Generally, the shear will be properties of structural interest for these materials.
greatest at the supports of a beam, and least at midspan.
In the case of an I-section, the shear force acts mainly within the
web connecting together the two flanges that are in compression 4 MASONRY
and tension. If the web becomes too slender it can buckle under the
influence of the shear force. 4.01
Masonry is the general term used for loadbearing construction in
brick, block and stone; these are materials of interest to architects.
2.19 Deflection Since they and the mortar that is used to fill the gaps between their
Since the top of a loaded beam is in compression, it must reduce in elements are all weak in tension, such construction is normally
length; the bottom, in tension, must stretch. This will lead to the used to carry only simple compressive forces in vertical elements
beam taking up a curved form: in the case of a simply supported such as walls and piers, sometimes in arches. Masonry can also be
beam with vertical loading, it will sag. Excessive sagging is not used to resist lateral loads from soil and water pressures in retain-
only unsightly, but also may cause damage to finishes such as ing walls and wind loads when used in loadbearing masonry or
plaster ceilings, or cause load to be transferred onto partitions when used as a cladding to a framed building structure. Masonry
that are not designed to carry such load. Formulae are published can be reinforced with steel bars and or mesh to increase its tensile
in many texts giving the deflections of various kinds of beams resistance and hence overall strength.
under different loadings (some are included in Table V).
As a guide to probable deflection characteristics, rule-of-thumb
span-to-depth ratios are often used. Provided the use is confined to 4.02 Design
preliminary design and the actual deflections are later checked, the Design of masonry should be carried out in accordance with
ratios in Table VII will be found of value. BS5268 – 1 Code of practice for the use of masonry. Structural
 Structure 36-13

Table VIII Comparison of material properties

Property Masonry (clay Reinforced Steel (mild Wood Glass reinforced Annealed glass Fabric
brickwork) concrete steel) (whitewood) plastic (polyester) (polyester
(with 4% yarn with
reinforcement) pvc coating)

Type of material Ceramic Cementitious Metal Natural Synthetic Glass Polymer

with metal Composite Composite
Weight (p) kN/mm3 22 24 78 4.5 18 25 14
Tensile strength (TS) N/mm2 1 18 400 75 250 5000 but 1000
fracture
governed
Compressive strength (c) N/mm2 15 45 400 25 150 1000 but none
complimentary
tensile strength
will govern
Flexural strength – modulus of rupture 1.5 18 400 50 300 – none
(b) N/mm2
Elastic modulus (E) kN/mm2 20 35 210 10 15 70–74 14
Reversible moisture 0.02 0.02 none 1.50 small – small
Movement % initial expansion (þ) or þ0.05 0.02 none

small –
shrinkage (–) %
Coefficient of thermal expansion 6 12 12 4 14 7.7–8.8 ...
(a)  106/ C

Table IX Properties of masonry as built

Property Clay Calcium Dense Aerated Natural

brickwork silicate concrete concrete limestone
brickwork blockwork blockwork

Weight kN/m3 22 20 21 9 22
Compressive strength N/mm2 3–24 3–8 3–24 6 10
Flexural strength N/mm2
– Parallel to bed joints 2.0 1.2 1.0 0.5

– Perpendicular to bed joints 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.3

Elastic modulus kN/mm2 5–25 14–18 5–25 2–8 15
Reversible moisture Movement % 0.02 0.01–0.05 0.02–0.04 0.02–0.03 0.01
Initial moisture expansion (þ) or Drying shrinkage (–)% þ0.02 to þ0.08 0.01 to 0.05 0.02 to 0.06 0.05 to 0.09 þ0.01
Coefficient of thermal expansion  106/ C 5–8 8–14 6–12 8 4

use of unreinforced masonry, a limit state code based upon plastic Tables X–XIV give information on typical masonry designs.
design theory. The Eurocode for masonry, BS EN 1996-3:2006, Although popular in the past, masonry is rarely used for floors
Eurocode 6; Design of masonry structures. Simplified calculation nowadays. However, vaults and domed roofs continue to be built in
methods for unreinforced masonry structures will replace BS5628 traditional types of buildings such as churches.
on its withdrawal.
The Institution of Structural Engineers Manual for the design of
plain masonry in building structures (the Red Book) offers design 5 TIMBER
guidance for simple structural masonry.
5.01 Structure of timber
Timber is probably the oldest building material used. Wood is
4.03 composed of hollow tubular fibres of cellulose impregnated with
Table IX gives properties of common masonry materials. the resin lignin, packed closely together not unlike a bundle of
drinking straws. The result is that the material is strong in the
4.04 Vertical loadbearing elements longitudinal direction – in tension and compression – but weak
A wall is a vertical load-carrying element whose length in plan is at along the interface between the fibres.
least four times its width, otherwise it is a column. A pier is a
column integral with a wall. References to walls apply also to
columns and piers unless stated otherwise. 5.02 Advantages of timber
The load-carrying capacity of a wall depends on: Consequently, timber has the supreme virtue of ‘toughness’. It
usually gives a forewarning of imminent failure, as the weakness
• The crushing strength of the masonry unit
between the fibres inhibits the progress of transverse cracks. Even
• The composition
The of the mortar
when failure has occurred, there is often enough residual strength to
• The height of the wallof relative
size and shape the masonry unit
carry a substantial load. Its principal drawbacks are susceptibility to
• The eccentricity of the loadingto its width – its slenderness ratio insect and fungal attack and vulnerability to fire. Biological resis-
• tance can be fortified by treatment and a constant charring rate
Details of design methods will be found in the publications listed in allows fire resistance to be designed in by over sizing members for
the Bibliography. the required period.
Table X Masonry – vertical support elements

Element Horizontal and vertical section Typical h/d between Critical factors Remarks
heights (h) lateral for sizing
(m) supports

Masonry column 1–4 15–20 Buckling and h is vertical distance between lateral
crushing (h/d > 6) supports and d is thickness of column
Crushing (h/d < 6)
Bending

Masonry wall 1–5 18–22 Buckling and h is vertical distance between horizontal
crushing (h/d > 6) lateral supports; wall may also have
Crushing (h/d < 6) vertical lateral supports
Bending

Reinforced and 2–7 20–35 Bending h is vertical distance between horizontal

prestressed masonry lateral supports; wall may also have
columns and walls vertical lateral supports

Table XI Masonry – floors

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Typical Critical factors for sizing/remarks
depths (d) spans (L) L /d
(mm) (mm)

Masonry arch and fill 50–225 2–5 20–30 Bending or cracking from loads at quarter points
Fill above arch crown helps to prestress arch
L/H ratio about 10–20

Reinforced brick beam 300–600 4–12 10–16 Deflection and splitting of brick joints. Bending

Table XII Masonry – roofs

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Typical Critical factors for sizing/remarks
depths (d) spans (L) L /d
(mm) (m)

Masonry shells 75–125 6–15 80–120 Bending at edge of shell

Shell has funicular shape for major load so as to reduce
tension and shear stresses
Reinforcement may be necessary for larger spans

Masonry arch 70–600 8–50 30–60 Bending or cracking

Arch requires funicular shape for load due to self-weight
Flat arches cause high side thrust
L/H ratio about 5

Vaults and domes 50–150 5–40 30–80 Domes have been built spanning up to 40 m and stone
vaults up to 20 m
Vaults built at high level require buttresses
 Structure 36-15

Table XIII Masonry wall/roof systems

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Remarks

heights (H) H/W
(storeys)

Multi-storey cellular loadbearing walls 5–25 storeys 1.5–3.5 Most economic for buildings with small room areas
with concrete slabs Lateral forces resisted by walls in plane of forces.
Progressive collapse needs to be addressed

Masonry towers 5–25 storeys 3–6 Sections may require stiffening with rings or horizontal slabs at intervals.
Lower heights permit higher values of H/W
Progressive collapse needs to be addressed

Table XIV Masonry elements carrying gravity loads

Element Section Typical Typical Remarks

heights (H) H/d
(m)

Reinforced masonry retaining wall 1–6 10–15 Wall made of reinforced hollow blocks or units with
reinforced concrete pockets
w about H/2–2H/3

Masonry rubble in baskets 1–3 1–2 Rubble masonry gabion walls usually more
(gabions) economic than thick mass concrete retaining wall

Plan/on element Vertical section Formulae for Remarks

preliminary sizing
only – elastic theory

Single wall h Formula valid when lateral movement is prevented at top and
< 20 bottom of wall, at right angles to wall; such restraint usually
t provided by floor and roof construction
Wall has greater bending strength in the horizontal direction so
that vertical supports would be preferred to horizontal supports
Walls fail by crushing if h/t < 10 or by buckling and crushing
if h/t > 10

Column h 2h Column illustrated given lateral restraint at top in one direction

and < 20 only and effective height of column in that direction taken as
t w actual height; effective height in direction at right angles taken
t.w.u as twice actual height
p < Columns fail by crushing if slenderness ratio, hcf /t < 10 where
5 hcf is effective height and t is thickness of column
where u is ultimate P is unfactored value of load applied near centre of column
compressive strength of t1 and t2 are thicknesses of leaves of cavity wall which are
small masonry sample tied together
Wall illustrated has vertical load from floor taken by inner leaf
h
< 20 only
tc
Cavity wall where tc is greater of
t1 , t2 or 2/3(t1 + t2 )

Single wall L Vertical piers or intersecting walls used to restrain walls as

with piers or < 20 alternative to horizontal supports at top and bottom of wall.
intersecting t Dimension c is distance of outhang from last vertical support
walls 2.5c d is depth of pier of intersecting wall which should be greater
< 20 than 500 mm
t
36-16 Structure

Timber is one of that minority of materials that is almost equally

strong in tension and compression. This strength is such that
buckling of the compression flange of bending members is rarely
a problem. Rectangular sections are easily formed and used for this
purpose. Timber is easily worked by hand and machine tools and it
is simple to connect with other members, both other timber mem-
bers and those of steel, masonry and concrete. However, even
moderately stressed connections require plenty of room to accom-
modate the required number of fixings.

36.10 A laminated timber beam

5.03 Design
Advances in the technology of timber started in the railway era
when it was used for elaborate viaducts and bridges. These were 5.06 Timber frame
generally constructed by trial and error, calculation methods being Over 80% of the world’s housing is composed of timber frame and
developed later. In recent years, these methods of calculation have it is becoming more common in the UK. Tables XVI–XXI give
been taken to the point where it has become an extremely specia- information relating to vertical support in timber and on frame and
lised field. The use of the current Codes of Practice by non- wall systems.
specialists is not recommended. In complicated timber structures,
the sizes of the members tend to depend more on the design of the 5.07 Roof trusses
connections than on the internal stresses. The average UK architect meets timber in two common places:
Design of timber should be carried out in accordance with BS roof trusses and floor joists. Nowadays, most trusses are of the
5268-2:2002 Structural use of timber. Code of practice for permis- gang-nail type supplied to order for the required conditions. The
sible stress design, materials and workmanship, a permissible manufacturer will supply calculations based on the Code of
stress design code based upon elastic design theory. The Practice for submission to the local building inspector. For pre-
Eurocode for timber, BS EN 1995-1-1:2004, Eurocode 5. Design liminary design purposes, the data in Tables XXII and XXIII will
of timber structures. General. Common rules and rules for build- be found of value for trusses of the shapes in 36.11 and 36.12.
ings will replace BS5268 on its withdrawal.

5.08 Floor joists

5.04 Timber sources and grades For the design of floor joists Table XXIV gives a guide to max-
Timber can be home-produced or imported from many places. imum spans of joists for timber of strength class C16, based on the
There is a degree of standardisation, but the designer can encounter TRADA publication ‘Span tables for solid timber members in
a wide variation in qualities. The structural properties of some floors, ceilings and roofs (excluding trussed rafter roofs) for dwell-
common types are given in Table XV. ings’ alternatively, calculations should be prepared for final design
by a qualified engineer in accordance with BS 5268.

5.05 Large timber sections

6 REINFORCED CONCRETE
Because of the shape and composition of the tree trunks from
which timber comes, it is difficult to directly produce the larger 6.01 Composition
size sections often required for modern construction, particularly Reinforced concrete is one of the most prolific and versatile struc-
for beams. For such larger sections, smaller timbers are glued tural materials available to the designer. It is composed of two
together to form laminated beams, 36.10. These are extremely distinct materials: concrete and reinforcement, each of which can
useful for many purposes, and manufacturers produce handbooks be varied in strength, disposition and quantity to fulfil almost any
giving comprehensive data for their use. requirement.

Table XV Properties of wood

Property at 12% moisture content Hem-fir Kapur Hem-fir Douglas fir Wood
softwood hardwood glulam timber plywood chipboard

Weight kN/m3 3.9 7.2 4.0 5.5 7.0

Mean 7-day tensile strength of good quality working
size sample N/mm2
– Along grain 60 115 75 40 15
– Across grain 2 4 2
Mean 7-day tensile strength of good quality working
size sample N/mm2
– Along grain 24 45 30 25
– Across grain 3 6 3 3
Mean 7-day flexural strength of good quality working 42 85 50 60 (face parallel to grain) 15
size sample – modulus of rupture N/mm2
Elastic modulus in bending kn/mm2 9–10 12–20 10 10–12 2–3
Reversible movement for 30% change in relative
humidity %
– Along grain 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.25 (in plane) 0.25 (in plane)
– Across grain 1.0–2.5 1.0–4.0 1.0–2.5 2.00 (across plane) 4.50 (across plane)
Coefficient of thermal expansion  106/ C
– Along grain 3.5 4 3.5
– Across grain 34 40 34
 Structure 36-17

Table XVI Wood – vertical support elements

Element Horizontal and vertical section Typical h/d between Critical factors Remarks
heights (h) lateral for sizing
(m) supports

Glued laminated 2–4 15–30 Splitting and Ratio w/d ≈ 2–3

timber column crushing (h/d < 15) Multi-storey columns may require lower h/d
Crushing and ratios than those given.
buckling (h/d > 15)

Stud frame wall panel 2–4 20–35 Crushing and Studs usually at about 400 mm centres with
buckling plywood or other sheeting nailed to it.
Thickness of
insulation required

Solid timber column 2–4 15–30 Warping or distortion Multi-storey columns may require lower h/d
of timber ratios than those given

Table XVII Wood – floors

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Typical Critical factors for sizing/remarks
depths (d) spans (L) L/d
(mm) (m)

Particle boards 12–30 0.3–0.6 24 Strength

Creep deflection

Plywood floor decking 12–30 0.3–0.9 30–40 Deflection

Point loads
Strength

Softwood floor boards 16–25 0.6–0.8 25–35 Deflection

Strength

Joists with floor board

– Softwood 200–300 2–6 12–20 Deflection
– Hardwood 100–250 2–7 22–28 Spacing of joists is about 450–600 mm

Glued laminated timber beam 180–1400 5–12 14–18 Deflection

Ratio d/b about 3–5 to prevent
instability of unrestrained section.

The concrete component is itself an amalgam of at least three not become evident for some years, but may then be disastrous.
constituents: aggregate, cement and water. These are mixed The properties of various types of concrete are summarized in
together into a homogeneous mass, placed in formwork and left Table XXV.
for the chemical and physical changes to occur that result in a hard
and durable material. The strength and durability will depend on
6.02 Specification
the quality and quantity of each of the constituents; and whether
Provided a clear specification is prepared and concrete placement
any additives have been introduced to the wet mix. Onsite mixing
is checked by site staff, the concrete should fulfil its function
of concrete for structural purposes is only carried out for larger jobs
indefinitely. This specification should be in accordance with BS
which merit the setting up of a batching plant. Concrete mixed
8500-1 Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1. Method
offsite at the premises of the ready-mix supplier is a quality con-
of specifying and guidance for the specifier and BS EN 2006 – 2.
trolled product, designed to meet the requirements of the specifier.
Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1. Specification
An indication of early concrete strength can be assessed by 7 or 14
for constituent materials and concrete, which cover not only
day tests, but the specified strength can only be checked by crush-
strength requirements but also minimum cement content, aggre-
ing cubes of hardened concrete at 28 days. Cylinder tests are
gate size, cement type and other relevant aspects.
specified for strength comparison of mixes designed in accordance
with Eurocodes. The crushing test will not necessarily indicate that
sufficient cement has been included to fulfil the requirement for 6.03 Design
long-term durability. Sometimes additives are included in the mix Design of reinforced concrete should be carried out in accordance
to promote workability, early strength, frost resistance, etc. with BS 8110-1:1997 Structural use of concrete. Code of practice
Deterioration in the material due to some of these factors may for design and construction, the limit state code for the structural
36-18 Structure

Table XVIII Wood – roofs, beam and deck

Element Section and elevation Typical Typical Typical Critical factors for sizing/remarks
depths (d) spans (L) L/d
(mm) (m)

Roof planks 25–75 2–6 45–60 Deflection

Planks assumed to be simply supported

Plywood roof decking 10–20 0.3–1.2 50–70 Deflection

Decking assumed to be continuous

Stressed skin plywood roof 100–450 3–7 30–35 Deflection

panels Panel assumed to be simply supported
Dimension a is about 300–500 mm

Joists with roof deck

– Softwood 100–225 2 –6 20–25 Deflection
– Hardwood 100–250 3 –8 30–35 Joists assumed to be simply supported
and spaced at 600 mm

Roof purlins
– Softwood 150 –300 2 –5 10–14 Available length and depth of wood
– Hardwood 200 –400 3 –8 15–20 Bending strength
Purlin assumed to be vertical, simply
supported and carrying about 2 m width
of roof

Glued laminated timber 180–1400 4–30 15–20 Deflection

beam with roof deck Beams assumed to be simply supported
with spacing L/3–L/5
Ratio d/b about 5–8

Glued plywood box beam 200–2000 6–20 10–15 Deflection

Bending strength
Longitudinal shear
Web buckling
Beams assumed to be simply supported

Trussed rafter without purlins 1200–2000 6–10 4–6 Strength of joints

Bending in rafter
Assumed spacing 600 mm

Sloping trusses with purlins 1000–3000 6–20 5–7 Strength of joints

Assumed spacing is 2–5 m

Flat top timber girders 1500–3000 12–25 8–10 Strength of joints

Assumed spacing is 4–6 m

use of concrete in buildings and structures. The Eurocode for be smooth round mild steel, in which case the bars are referred to as
concrete BS EN 1992-1-1: 2004 Eurocode 2. Design of concrete R25, etc. the letter R indicating mild steel and the numbers indicat-
structures. General rules and rules for buildings will replace ing the diameter in millimetres. Only those sizes in Table XXVIII
BS8110 on its withdrawal. A succinct guide to the requirements are available.
of BS 8100 can be found in the Manual for the Design of The other type of bar reinforcement is a high-yield bar referred
Reinforced Concrete Building Structures (the Green Book), pre- to as T25, etc. In this case, the letter indicates hot rolled or cold
pared by the Institution of Structural Engineers. worked high-yield steel and the numbers refer to the plain bar
diameter of equivalent cross-sectional area. The actual bar size
will be about 10% greater than this due to the deformation.
6.04 Reinforcement
Reinforcement is generally steel rods, although other materials
such as glass fibres and steel fibres have been tried in cladding 6.05 Mesh reinforcement
units and steel and polypropylene fibres are now commonly used For many structural elements, such as slabs and walls, it is con-
for crack control in floor slabs on ground. The reinforcing bars may venient to use reinforcement in the form of a pre-welded mesh
 Structure 36-19

Table XIX Wood – roofs, beam and surface

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Remarks

spans L/d
(L) (m)

Stressed skin panel folded 9–20 8–15 Panel has 2 skins with w/d ratio of 20–30 and thickness of
plate roof about 75–200 mm

Three-layer stressed skin ply 12–30 2–8 Shell has edge beams with L/d ratio of about 60–80
hyperbolic paraboloid

Three-layer stressed skin ply 9–30 4–8 Shell has edge beams
barrel vault Ratio w/h about 2–4

Pyramid roof 12–35 2–6 Simple to construct

Often used with steel tension members at base

Glued laminated timber dome 12–100 5–7 Typically, dome members have three-way grid, radial lines or
lamellar curve patterns when projected on plan
Connections semi-rigid or pinned

Lamellar arch roof 15–25 5–7 Typically, members on two intersecting parallel lamellar lines
making diamond shapes when projected on plan

Warped rectangular grid 12–80 5–10 Grid covered with ply panels
(hyperbolic paraboloid) Ratio L/d about 60–80

Domed grid shell 12–30 5–7 Grid members flexible to allow shaping to curve
Shape reasonably close to funicular shape for dead load

consisting of bars in both directions. Care should be taken in compressive strength of the concrete is insufficient for the loading.
specifying the correct mesh as they have different areas of bars In this case, reinforcing bars can be used to help take the compres-
in each direction depending upon their designation letter. An ‘A’ sion as well. Such use for reinforcement is expensive and is only
square mesh has the same area of bars in each direction. A ‘B’ used when increasing the size of the beam is not possible.
structural mesh has larger bars in the main direction and the area In cantilever beams, the tension occurs near the top. These beams
of bars in the cross direction satisfies the minimum area of have their heaviest reinforcement at the top, with most near the support.
secondary reinforcement requirement of BS 8110. It is important
therefore to ensure that a structural mesh is oriented correctly, as
indicated on the reinforcement drawing in order that structural
6.07 Effective depth
strength is not compromised. A ‘C’ long mesh is similar to a ‘B’
The effective depth of a beam is the distance from the top (or
mesh except that the area of cross wires does not meet the
compression flange) to the centroid of area of the tensile steel
requirements of BS 8110. These meshes are generally used for
reinforcement. It is indicated by the symbol d.
reinforcing slabs on ground. Table XXIX gives the standard sizes
of available meshes.

6.08 Minimum reinforcement

6.06 Reinforcement position Stresses arise in concrete not only from the applied loads but also
Concrete is strong in compression, but weak in tension and rein- from a variety of other causes. For example, when concrete dries
forcement is used to compensate for this weakness. Adequate and sets it tends to shrink slightly. If it cannot move, it will tend to
reinforcement must therefore be placed wherever any tension is crack. Similar cracking will occur if movement induced by thermal
likely to occur. Simply spanning beams are reinforced near the expansion and contraction is inhibited. Consequently, to reduce the
bottom, with most reinforcement at midspan. Shear forces also tendency to form large cracks, a modicum of reinforcement is used
produce tensile stresses – links or stirrups are used to reinforce throughout, allowing the formation of a multitude of fine cracks
the concrete against the effects of these stresses. Sometimes the which are invisible to the naked eye.
36-20 Structure

Table XX Wood – frame and wall systems

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Remarks

spans L/d
(L) (m)

Rigid glued laminated timber frame 12–35 30–50 Spacing of frames about 4–6 m
Laminated frame may be curved and of varying depth
but more expensive than uniform straight members
Ratio L/H about 5–7

Glued laminated beam and post 4–30 18–22 Frame not rigid in its own plane so vertical bracing
necessary, e.g. with rigid gables connected to roof plane

Plywood box portal frames 9–45 20–40 Box beams made of solid section timber flanges, glued
and nailed to plywood side pieces, acting as webs
Spacing of frames about 4–6 m

Glued laminated arch 15–100 30–50 Maximum convenient transportable lengths 15–25 m
Arch shape is nearly funicular for important load case
Arches may have rectangular or circular plan
Ratio L/H about 5–7

Plywood floor and wall panels Height, H Enclosures usually built in platform construction in
2 4 storeys which vertical framing members are not continuous

Braced frame 2 4 storeys Frame may be braced with diagonal steel rods or
plywood panels acting as diaphragms

6.09 Deflection 6.11

In addition to limiting the stresses below the ultimate values, rein- Details of various kinds of concrete structure are given in Tables
forced concrete must possess sufficient stiffness to prevent deflection XXXI–XXXVI.
or deformation which might impair the strength or efficiency of the
structure, or produce unsightly cracks in finishes or partitions. For all
normal cases, it may be assumed for preliminary design that the 7 STRUCTURAL STEELWORK AND OTHER METALS
stiffness will be satisfactory if the ratio of span to overall depth does
not exceed the appropriate guide value from Table XXX. 7.01 Metals
Steel is by far the metal most widely used for building structures,
but other materials are used in ancillary elements. Table XXXVII
gives properties of various steels and aluminium alloys.
6.10 Concrete cover to reinforcement
In all cases, there must be sufficient concrete cover to reinforce-
ment. This is: 7.02 Design
Design of steelwork should be carried out in accordance with BS
• To preserve it from corrosion
5950-1:2000; Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of
• To ensure an adequate bond with the concrete and
practice for design. Rolled and welded section, a limit state code
• ensure sufficient protection in case of fire.
To
based upon plastic theory. Eurocode 3 BS EN 1993-1-1:2005.
Tables A.6, A.10, A.12 and A.13 of BS 8500-1 give limiting values Design of steel structures. General rules and rules for buildings,
for the nominal cover of concrete made with normal weight aggre- should be used after withdrawal of BS 5950.
gates. In no case should the cover be less than the nominal A book of tables published by the Steel Construction Institute,
maximum aggregate size, or, for the main reinforcement, the bar (the blue book) gives dimensions and section properties of cur-
size. rently manufactured steel sections. Tables XXXVIII–XL show the
 Structure 36-21

Table XXI Softwood timber – elements carrying gravity load

Element and horizontal Elevation and section on element Formulae for preliminary sizing only Remarks
section

Solid timber tie p Area of tie at connection

< Pt assumed to be 80% of gross area
0.84A Given span to width ratio
assumes tie may take small
where P is unfactored value of tie force
amount of compression
A is gross area of tie
Actual area of tie usually
Pt is allowable working stress of timber
decided by type of connection
softwood in tension = 3.5 N/mm2
detail; because of difficulty of
L tension connection steel rods
< 70 often used in place of timber ties
t Given allowable stress is for
long-term (2 month) load on
where t is least dimension of tie cross-section
construction grade softwood
L is length of tie between supports

Solid timber column P For buildings which are laterally

< pc braced for example by cross-
A bracing, effective height of
columns hc is not greater than
where P is working value of compression in
actual height h between floors
column
Given formula valid for columns
Pc is allowable working stress of timber in
carrying axial load
compression which depends on slenderness
Given allowable stress is for
ratio hcf /t see below, where hcf is effective
long-term (2 month) load on
height of column; slenderness ratio should
construction grade softwood
not normally exceed 50

hcf
= pc =
t

10 9.0 N/mm2
20 6.0 N/mm2
30 2.8 N/mm2
40 1.5 N/mm2
50 1.0 N/mm2

Simply supported solid M Formulae assume top of beam is

timber beam < pbc laterally restrained or has ends
Z held in position; in general d/b
< 7 and if d/b > 6 beam requires
where M is unfactored value of bending
bridging as well as lateral
moment on beam
restraint where b is width of
Z is the section modulus of the beam
beam
pbc is allowable working stress of softwood
Given allowable stress is for
in bending = 7 N/mm2
long-term (2 month) load on
5W.L 3 5fbc .L 2 construction grade softwood
= = Typical spacing of beams in
384E.I 24E.d floors, c is 450–600 mm
If total deflection limited to
where W is total u.d. load on beam
L/330 then E.I > 4.34 W.L 2
L is span and d is depth of beam
is midspan deflection
I is moment of inertia of beam
E is elastic modulus of timber including
effects of creep which depends on duration
of load
fbc is actual bending stress in beam at
midspan
To prevent ponding on flat roofs
4
E.l > c. wL /50

where I is moment of inertial of roof beams

at spacing c
E is short-term elastic modulus of
softwood = 11 kN/mm2

ρ w is density of water = 10 kN/m3

L is span of roof beams given camber > 2.5 d
where d is dead load deflection of
beams at midspan

Simply supported glued- M Notes and formula for deflection

laminated timber beam < pbc as for solid timber beams
Z

where Pbc is allowable – working stress in

bending = 12.5 N/mm2
To prevent ponding on flat roofs

E.I > c.ρw L 4/50

where E is short-term elastic modulus of

laminated softwood = 12 kN/mm2
36-22 Structure

Table XXII Maximum permissible spans for rafter members shown in Fig 36.11 (ref BS 5268-3 Table B2)

Table XXIII Maximum permissible spans for ceiling ties (ref BS 5268-3 Table)
 Structure 36-23

36.11 Typical trussed rafter layouts (ref BS 5268-3 Fig. 11)

8 GLASS
8.01
Glass is being used to create spectacular structures in modern
architecture and it can be incorporated as a structural material in
a number of ways.

8.02 Design
36.12 Diagram of a fink or ‘W’ trussed rafter The structural use of glass requires an understanding of the beha-
viour of both the structure and the material. The inherent brittle
dimensions for universal beams, columns and joists. This book also nature of glass dictates consideration of the nature and conse-
contains capacity tables which may be used to quickly determine quences of any failure modes.
the suitability of a particular section for preliminary design. More The choice of international standards for the design of edge
rigorous calculations to BS 5950 are generally required for final supported glass panels is wide-ranging, but BS 6262-1:2005,
design. The Manual for the design of steelwork building structures Glazing for buildings. General methodology for the selection of
issued by the Institution of Structural Engineers provides guidance glazing, is the current British Standard.
for design.

8.03 Types of glass

7.03 Grades of steel
A number of processes are used to produce the main glass types
Steel for structural purposes is available in the United Kingdom in
used in structures.
three grades increasing in strength: S275, which corresponds to the
Annealed float glass is made by melting the ingredients
previous description of ‘mild steel’, S355 and S460.
(Silicon, soda ash and recycle broken glass) together. The molten
glass is then poured onto a float bath of molten tin were it under-
7.04 goes controlled cooling after which it is further cooled in and
Details of various kinds of steel structure are given in Tables an annealing oven. The resulting product exhibits elastic proper-
XLII–XLVIII. ties, but suffers brittle fracture under impact, bending and
36-24 Structure

Table XXIV Permissible clear spans for domestic floor joists (m) (Ref TRADA Technology Design Aid DA 1/2004)

thermal loading. Typical properties of annealed glass are shown on impact but remains intact, minimising the risk of injury on
in Table VIII. failure.
Toughened glass is produced by heating and then rapidly cool-
ing annealed glass. This results in a glass core which is in tension, 8.04 Structural uses
sandwiched between surface layers which are in compression. A number of structural uses are possible as summarised in
Toughened glass therefore has an ability to sustain higher stresses Table XLIX.
than annealed glass. Toughened glass is prone to sudden shatter-
ing due to nickel sulphide inclusions. Such failure will also be
instigated if the compressive surface layers are breached by 9 OTHER MATERIALS
scratching. 9.01 Plastics
Laminated glass is produced by bonding two layers of glass Properties of some plastics materials are shown in Table L. The use
with a layer of acrylic resin. The resulting material does not shard of these in roofs is given in Table LI.
 Structure 36-25

Table XXV Properties of concrete

Property Structural Lightweight No-fines Autoclaved Polymer Glass-fibre Sprayed

concrete concrete concrete aerated concrete reinforced concrete
concrete (Polyester cement without fibre
mortar) (5% fibre) reinforcement

Weight kN/m3 24 4–20 15–19 6–9 24 25 23

Long-term compressive strength N/mm2 20–100 5–60 4–9 3–6 50–100 30–100 30–60
Long-term flexural strength-modulus of 3 3 1 1 10–40 15–20 (10 years) 3
rupture N/mm2
Elastic modulus in compression kN/mm2 15–40 5–25 15 1.5–9 3–15 20–30 (10 years) 20–30
Impact strength very low low very low very low high high but decreases low
Tensile strain capacity % – elongation 0.004–0.012 – – – 1–5 0.05 –
before cracking
Reversible moisture movement % 0.02–0.10 0.03–0.20 – 0.02–0.03 – 0.15–0.30 0.15–0.30
Initial drying shrinkage % 0.02–0.08 0.03–0.04 0.01–0.03 0.02–0.09 1.00 0.15–0.30 0.15–0.30
Coefficient of thermal expansion  7–14 6–12 4–8 8–10 20–40 7–11 7–14
10–6/ C

Table XXVI Mix proportions for standardized prescribed concretes (Ref BS EN 206 – part 2 table 10)

Table XXVII Mix proportions for volume batching of ST1–ST3 (Ref BS EN 206 – part 2 table 12)
36-26 Structure

Table XXVIII Cross-sectional areas in square millimetres of specific numbers of bars (mm2)

Diam Weight Number of bars

(mm) (kg/m)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

8 0.395 50 100 151 201 251 302 352 402 452 503
10 0.617 79 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 785
12 0.888 113 226 339 452 566 679 792 905 1018 1131
16 1.58 201 402 603 804 1005 1206 1407 1608 1810 2011
20 2.47 314 628 942 1257 1571 1885 2199 2513 2827 3142
25 3.86 491 982 1473 1963 2454 2945 3436 3927 4418 4909
32 6.31 804 1608 2413 3217 4021 4825 5630 6434 7238 8042
40 9.87 1257 2513 3770 5026 6283 7540 8790 10 053 11 310 12 566

Diam Areas in mm2/m for spacings in mm

(mm)
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 300

8 1066 670 503 402 335 287 251 201 168

10 1570 1047 786 628 524 449 393 314 262
12 2262 1508 1131 905 754 646 565 452 377
16 4022 2681 2011 1608 1340 1149 1005 801 670
20 – 4189 3142 2513 2094 1795 1571 1257 1047
25 – 6545 4909 3927 3272 2805 2454 1963 1636
32 – – 8042 6434 6362 4596 4021 3217 2681
40 – – – 10 053 8378 7181 6283 5027 4189

Table XXIX Sizes of reinforcing meshes

BS reference Mesh sizes

Nominal pitch of Cross-sectional area
wires (mm) Size of wires (mm) (mm2) per metre width Nominal mass kg per m2

Main Cross Main Cross Main Cross

Square mesh fabric

A 393 200 200 10 10 393 393 6.16
A 252 200 200 8 8 252 252 3.95
A 193 200 200 7 7 193 193 3.02
A 142 200 200 6 6 142 142 2.22
A 98 200 200 5 5 98 98 1.54
Structural fabric
B 1131 100 200 12 8 1131 252 10.90
B 785 100 200 10 8 785 252 8.14
B 503 100 200 8 8 503 252 5.93
B 385 100 200 7 7 385 193 4.53
B 283 100 200 6 7 283 193 3.73
B 196 100 200 5 7 196 193 3.05
Long mesh fabric
C 785 100 400 10 6 785 71 6.72
C 636 100 400 9 6 636 71 5.55
C 503 100 400 8 5 503 49 4.34
C 385 100 400 7 5 385 49 3.41
C 283 100 400 6 5 283 49 2.61
Wrapping fabric
D 49 100 100 2.5 2.5 49.0 49.0 0.77


Cross wires for all types of long mesh may be of plain hard drawn steel wire.

Table XXX Span to depth ratios for preliminary design

Beams
Simply supported beams 20 10 FOUNDATIONS
Continuous beams 25
Cantilever beams 10 10.01 Nature
The purpose of a foundation is to transmit the dead and live loads
Slabs from a building structure to the ground. The nature of the founda-
Slabs spanning in one direction, simply supported 30
Slabs spanning in one direction, continuous 35
tion will depend on:
Slabs spanning in two directions, simply supported
Slabs spanning in two directions, continuous
35
40 • The characteristics of the soil
Cantilever slabs 12 • The magnitude of the loads from the structure
• nature of the loads from the structure.
The
In the majority of buildings, the loads transmitted to the ground
9.02 Fabric will arrive either as point loads down columns or line loads down
Plastics are used in the manufacture of many structural fabrics walls. For the type of building with which these notes deal, the
which are finding increasing uses. Table LII gives properties of magnitudes of these loads will not be so great as to significantly
some of these, and Table LIII covers their use in roofs. affect the choice of foundation system.
 Structure 36-27

Table XXXI Concrete – vertical support elements

Element Horizontal and vertical section Typical h/d between Critical factors Remarks
heights lateral for sizing
(h) (m) supports

Cast-in-place column
– Single storey 2 –8 12–18 Buckling and Columns rigidly connected to beams
– Multi-storey 2 –4 6–15 crushing (h/d > 10) form frames which act as a vertical
Crushing (h/d < 10) bracing system
Bending

Cast-in-place wall 2 –4 18–25 Buckling

Construction method

Precast column
– Single storey 2 –8 15–30 Buckling and Variety of high-quality finishes
– Multi-storey 2 –4 6–20 crushing (h/d > 10) available with precast products
Crushing (h/d < 10)
Bending
Connections

Precast loadbearing panel 2 –3 20 –25 Buckling

Connections
Handling stresses

Precast tilt-up panel 4 –8 15–25 Handling stresses

Prestressed concrete columns

– Single storey 4–8 15–25 Buckling Prestressing helps to eliminate
– Multi-storey 2–4 10–20 tensile stresses due to bending

Prestressed concrete hangers 1–40 1–150 Variation in load Stiffer and more resistant to
corrosion than the steel tie

10.02 Soil example a hollow box. This is the principle by which loads can be
This will basically depend on the strength of the soil to carry the carried on soft marshy soil; the analogy is that of a boat floating
load. The term ‘soil’ in this context means not vegetable material on water. In many cases, the architect will be told what the
suitable for growing crops (topsoil), but the material forming the bearing capacity of the soil is at normal foundation depth –
surface of the earth to a depth of about 100 m, which is not so hard about 1 m. Table LIV gives figures for common soils but should
as to be classified as a ‘rock’. be used with caution.
The technology of the physical properties of soil is called soil
mechanics. It is not appropriate to deal in depth with this subject,
10.04 Pad and strip foundations
but some simple principles are necessary to understand the design
These are the types of foundation most commonly met by archi-
of foundations.
tects, and their design should only require the use of an engineer if
there are complications. Care should however be taken in soft soils
where settlement rather than bearing capacity is the critical criteria.
10.03 Bearing pressure Simple pad and strip foundation calculation is best shown from an
The bearing pressure that can be carried by the soil is the additional example.
load that can be carried on a unit area. A soil stratum at a depth of, say,
3 m is already carrying the weight of that 3 m (overburden) of soil,
36.13. In fact, the bearing capacity of many soils increases substantially Example 1
with depth. This is because a common mode of failure under excessive A brick wall forming the outside of a house carries a load of 85 kN/m.
load is sideways spillage of the soil, often accompanied by upward What width of foundation will be required at a depth of 1.5 m,
heave of the material around the area of application, 36.14. Obviously given an allowable bearing capacity on the soil at that depth of
this is much less likely where the load is carried at some depth, 36.15. 60 kN/m2? Ignore the weight of the foundation itself:
Since the bearing capacity represents the additional load the If B the width of the foundation in metres, the pressure transmitted
soil can carry, the greater the depth, the smaller proportion of the to the soil will be
total (or gross) pressure this will form. In fact, it is even possible
to produce zero or negative net pressure by removing the over- 85 = 2
kN m
burden, and replacing it with something weighing much less, for B
36-28 Structure

Table XXXII Concrete – floors

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Typical Critical factors for sizing/remarks
depths spans L/d
(d) (mm) (L) (m)

One-way solid slab

– Reinforced 100–250 2–7 22–32 Deflection
– Prestressed 125–200 5–9 38–45 Bending
Simply supported slabs have the lower values of
L/d in given range.

Reinforced two-way 100–250 6–11 28–35 Deflection

slab Bending
Suitable for heavy loading and concentrated loads
L < L1 < 1.4 L

One-way ribbed slab

(pan joist)
– Reinforced 225–600 4–12 18–26 Deflection
– Prestressed 300–450 10–18 30–38 Bending
Shear
Most suitable for long spans with light loads
Dimensions a, b and c as below

Two-way waffle slab

– Reinforced 350–650 9–15 18–24 Deflection
– Prestressed 450–650 10–22 25–32 Bending
Form moulds of standard size available
More costly to form than ribbed slab
Dimensions for
a are 100–200 mm,
b are 900–1800 mm,
c are 60–100 mm approximately

Reinforced one-way 150–300 3–7 20–25 Bending

joists with hollow Shear
blocks (filler blocks) Small holes in the floor easily made for services

Block and joist floor 150–200 3–7 30–35 Bending

(joists prestressed) Deflection
Block and joist are precast but have cast-in-place
topping 50–75 mm thick

Precast prestressed 100–200 6–9 35–45 Live load deflection

planks Bending
Slabs more than 175 mm deep often built with
voids
Topping depth, a, is 50–75 mm thick

Prestressed hollow 100–350 6–10 35–40 Bending

core slab Joists are precast but have cast-in-place topping of
depth, a, 35–50 mm thick

Widespan slab Bending

– Reinforced 100–300 3–7 26–32 Bending
– Prestressed 100–225 4–9 35–45 Deflection
Slabs are precast with cast-in-place topping
Slab often propped during construction.

Precast prestressed 350–800 9–18 20–30 Live load

double-T beams Bending
Shear
Handling stresses
Beams have cast-in-place topping 50–75 mm thick
 Structure 36-29

Table XXXII (Continued)

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Typical Critical factors for sizing/remarks
depths (d) spans (L) L/d
(mm) (m)

Flat slab without drop

panels (flat plates)
– Reinforced 125–200 4–8 28–36 Shear round columns
– Prestressed 200–225 9–10 40–48 Deflection
Bending
Compared to beam and slab, flat slabs save depth
and formwork costs but have lower resistance to
lateral forces

Flat slab with drop

panels
– Reinforced 125–300 5–10 28–36 Shear at drops
– Prestressed 200–225 12–14 40–48 Deflection
Bending
Dimension dd is about 1.25d–1.45d; b is about L/3

T or L Beam
– Reinforced 400–700 5–15 14–20 Beams usually spaced at about 3–7 m giving slab
– Prestressed 300–850 9–24 20–30 depth between 100–175 mm
Simply supported beams have the lower values of
L/d in the given range

Wide beam
– Reinforced 350–650 6–12 16–22 Deflection
– Prestressed 300–500 9–15 22–32 Bending
Used where height is limited
Simply supported beams have the lower values
of L/d in the given range
Dimension a is about 600–1200 mm

Table XXXIII Concrete – roofs

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Typical Critical factors for sizing/remarks
depths spans L/d
(d) (mm) (L) (m)

Reinforced one-way solid 125–500 3 –6 20 –30 Deflection

slab Bending

Reinforced one-way ribbed 500–1200 6 –14 25 –30 Deflection

slab (pan joist) Shear
Bending
Dimensions for
a are 100–150 mm;
c are 50–100 mm

Reinforced two-way waffle 625–1500 9 –16 20 –25 Deflection

slab Bending
Dimensions as above

Reinforced flat slab without 400–900 4–8 32 Shear round columns

drop panels Deflection
Bending
36-30 Structure

Table XXXIII (Continued)

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Typical Critical factors for sizing/remarks
depths spans L/d
(d) (mm) (L) (m)

Prestressed hollow core 100–200 6–10 40–50 Compressive strength of unit

slabs Live load variation
Slabs are precast but have 50–75 mm
cast-in-place topping

Prestressed double-T beam 350–800 12–25 30–35 Bending

Shear
Handling stresses

Prestressed single-T beam 750–2500 15–25 30–35 Bending and shear

Handling stresses
Beams are precast but have 50–75 mm
cast-in-place topping

Reinforced aerated concrete 100–200 2–5 20–25 Bending

slabs Slabs connected by strip of cast-in-place
concrete

Reinforced inverted 75–100 9–15 120–200 Cover to bars Tension reinforcement required
hyperbolic paraboloids at top of umbrella
(umbrellas) Umbrellas are independent and may be at
different heights
L/H ratio about 6–12.

Reinforced hyperbolic 75–100 15–55 200–450 Deflection at tips

paraboloid shell Cover to bars
Edge beams may be prestressed to overcome
tensile stresses
L/H ratio about 4–7

Domes 75–300 15–120 300–450 Shell buckling

Cover to bars
Minimum thickness, d, about 60 mm
Tension ring at base often prestressed

Reinforced concrete folded 75–125 9–36 40–50 (w/d) Bending in slab

plates Tie force in valley
Minimum thickness about 60 mm
L/H ratio about 8–15

Reinforced long barrel shell 75–100 25–40 50–65 (w/d) Cover to bars
Minimum thickness about 60 mm
Shell often prestressed to overcome tensile
stresses
L/H ratio about 10–15.

Reinforced skew grid 300–700 10–20 25–35 Deflection

Bending
Corners stiffer with skew grid than with grid
parallel to sides thus allowing larger spans

Table XXXIV Concrete – wall and frame systems

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Remarks

spans L/d
(L) (m)

Single storey precast frames 12–24 22–30 Joints in horizontal member usually at corner or about
L/4 from corner if frame is large
 Structure 36-31

Table XXXIV (Continued)

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Remarks

spans (L) L/d
(m)

Arches 15–60 28–40 Arches usually continuous and fully rigid between
springing points
L/H ratio about 4–12

Precast exterior frames with 6–12 22–30 Connections between precast components done with
interiors cast-in-place cast-in-place concrete
Interior frame may also use precast elements or be cast
against precast permanent formwork
System used for buildings up to about 20 storeys high
Spans given indicative only

Cast-in-place floor and wall 6–12 25–30 This system usually uses a standard rapid formwork
panel systems system
System is inherently rigid and used for buildings up to
about 20 storeys high

Precast floor and wall panel 6–12 22–25 Usually no rigid joint between floor and wall panels;
systems hence system similar in many respects to load bearing
masonry with floor slab
System economic up to about 15 storeys

Precast beams and columns 6–12 14–16 With rigid connections, system can only go up to
with precast floor units about two storeys without extra vertical bracing

Multi-storey cast-in-place 5–15 storeys 1–5 Cast-in-place frames without extra vertical bracing are
frames economic up to about 15 storeys
L/d ratio about 20–40

Shear walls or cores with 10–55 storeys 4–5 Shear wall or core interacts with rigid frame to
rigid frame provide a vertical bracing system which is stiff over
height of building
Given values of height ratio (H/W) larger for buildings
less than about 20 storeys high

Framed tubes and core 40–65 storeys 6–7 Also known as tube in tube system
Framed tube interacts with core

Core structures with 10–30 storeys 8–12 Core provides all lateral stability
suspended floors or Only limited plan areas with suspended floors
semi-rigid frame

Table XXXV Concrete – below ground

Element Section Typical Typical Remarks

heights (H) L/d
(m)

Retaining wall 2–6 10–12 Dimension B is about H/2–2H/3

Toe helps to prevent sliding

Shell and box enclosures 1–4 25–30 Used for subways, culverts etc.
Loading depends on soil type and depth
36-32 Structure

Table XXXVI Concrete – elements carrying gravity load

Horizontal section on element Elevation on element Formulae for preliminary Remarks

sizing only – elastic theory

Prestressed tie A.u. Minimum unfactored force in prestressing

P< cables is at least equal to P
3

where A is area of tie

P is unfactored value of tie force
u is ultimate compressive strength
of concrete by standard cylinder
test (= 0.8 ultimate strength by
standard cube test)

Reinforced column A.u Concrete columns in buildings are usually

P< (1 + 0.14n) ‘short’ hcf /t < 15 formulae given for ‘short’
3 columns, axially loaded with longitudinal
reinforcement and link bars
where A is area of column
With more reinforcement reduction in area
P is unfactored value of axial load
possible e.g. with 4% reinforcement there is
n is percentage of mild steel
a possible 20% reduction in area compared
longitudinal reinforcement
to 2% reinforcement; typical percentages
h vary from 2–6%
< 15 For building laterally braced, for example by
t stair or elevator shafts, the effective height
of columns hcf , is not greater than the actual
where t is least width of column
height; for slender columns, those with hcf /t
and h is height between lateral
>15, there is a decrease in load compared to
supports
that for ‘short’ columns e.g. for column with
hc /t = 30 area required is double that for
same load on ‘short’ column
To take account of bending, if present, as
well as the compression in columns,
multiply vertical load on column by

s+x
s+1

and treat factored amount as axial vertical

load where s is the number of storeys above
the column considered and x = 1.25 for
interior columns, x = 2.00 for corner
columns and x = 1.50 for all other exterior
columns
For 1 h fire rating, minimum length of side
of column = 200 mm and for 2 h rating
length = 300 mm

Simply supported reinforced beam L Span to depth ratios given for beams with
showing effective section at midspan = 18 (rectangular beams) about 1% tension reinforcement at a stress
d 240 N/mm 2; higher values of L/d up to
L about 1.5 those given are possible for wide
or = 15 (T and L beams) beams or those with heavier reinforcement;
d for long spans L/d should be reduced
Span to depth ratios given are for
giving ≈ L/240
rectangular and T and L beams having
similar flange widths; T and L beams give
where d is overall depth of beam
considerable savings in concrete section and
and L is span
weight, compared to rectangular beams
designed for same task, and can be assumed
Economic value of d given when
to have same L/d ratio as a narrow
M rectangular beam
= 0.03 to 0.05 For T beams at midspan b = L/5 and for L
u.b.d 2 beams b = L/O Typical total percentages of
reinforcement in beam are between 2.5 and
with maximum value ≈ 0.09
4.5%
More efficient use of material is had with
where M is unfactored value of
high values of L/d; however, to prevent
bending moment
lateral instability restraints required, usually
b is width of top of beam
by floor or roof construction, e.g. for a beam
with d/b = 4 maximum span between lateral –
restraints 60b
Bending moment in middle of beam,
M = W.L/8 where W is total u.d. load on
beam and shear at supports = W/2
For 1 h fire rating minimum width of
beam = 120 mm and for 2 h fire rating
width = 200 mm
 Structure 36-33

Table XXXVI (Continued)

Horizontal section on element Elevation on element Formulae for preliminary Remarks

sizing only – elastic theory

Continuous reinforced beam showing L At support points T and L beams have an

effective section at midspan, left, and = 22 (rectangular beams) effective section which is rectangular
at support, right d For T-beam at midspan b = L/7 and for
L L-beams b = L/14
or = 18 (T and L beams) Bending moment at middle of end
d span = W.L/11 and at first interior
support = W.L/9 where W is total unfactored
giving ≈ = L/240
u.d. load on span, all spans are equal and
dead load is greater than live load
where d is overall depth of beam
and L is span
Shear at supports = 0.6 W
Economic value of d given when Notes on span to depth ratios as for simply
supported beams
M M For 1 h fire rating minimum width of
or = 0.03 – 0.05 beam = 120 mm and for 2 h fire rating
u.b.d 2 u.b1 .d 2 width = 150 mm
with maximum value ≈ 0.09

where M is unfactored value of

bending moment
b is width of top of beam at
midspan and
b1 is width of beam web at
support
u is ultimate strength of concrete
by standard cylinder test
(= 0.8 ultimate strength by
standard cube test)

Cantilevered reinforced beam showing L For cantilever beam with d/b = 4, maximum
effective at support = 8 distance between end and last lateral
d restraint = 25 b
Bending moment at support = W.L./2 where
where d is overall depth of
W is total u.d. load on cantilever and shear
cantilever
is W
L is length of cantilever
Notes on fire resistance and on span to
Economic value of d given when depth ratio as for simply supported beams
b1 is width of web of beam
M
= 0.03 – 0.05
u.b1 .d 2

with maximum value ≈ 0.09

where M is unfactored value of

bending moment

Simply supported prestressed beam L y2 is the distance from the centroid to the
= 34 (rectangular beams) top of the concrete section
d I is the moment of inertia of the section
L about the centroid
or = 28 (T and L beams) Z is the section modulus, which, for
d rectangular sections, is equal to b.d 2/6 M
is the unfactored value of the banding
moment

1 1.40M Depth of prestressed beams are about 65%

Z = = of those required in reinforced concrete
y2 u
Minimum unfactored values of the
(rectangular section) prestressing sections or M/0.6d for double
T sections, where M, as above, is the
1 1.45M maximum unfactored value of the bending
or Z2 = =
y2 u moment in the beam

(double T-section)
36-34 Structure

Table XXXVI (Continued)

Horizontal section on element Elevation on element Formulae for preliminary Remarks

sizing only – elastic theory

Simply supported one-way solid slab L Span to depth ratio given for slabs with
= 20 about 0.5% tension steel reinforcement
d working at a stress of 240 N/mm2.
giving ≈ L/240 With effective depth of slab = 0.85d; higher
values of L/d up to about 30 possible with
where d is overall depth of slab more reinforcement.
and L is span Typical percentages of reinforcement in one-
way slabs ≈ 1%
Bending moment at middle of slab = w.L 2/8
per unit width where W is load per unit area
For cantilever slabs span to depth ratio
L/d = 9 with bending moment = w.L/2
For 1 h fire rating minimum, depth of slab
d = 95 mm and for 2 h fire rating
d = 125 mm

Continuous one-way solid slab L Span to depth ratio given for slabs with
= 25 about 0.5% tension steel reinforcement
d working at a stress of 240 N/mm2.
With effective depth of slab = 0.85d; higher
giving ≈ L/240
values of L/d up to about 35 possible with
more reinforcement
For 1 h fire rating minimum depth of slab
d = 95 mm and for 2 h rating d = 125 mm
Bending moment in middle of slab = w.L 2/
12 per unit width and bending moment at
interior supports = w.L 2/9 where w is total
load per unit area and dead load is greater
than live load

Continuous two-way solid slab L Span to depth ratio given for square slabs
= 32 supported along the edges with 0.25%
d tension steel reinforcement, in two
directions, working at stress of 240 N/mm2.
giving ≈ L/240
With effective depth of slab = 0.8d; higher
values of L/d up to about 40 possible with
more reinforcement
Typical percentages of reinforcement in two-
way slabs ≈ 0.8% Bending moment at
middle of slab = w.L 2/24 per unit width and
bending moment at interior supports =
w.L2/18 where w is total load per unit area
and dead load is greater than live load
Notes on fire resistance as for one-way slabs

Continuous one-way ribbed slab L Span to depth ratio given for slab with about
= 16 0.5% tension reinforcement, based on gross
d cross-sectional area including voids, working
at a stress of 240 N/mm2.
giving ≈ L/240
With effective depth of slab = 0.85d; higher
where d is overall depth of slab values of L/d up to about 30 possible with
and L is span more reinforcement.
Bending moment on each rib at centre of
slab = c.w.L2/12 and bending moment on
each rib at support = c.w. L2/9 with narrow
support beam where c is spacing of ribs and
w is load per unit area
For 1 h fire rating minimum width of ribs
and depth of slab between ribs = 90 mm and
for 2 h rating these dimensions = 115 mm

Put this equal to the capacity to obtain the minimum allowable be constructed from the bearing layer up to ground level. What
value of B: should be size of the pier be (36.17)?
The gravel will have to carry the weight of the concrete pier as
85=B ¼ 60, hence B ¼ 1:42 m well as the column load. The load imposed by any material will be
The practical width of foundation is therefore 1.5 m, 36.16. Density  height
The density of reinforced concrete is assumed to be 24 kN/m3
Example 2 (Table II). The pressure on the gravel due to this concrete will
A column carries a load from a warehouse building of 1000 kN. therefore be
The soil is poor in quality down to a depth of 2.5 m, where a gravel
seam is capable of carrying 185 kN/m2. A square concrete pier is to 24  2:5 ¼ 60 kN=m2
 Structure 36-35

Table XXXVI (Continued)

Horizontal sectionon element Elevation on element Formulae for preliminary Remarks

sizing only – elastic theory

Continuous two-way waffle slab L Span to depth ratio given for slab with
= 26 0.25% tension reinforcement in two
d directions, based on gross cross-sectional
area including voids, working at a stress of
giving ≈ L/240
240 N/mm 2.
With effective depth of slab = 0.80d; higher
values of L/d up to about 35 possible with
more reinforcement
Bending moment on beams with the same
depth as the slab are as for T-beams in two-
way beam and slab systems

2w.L2 L
M at midspan = .
3 12
2w.L2 L
and at support = .
3 9

where w is total load per unit area with dead

load greater than live load
Bending moment on each rib at centre of
slab = c.w.L2/24 and at support = c.w.L2/18
where c is spacing of ribs of waffle slab

Flat slabs without drop panels L Span to depth ratio given for square panels
= 29 having three equal bays in each direction
d with 0.25% tension reinforcement in two
w.L2 directions working at stress of 240 N/mm2
< 0.014 Higher values of L/d up to 32 possible with
u.d(4t + 12d) more reinforcement
Bending moments on column strip at
where t is diameter of round
midspan = w.L2/8 per unit width and over
column or length of side of
columns, without redistribution, = w.L2/6
square column
per unit width where w is full load per unit
area and dead load is greater than live load;
bending moments on middle strip as for
two-way solid slabs

Flat slab with drop panels L Span to depth ratio given for square panels
= 32 having three equal bays in each direction
d with 0.25% reinforcement in two directions
w.L2 working at stress of 240 N/mm2
< 0.014 Higher values of L/d up to 36 possible with
u.dd(4t + 12dd ) more reinforcement
Bending moments as for flat slabs without
where d4 is depth of slab plus
drop panels
depth of drop panel
Typical value of length of side of drop
panel, m, is between 0.3L and 0.5L

Table XXXVII Properties of steel and aluminium

Property Prestressing High Structural Cold Casting Wrought Grey cast Wrought
strand strength carbon formed steel iron iron aluminium
low-alloy steel steel Alloy
steel

Carbon content % 0.60–0.90 0.10–0.28 0.10–0.25 0.20–0.25 0.15–0.50 0.05 2.50–4.50 ..

Weight kN/m3 77 77 77 77 77 75 71 27
Tensile strength N/mm2 1200–1800 400–700 400–560 280–600 400–600 300–350 150–350 200–550
(in line of
rolling)
Yield stress or 0.2% proof stress N/mm2 – 1100–1700 340–480 240–300 200–500 200–400 180–200 120–500
stress at or near which permanent (in line of
deformation starts rolling)
Elastic modulus kN/mm2 165 210 210 210 210 190 210 70
Elongating % – ductility 4 15 15–25 12–25 15–20 8–25 2 8–20
Weldability Not suitable Good with Good if Generally Moderate Generally Poor Good if
for welding right alloys low-carbon good poor right alloys
steel
Coefficient of thermal expansion  106/ C 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 24
Temperature at which metal has 50% of 350–500 500 500 500 500 500 can crack 190
room temperature strength  C at high
temperature
Corrosion resistance of untreated metal Poor Moderate to Poor Poor to Moderate Good Good Very good
good moderate
36-36 Structure

Table XXXVIII Universal beams

Dimensions

Table XXXIX Joists

Dimensions
 Structure 36-37

Table XL Universal columns

Dimensions

Table XLI Parallel flange channels

Dimensions
36-38 Structure

Table XLII Steel – vertical support elements

Element Horizontal and vertical section Typical h/d between Critical factors Remarks
heights lateral for sizing
(h) (m) supports

Rolled steel of open section

– single storey 2–8 20–25 Buckling (h/d > 14) Standard rolled sections usual
– multi-storey 2–4 7–18 Buckling and but special shapes may be made
compression (h/d < 14) by welding
Connections easier with open
rather than closed sections

Rolled steel of hollow section

– single storey 2–8 20–35 Buckling (h/d < 20) Closed sections have smaller
– multi-storey 2–4 7–28 Buckling and exposed surface and greater
compression (h/d > 20) torsional stiffness than open
sections of same weight.

Lattice column 4–10 20 – 25 Buckling Lattice may be used if large

column required

Steel and concrete composite 2– 4 6 –15 Buckling and Concrete increases stiffness and
column crushing (h/d > 10) fire resistance

Cold-formed steel studs with 2– 8 15 – 50 Buckling Steel studs can also be stiffeners
steel panels for gypsum, GRC or plywood
panels

High strength steel hangers 1–40 – Axial stiffness Hangers usually solid rods,
strand or rope cables. Rods have
less tensile strength but axially
stiffer than cable

Table XLIII Steel – floors

Element Section and elevation Typical Typical Typical Critical factors for sizing/remarks
depths (d) spans (L) L/d
(mm) (m)

Steel decking 50–75 2–3 35–40 Deflection

Cold-formed steel deck 100–150 2–4 25–30 Deflection of deck when used as formwork
with composite concrete Thickness of concrete for fire protection
topping Dimension a = 40–80 mm

Wide flange rolled steel 100–500 4–12 18–28 Deflection

section

Deep rolled steel section 200–500 6–30 15–20 Deflection

Bending strength

Rolled steel truss 1000–4000 12–45 8–15 Axial compression of members

Joints Deflection

Vierendeel girder 1000–3000 6–18 4–12 Bending strength of members near

supports
Deflection

Composite concrete 300–1000 7–15 20–25 Often used with secondary steel joists
steel girder between girders
Saving of about 25% in steel compared to
non-composite section
 Structure 36-39

Table XLIV Steel – roofs, beam and deck

Element Section and elevation Typical Typical Typical Critical factors for sizing/remarks
depths (d) spans (L) L/d
(mm) (m)

Cold-formed steel deck 25–120 2–6 40–70 Deflection

Steel sandwich panel 75 2–3 25–30 Sheet has injected plastic foam insulation
Good bond of insulation to steel sheet is important.

Cold-formed steel 120–300 3–12 25–35 Deflection

sections Often very flexible about minor axis

Cold-formed open web 300–1000 5–20 15–25 Deflection

steel joist Buckling

Wide flange rolled 100–500 6–14 20–30 Deflection

steel section

Deep rolled steel 200–1000 6–60 18–26 Deflection

section Bending strength
Buckling of top flange

However, the same depth of soil will have been removed to con- high bearing capacities. They may consist of a precast concrete
struct the pier. The pressure this exerted on the gravel layer was shaft, driven into place with a large mechanical hammer.
2.5  16 kN/m2 (assumed density of soil) ¼ 40 kN/m2 Alternatively, a hollow shell is driven and afterwards filled with
Consequently, the pressure capacity available to carry the load wet concrete to form the pile. In either of these cases, the amount of
of the column will be: penetration achieved at each hammer blow is an indication of the
load carrying capacity of the pile. A design method for simple end-
Bearing capacity þ soil pressure – pier weight bearing piles in the shape of the short-bored variety sometimes
185 þ 40 – 60 ¼ 165 kN=m2 used in housing is illustrated in the following example.
The required pier area is hence
1000 Example 3
¼ 6:06 m2 The brick wall in Example 1 above is to be carried on bored piles
165
p taken down to a gravel seam 4 m deep. The gravel has a safe
The sides of the square pier will be 6.06 ¼ 2.46 m, say 2.5 m bearing capacity of 500 kN/m2, and the piles are 650 mm diameter.
What is the required spacing of the piles (36.22)?
10.05 Other foundation types The area of the pile base is
It is frequently found that the loads of the building are so large, or
the bearing capacity of the soil is so poor, that suitable pad or strip p  ð½  0:65Þ2 m2 ¼ 0:332 m2
foundations will be either very deep, or required to be so large that The load that can be carried by each is therefore
adjoining bases impinge on one another. The two common solu-
tions to this problem are: 500  0:332 ¼ 166 kN

• form
Raft foundations, 36.18, where the bases are combined together to
one large base. The raft has to be so reinforced to cater for the
The length of wall loaded at 85 kN/m carried on one pile is hence

stresses induced by inequalities of loading and bearing capacity 166

¼ 1:95 m
• Piles, 36.19, which are devices for carrying loads down to
deeper levels than would otherwise be practical.
85
Therefore, piles should be at, say, 1.95 m centres.
Raft foundations are beyond the scope of this section; however, As a rule of thumb, the minimum practicable spacing is taken as
useful guidance on raft design is given in the Structural Foundation 3  pile diameter or 1.95 m in this case, a spacing of 1.95 m is
Designers Manual (see Bibliography). therefore acceptable.

10.06 End-bearing piles 10.07 Skin-friction piles

Piles can be divided into those that carry their loads into the soil Skin-friction piles, mostly appropriate for cohesive soils such as
mainly by end bearing, 36.20 and those that act by virtue of the clays, are usually bored. In this method, a circular hole is excavated
shaft friction at the interface between the pile length and the soil, in the ground by a large auger or other methods. If necessary, the
36.21. End-bearing piles normally sit on rock or gravel strata with sides of the hole are temporarily sleeved. When the necessary
36-40 Structure

Table XLV Steel – roofs, beam and surface

Element Section and elevation or plan Typical Typical Remarks

spans (L) L/d or L/b
(m)

Rolled steel castellated 6–18 10 –18 Web buckling Shear

beam

Flat rolled steel truss 12–75 10 –18 Bending strength

Deflection
Typical spacings of trusses 6–12 m
Truss cambered for spans > 25 m

Sloping rolled steel 8–20 5 –10 Truss often bolted up from steel angle sections
truss

Two-layer space frame 30–150 15 –30 Space frame has pinned or semi-rigid joints and works as
three-dimensional reticulated structure
Plan geometry based on rectangular, triangular or hexagonal grids
Size of grid, d, about 1.4 h and about 5–12% of span,
L, L < L1 < 1.4 L

Braced barrel vault 20–100 55 –60 Vaults may have single or double layer of steelwork
L/H ratio about 5–6

Corrugated arch 30–45 4 –5 Made with two layers of cold-formed corrugated sheet bolted
together with insulation between

Cable-stayed roof beams 60–150 5 –10 Cables serve to support horizontal beams and increase the span

Hanging cable roof 50–180 8 –15 Roofs have single curvature (gutter) shape or synclastic double
curvature (gutter) shape or synclastic double curvature
(saucer) shape

Net roof with rigid 30–180 6 –12 Roofs have anticlastic double curvature (saddle) shape
covering

Single-layer domed grid 15–100 5 –7 Double-layer domes also constructed spanning up to 200 m

Double-layer stressed 9–30 10 –20 Single-layer skin construction possible spanning up to about 25 m
skin folded plate Failure usually caused by connections or buckling

Double-layer stressed 9–30 6 –12 Steel sheets are laid along the straight line generators on the hp
skin hyperbolic surface and slightly twisted across their width
paraboloid shell

Air supported stainless 80–300 25–30 Low L /H ratio gives roof wind uplift and requires only small
steel membrane change in shape from flat plan shape
 Structure 36-41

Table XLVI Steel – frame systems

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Remarks

spans (L) L/d
(m)

Single-storey rigid 9–60 35– 40 Frame is rigid in its own plane

frame Typical spacing of frames L/4–L/6

Arch 60–150 40– 50 Buckling often critical

Arch usually has pinned connections at base and sometimes at
apex too
Typical L/H ratio about 5–15

Single-storey beam 6–40 12– 20 Frame not rigid in its own plane so vertical bracing necessary, e.g.
and post with rigid gables connected to roof plane

Multi-storey rigid 6–20 20– 35 Sidesway at top and between storeys often critical
frame Rigid joints between beams and columns obtained by welding or
welding and bolting
System economic up to about 25 storeys With moment joints
between beams and columns, obtained by bolting, building may
go up to about 15 storeys without the use of extra vertical bracing

Shear truss and typical height, H H/W Frame is not rigidly connected to shear truss
simple frame 5–20 storeys 6– 8 Shear truss more efficient as vertical bracing than rigid frame

Element Section and plan Typical Typical Remarks

heights (H) H/W
(storeys)

Shear truss and rigid 10–40 storeys 3– 4 Frame is rigidly connected and interacts with shear truss
frame Frame provides ductile strength in earthquake areas

Shear truss and rigid 40–60 storeys 5–7 Horizontal belt trusses reduce sidesway
frame with belt
trusses

Framed tube 30–80 storeys 5–7 Deep column and beam sections stiffen frame so that it can
behave like a perforated tube

Diagonal truss tube 60–110 storeys 5–7 Diagonals take horizontal and vertical loads and stiffen frame

Table XLVII Steel–below ground

Element Section Typical Typical Remarks

spans (L) L/d
(m)

Steel corrugated shells 2–8 30–80 Pipe arches usually made from galvanised cold-formed steel sheets with
corrugations about 50–100 mm deep and bolted together with high-strength bolts
Compression in sheet depends on soil and depth of cover
36-42 Structure

Table XLVIII Steel – elements carrying gravity load

Element Section and elevation on element or plan Formulae for preliminary sizing Remarks
only – elastic theory

Tie P At bolted connections, area of tie is

< p1 reduced by holes and this is the net
A1
area, A1
where P is unfactored value of tie Area of tie usually decided by
force A1 is net area of tie connection detail and need to limit
p1 is allowable working stress of steel extension
in tension = 110 N/mm2 If connection points markedly
eccentric to centroid of tie, area of tie
L may need to be increased
< 240
rmin Increasing the width of the joint,
whether bolted or welded, increases
where rmin is minimum radius of
strength more than increasing overlap
gyration of tie section
of joint
L is length of tie between supports Joints subject to alternating tension
P.L and compression need special
Extension e = consideration to prevent fatigue
A.E
should be checked where
A is gross area of tie
E is elastic modulus of steel =
2.1 105 N/mm2

Column P Dimension b is width of column

< pc along x-axis, d is depth of column
A1
along y-axis and c is width of column
where P is axial load in column at right angles to v-axis (axis of
A is area of column minimum moment of inertia and
Pc is allowable working stress of steel radius of gyration)
in compression which depends on For buildings which are laterally
slenderness ratio hef /rmin see below, braced for example by cross-bracing
where hef is effective height of or cores, effective height of columns,
column; slenderness ratio must not hef is not greater than actual height
exceed 200 and should normally be between floors h.
ry /b = rx /d = ry /b = rx /d = less than 180 Given formula valid for columns
hef carrying axial load; for columns
= pc = carrying bending moment as well as
rmin
0.22 0.38 0.41 0.35 axial load
10 150 N/mm2 Steel columns are usually slender and
50 120 N/mm2 more efficient use of column material
80 100 N/mm2 is had by collecting loads into one
0.25 0.42 0.35 0.35 150 40 N/mm2 rather than several columns; an
200 20 N/mm efficient section shape for each
individual column is one with a low
0.38 0.38 0.60 0.35 value of A/rmin2, e.g. A/rmin2 for
square or circular sections varies
from 0.8 to 2.5 and for 1-sections
varies from 2 to 7

Simply supported rolled steel beam M Given allowable stress in bending pbc
= fbc < pbc assumes top flange restrained against
Z
buckling, and horizontal forces if any,
where M is unfactored value of with maximum distance between
bending moment on beam lateral restraints = 85rmin ; if distance
Z is the section modulus of the beam between restraints = 150rmin then
Pbc is allowable working stress of Pbc = 100 N/mm 2, where rmin is
steel in bending = 165 N/mm2 minimum radius of gyration of top
5W.L3 5fbc .L2 flange spanning between any lateral
= = restraints
384E.l 24E.d
Steel sections symmetrical about the
where W is u.d. load on beam y-axis have shear centre (O) in
L is span vertical line with centroid of
is midspan deflection section (S) for sections not
I is moment of inertia of beam symmetrical about y-axis, loading
E is elastic modulus of steel = along vertical line through centroid
2.1 105 N/mm2 requires lateral restraint to prevent
fbc is actual bending stress in beam twist and/or lateral deflection of the
at midspan section e.g. channel sections twist,
Typical maximum span to depth Z-sections deflect laterally and angle
ratios, L/d, are sections twist and deflect laterally
28 for roof purlins without such restraints; normally
25 for roof beams in flat roofs restraints provided by floor or roof
22 for floor beams construction
giving total dead and live load Bending moment in middle of
deflections = L/220, L/250 and beam, M, = W.L/8 and
L/280, respectively, if beam fully shear force at supports = W/2
stressed, from above formula
If live load deflection limited to
L/360 then
E.l > 3.98 Wl .L2
where WL is u.d. live load on beam
V
< pv
d.tw
where V is unfactored value of shear
force on beam
tw is the thickness of web of beam
Pv is allowable working stress of
steel in shear = 105 N/mm2
 Structure 36-43

Table XLVIII (Continued)

Element Section and elevation on element or plan Formulae for preliminary Remarks
sizing only – elastic theory

Continuous rolled steel beam M Assuming W is total u.d. load on

= fbc < pbc each span, all spans are equal and
Z dead load is greater than live load,
where M is unfactored value of bending moment in span of beam,
bending moment on beam Mt , = W.L/12 and bending moment at
Z is the section modulus of the beam interior supports = W.L/9 except first
pbc is allowable working stress of interior support for which bending
steel in bending = 165 N/mm2 moment = W.L/8
Shear at supports V = 0.6 W
5fbc .L2 Notes on allowable stress and
= or less
24E.d unsymmetrical sections as for simply
supported beams
where L is span of beam
is midspan deflection
E is elastic modulus of steel =
2.1 105 N/mm2
fbc is actual bending stress in beam at
midspan
1 MA + MB
≈ MS –
Z 2
where MS is W.L/8, MA and MB are
moments at supports, all at unfactored
values, W is u.d. load on beam, Z is
section modulus of beam
V
< PV
d.tw
where V is unfactored value of shear
force on beam
tw is the thickness of web of beam
pv is the allowable working stress of
steel in shear = 105 N/mm2

Simply supported composite steel M Typical values of

and concrete beam < pt
Ast (0.5 d + 0.8 t) L

Md t+d
and < Pbc
Zst are 24 or 20 for those with vibration
Given formulae assume that steel
where M is unfactored value of total beam is not propped during
bending moment on beam construction and carries dead load
M alone but the live load is carried by
< Pbc composite action
Zcomp Md is unfactored value of bending
Zcomp moment due to dead load
where < 1.35 + 0.35Mt /Md Ast , Zst and d are area, section
Zst modulus and depth of steel beam and
and Mt is unfactored value of bending t is depth of concrete slab
moment due to live load Pt and Pbc are allowable working
stresses for steel in tension =
5Wd , L3
d =
125 N/mm2 and for steel in bending =
384E.lst 165 N/mm2
Zcomp is section modulus of
5r.Wt , L3
and t ≈ composite section
384E.lst d and t are deflection due to dead
and live loads
where r has a value between 0.3
Wd and Wt are unfactored values of
and 0.5
dead and live u.d. load on span
lst is the moment of inertia of the
steel section

Simply supported truss M Given formulae apply to trusses with

< pc top chord restrained against buckling
d.Av Forces in truss members largely axial
where M is unfactored value of and are checked under tension or
bending moment on truss at midspan compression
Av is area of top or bottom chord of Deflection in truss is greater than that
truss at midspan of beam with same moment of inertia
d is depth of truss between chord because of shear deflection in truss
centre lines due to change in length of diagonal
Pc is allowable working stress of steel and vertical members
in compression ≈ 150 N/mm2
10W.L3
≈
384E.l
where l is moment of inertia of top
and bottom chords about centreline of
truss = Ac .d2/2
If live load deflection limited to
L/360 then
E.l > 7.96 Wt .L2
Economic value of L/d = 10–14
36-44 Structure

Table XLVIII (Continued)

Element Section and elevation on element or plan Formulae for preliminary Remarks
sizing only – elastic theory

Simply supported vierendeel girder M Given formulae apply to gender with

< pc top chord restrained against buckling
d.Av Members in vierendeel girder subject
to shear forces, axial forces and
where M is unfactored value of
bending moments; although
bending moment on girder at midspan
vierendeel girder inefficient form
Av is area of top or bottom chord of
becomes relatively more efficient
girder at midspan
with increase in size
d is height of girder between chord
Estimate of deflection of truss
centre lines equal to horizontal panel
established by frame analysis of
dimension
girder taking account of flexibility of
V M members in bending and shear
+ < Pc
2A Z

where A is area of vertical member

above support and of adjacent top
and bottom chord members
M is unfactored value of bending
moment on end chords and verticals =
V.d/4 where V is equal to vertical
reaction at each support
Economic value of L/d = 6–10

Double layer space frame L Wide variations in span to depth

Economic value of < 15 ratios from those given are possible
d The number of joints and members in
a space frame is proportional to the
for space frame supported at corners
inverse of the square of the module
L size; therefore economy of space
or < 20 for space frame frame increased by larger number of
d supports, moderate span to depth ratio
supported around perimeter where L as well as by larger module size
is span and d is depth of frame

s ≈ 2d to 2d and
s ≈ L/10 for L up to 50 m

or

s ≈ L/10 to L/15 for L above 5 m

where s is module size of bottom

layer of frame

s
s1 = s to
2

where s1 is module size of top layer

of frame

Table XLIX Structural glass elements

Element Typical spans Typical thickness Critical factors for sizing Remarks

Floor panels 1–4 m User sensitivity to deflections Susceptible to flaws and surface scratching
Stairs Use edge supported laminated glass
Balustrades 1.1 m cantilever 12–25 mm Cantilevered with continuous or point fixings at support
Walls Elastic stability
Consider safety implications on failure
Beams and fins 4–6 m Deflections and elastic stability Simply supported or cantilevered. Length of available
glass sheet determines maximum span

depth has been reached, reinforcement is lowered into the hole and interpretation. It is recommended that this type of pile should be
concrete is poured in. Some method of compacting the concrete is designed by the specialist piling contractor and checked by the
employed, so that all cavities in the ground are properly filled. The consulting engineer, with adequate supervision and testing on site
sleeve is withdrawn as the concrete goes in, to ensure intimate to ensure that the pile is suitable for the design loads.
contact between pile and soil, 36.21.
The capacity of this type of pile is not self-evident as in the case
of driven piles. Calculation is used to determine the length of pile 10.08 Pile testing
required, based on the shear strength of the clay at various depths In both driven and bored piles, it is usual to carry out one or more
below the ground. Parameters for soil properties are gained by tests on the actual piles on each contract. On very large contracts,
carrying out a site investigation prior to the design. additional piles are tested to failure, but normally one of the work-
While the calculations themselves are not particularly difficult, ing piles is loaded to 1.5 times the working load to prove the
the subject is one where engineering judgment is required in their efficacy of the design. These maintained load static tests are
 Structure 36-45

Table L Properties of structural plastic

Property Polyester Polyester with Polyester with Polyester with glass Polycarbonate Acrylic
resin chopped strand woven glass unidirectional (thermopl.) (thermopl.)
(thermoset.) glass mat rovings reinforced glass rovings
epoxy

Glass content by weight % nil 25–50 50 60 60

Weight kN/m3 12 15 18 19 21 12 12
Short-term tensile strength at 20 C N/mm2 40–80 80–175 210–250 660 350–550 60 50–70
Short-term flexural strength at 20 C 50–90 125–210 220–300 700 500–825 80 90–100
modulus of rupture (N/mm2)
Short-term elastic modulus in bending in 2–5 6–10 15 30 35 2.6 3.2
direction of fibres at 20 C(68 F)
Fracture toughness at 20 C MN/m3/2 0.5 10–20 10–30 10–40 40–50 1–2 1–1.5
Long-term tensile strength (10 years) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5–0.65 0.20 0.25
at 20 C put as proportion of
short-term strength
Shrinkage % 0.004–0.080
Water adsorption over 24 h % 0.15–0.60 0.20 0.15 0.30–0.40
Coefficient of thermal expansion  100–180 20–30 10–15 10–15 10–15 70 60–70
106/ C
Softening temperature or maximum 70 70 70 70 110 120 75
operating temperature  C
Visible effect of weathering yellows yellows Yellows yellows no effect yellows and no effect
becomes brittle

Table LI Plastics – roofs, surface

Element Axonometric Typical Critical factors Remarks

spans (L) for sizing
(m)

Domes using shaped panels 5–20 Thickness affected by size Domes may have rectangular or circular base
and shape of panel Made by bolting together shaped panels
Plastic panels typically 2–6 mm thick but thicker
than this at edges

Folded plate structures 5–20 Thickness affected by size Made by bolting together two or three different
using shaped panels and shape of panel types of shaped panel
Panels may be double skin with insulation between

Shaped roof panels 1–5 Deflection Panels must be shaped or have stiffeners to
overcome flexibility

Laminated panel 4–6 Deflection Made from good quality grp with 40–60 mm
insulation between skins
Used for roofs but also as load-bearing panels and
for floors in two or three storey buildings of small
plan area
36-46 Structure

Table LII Properties of fabric

Property PVC-coated PTFE-coated Silicone-coated Neoprene-coated

polyester fabric glass fabric glass fabric nylon fabric

Weight of fabric yarn kN/m3 13.5 25.0 25.0 11.2

Short-term tensile strength of fabric yarn N/mm2 1100 1500–2400 1500–2400 500–960
Tenacity N/tex short-term strength to linear density in 0.90 1.10 1.10 0.95
tex of fabric yarn
Elastic modulus of fabric yarn kN/mm2 14 65 65 6
Elastic modulus to linear density of fabric N/tex 12 30 30 5
(a tex is the mass in gm of 1 km of yarn) 12 30 30 5
Weight of a typical fabric N/m2 8 (0.7 mm thick) 15 (1 mm thick) 11 (0.9 mm thick) 7 (0.8 mm thick)
– Warp direction 1800 (0.7 mm thick) 6500 (1 mm thick) 6500 (0.9 mm thick) 2000 (0.8 mm thick)
– Weft (fill) direction 1700 5500 6000 1600
Long-term tensile strength of Coated Fabric 0.5 0.6 0.6 –
(2 years) under
Tear strength of fabric N
– Warp direction 300 (0.7 mm thick) 270 (1 mm thick) 400 (0.9 mm thick) 500 (0.8 mm thick)
– Weft (fill) direction 350 350 450 700
Elongation of fabric %
– Warp direction 14 6 5 25
– Weft (fill) direction 20 7 5 30
Shear strength of fabric N/degree small 450 (1 mm) – small
Combustibility of untreated fabric flammable hardly flammable hardly flammable flammable
Durability years 10–15 25 25 8–12

Table LIII Fabric – roofs

Element Axonometric Typical Typical Critical factors for sizing Remarks

spans (L) curvatures
(m) (m)

Fabric tent 9–18 25 –35 Radius of curvature Surface of tent has anticlastic
Tear strength (saddle) shape at each point
and is prestressed
Typical prestress in fabric
5–10 kN/m
Prestress determined by loads
and curvature.

Cable reinforced 18–60 80 –100 Tear strength of fabric, spacing Surface of tent has anticlastic
fabric tent of cables, radius of curvature shape and is prestressed by
and wind and snow loads pulling on cables
Prestress in fabric and cables
determined by loads and
curvature.

Prestressed steel net 25–100 – Radius of curvature Size of cable mesh about
with fabric covering Wind or snow load 500 500 mm
Surface of net has anticlastic
shape
Typical average stress in net
40–60 kN/m
High strength of net allows
large radius of curvature

Air-supported membrane 15–45 – Radius of curvature Inflation pressure low

Tear strength Surface of membrane has
Wind or snow loads synclastic (dome shape at each
point and is prestressed.

Cable stayed air 90–180 80 –100 Tear strength of fabric, spans, Cables anchored to ring beam
supported membrane spacing of cables and snow that has funicular shape
loads Low rise of roof gives wind
uplift on it

Pneumatic frame 6–45 – Tear strength Tubes require large diameters

(prestressed tube) Shape and diameter of tube and high pressures to achieved
Wind or snow loads sufficient stiffness
 Structure 36-47

36.14 Shallow foundation carrying excessive load can cause

36.13 Bearing pressure on formation level of soil heave

36.15 A deeper foundation is restrained

Table LIV Presumed allowable bearing values under static loading (Ref BS 8004 table 1)

Group Types of rocks and soils Presumed Remarks

allowable
bearing
value kN/m2

Rocks Strong igneous and gneissic rocks in sound condition 10 000 These values are based on the
Strong limestones and strong sandstones 4000 assumption that the foundations are
Schists and slates 3000 carried down to unweathered rock
Strong shales, strong mudstones and strong siltstones 2000
Non-cohesive soils Dense gravel, or dense sand and gravel > 600 Width of foundation (B) not less
Medium dense gravel, or medium dense sand and gravel 200–600 than 1 m
Loose gravel, or loose sand and gravel < 200 Ground-water level assumed to be
Compact sand > 300 a depth not less than B below the
Medium dense sand 100–300 base of the foundation
Loose sand < 100
Cohesive soils Very stiff boulder clays and hard clays 300–600 Susceptible to long-term
Stiff clays 150–300 consolidation settlement
Firm clays 75–150
Soft clays and silts < 75
Very soft clays and silts Not applicable
Peat and organic soils Not applicable
Made ground or fill Not applicable

36.17 Concrete pier of gravel layer (Example 2)

36.16 Width of a strip foundation, section (Example 1)

10.09 Under-reamed piles

expensive and time consuming, requiring the use of large concrete There is a third type of pile which is a bored end-bearing pile. The
blocks (kentledge) or the installation of tension piles against which shaft is augured in the usual way, but when the required depth has
a jacking load can be applied to the test pile. Other, more rapid been reached a special tool is used to enlarge the base to a bell-
methods of testing by measuring the dynamic response of the pile shape, 36.23. These piles are substantial in size, and remote inspec-
to a hammer strike at the pile head can be employed, but engineer- tion of the base must be carried out to check the integrity of the soil
ing judgement is required to determine the correct regime and on which the load will rest. It is not often possible to test this type of
method/methods of test required. pile using static methods due to the magnitude of the loads carried.
36-48 Structure

36.18 Raft foundation as used on poor ground

36.21 Friction pile

36.19 Alternative pile foundation

36.22 Short-bored piles (Example 3)

36.20 End-bearing pile

11 BIBLIOGRAPHY 36.23 Under-reamed pile

11.01 General
Hodgkinson, A (ed.) 1974. AJ Handbook of Building Structure,
London, Architectural Press
Orton, A.1988. The Way We Build Now, London, E & F N Spon 11.02 Loading
Gauld, B, J, B. 1995. Structures for Architects, Longman Scientific & BS 648: 1964. Schedule of weights of building materials
Technical BS 6399-1:1996. Loading for buildings. Code of practice for dead
Building Regulations, Approved Document A, 2004. Structure and imposed loads
Institution of Structural Engineers, 1987. Aims of structural design BS 6399-2:1997. Loading for buildings. Code of practice for wind
Institution of Structural Engineers, 1989. Stability of buildings loads
Institution of Structural Engineers, 1989. The achievement of BS 6399-3:1988. Loading for buildings. Code of practice for
structural adequacy in buildings imposed roof loads
 Structure 36-49

11.03 Masonry The Institutions of Civil and of Structural Engineers, 1985. Manual
BS 5628-1:1992. Code of practice for use of masonry. Structural for the design of reinforced building structures
use of unreinforced masonry The Institution of Structural Engineers, 1991. Recommendations
BS 5628-3:2005. Code of practice for the use of masonry. for the permissible stress design of reinforced concrete building
Materials and components, design and workmanship structures
Institution of Structural Engineers, 2005. Manual for the design of Reynolds, C, E. Steedman, J, C. (1988) Reinforced concrete
plain masonry in building structures designer’s handbook, (10th ed) London, Spon Press

11.04 Timber 11.06 Steel

BS 5268-2:2002. Structural use of timber. Code of practice for BS 5950-1:2000, Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of
permissible stress design, materials and workmanship practice for design of cold formed thin gauge sections
BS 5268-3:2006. Structural use of timber. Code of practice for The Institutions of Civil and of Structural Engineers, 2002. Manual
trussed rafter roofs for the design of steelwork building structures
Ozelton, E,C. Baird, J,A. 2006. Timber designers’ manual, Davison, B. Owens, G,W. 1992. Steel designers’ manual (6th ed)
London, Blackwell London, Blackwell

11.07 Glass
11.05 Concrete
The Institution of Structural Engineers, 1999. Structural use of
BS EN 206-1:2000. Concrete. Specification, performance, produc-
glass in buildings
tion and conformity
BS 8500-1:2006. Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS
EN 206-1. Method of specifying and guidance for the specifier 11.08 Foundations
BS 8500-2:2002. Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS BS 8004:1986. Code of practice for foundations
EN 206-1. Specification for constituent materials and concrete Curtin, W, G. Shaw, G. Parkinson, G. Golding, J. Seward., N.
BS 8110-1:1997. Structural use of concrete. Code of practice for 2006. Structural Foundation Designers’ Manual, London,
design and construction Blackwell