MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

MATH 2822
Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II

Chapter 1
Coordinate Geometry

Department of Mathematics, HKU

1
MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A Lines in three dimensions
B Planes in three dimensions
C Graphs of multivariable functions
D Some special curves and surfaces
E More coordinate systems

Part A: Lines in three dimensions 2

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A1. Equation of a straight line

We know that a straight line in the two-dimensional rectangular coordinate system

can be expressed by the equation

y = mx + c or Ax + By + C = 0

where m, c, A, B, C are constants.

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A1. Equation of a straight line 3

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A1. Equation of a straight line

We know that a straight line in the two-dimensional rectangular coordinate system

can be expressed by the equation

y = mx + c or Ax + By + C = 0

where m, c, A, B, C are constants.

Naturally, we may expect that a line in three dimensions can be represented in the
form
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
where A, B, C , D are constants.

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A1. Equation of a straight line 3

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A1. Equation of a straight line

However, a moment of thought shows that Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 actually

represents a plane rather than a line. This is something that we will study in the
next part.

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A1. Equation of a straight line 4

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A2. Vector form of straight line

Think about the straight line y = 2x + 3 in

two dimensions.
y

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A2. Vector form of straight line 5

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A2. Vector form of straight line

Think about the straight line y = 2x + 3 in

two dimensions.
y
As the y -intercept is 3, the point (0, 3)
is on the straight line.

(0, 3)

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A2. Vector form of straight line 5

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A2. Vector form of straight line

Think about the straight line y = 2x + 3 in (2, 7) = (0, 3) + 2(1, 2)

two dimensions. t=2
y
As the y -intercept is 3, the point (0, 3)
is on the straight line.
As the slope is 2, any other point on
the straight line can be expressed as
(0, 3) + t(1, 2) for some real number t. (0, 3)

(−1, 1) = (0, 3) − (1, 2)

t = −1
x

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A2. Vector form of straight line 5

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A2. Vector form of straight line

Think about the straight line y = 2x + 3 in (2, 7) = (0, 3) + 2(1, 2)

two dimensions. t=2
y
As the y -intercept is 3, the point (0, 3)
is on the straight line.
As the slope is 2, any other point on
the straight line can be expressed as
(0, 3) + t(1, 2) for some real number t. (0, 3)
In vector notation, we may say that
any point on the line has position
(−1, 1) = (0, 3) − (1, 2)
vector 3j + t(i + 2j) for some real
t = −1
number t.
x

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A2. Vector form of straight line 5

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A2. Vector form of straight line

Think about the straight line y = 2x + 3 in t=2

two dimensions.
y
As the y -intercept is 3, the point (0, 3)
is on the straight line. t=1
As the slope is 2, any other point on
the straight line can be expressed as
(0, 3) + t(1, 2) for some real number t. t=0
In vector notation, we may say that
any point on the line has position
vector 3j + t(i + 2j) for some real t = −1
number t.
x

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A2. Vector form of straight line 5

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A2. Vector form of straight line

Hence a straight line can also be

represented in the following vector form:

r = v + tu

Here v represents a specific point on the

straight line and u represents the
direction, while r represents the position
vector of a general point on the line.

tu u

v+tu
v
O

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A2. Vector form of straight line 6

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A2. Vector form of straight line

Hence a straight line can also be Note that this representation also works
represented in the following vector form: in three dimensions.
r = (i − j + 2k) + t(−2i + 2j + k)
r = v + tu
z
Here v represents a specific point on the
straight line and u represents the
t(−2i + 2j + k)
direction, while r represents the position
vector of a general point on the line.
−2i + 2j + k
tu u i − j + 2k
y
v+tu O
v
O x

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A2. Vector form of straight line 6

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A2. Vector form of straight line

Find the equation of the straight line passing through the points (5, 4, 3) and
(1, 0, −1)? Can you put the answers in different forms?

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A2. Vector form of straight line 7

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A3. Parallel lines

Consider the following straight lines in two dimensions:

L1 : 2x − 3y + 6 = 0
L2 : 4x − 6y + 9 = 0
L3 : 6x − 9y + 18 = 0

We know that they are parallel to each other, whereas and are actually the
same line.

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A3. Parallel lines 8

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A3. Parallel lines

How about in three dimensions? Can you find the parallel lines among the
following? Which of them represent the same line?

L4 : r = (1, −1, 3) + (0, 2, −1)t

L5 : r = (−5, 0, −5) + (2, 3, 1)t
L6 : r = (2, 3, 4) + (0, −4, 2)t
L7 : r = (1, 5, 0) + (0, −6, 3)t

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A3. Parallel lines 9

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A4. Intersections of straight lines

Can you find the point of intersection of

L4 : r = (1, −1, 3) + (0, 2, −1)t and L5 : r = (−5, 0, −5) + (2, 3, 1)t?

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A4. Intersections of straight lines 10

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A5. Skew lines

In two dimensions, two straight lines which are not parallel must intersect. This is
not true in three dimensions, where it is possible for two non-parallel straight lines
to have no intersection. Such straight lines are said to be skew lines.

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A5. Skew lines 11

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A5. Skew lines

For instance, consider

L5 : r = (−5, 0, −5) + (2, 3, 1)t and L6 : r = (2, 3, 4) + (0, −4, 2)t.

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A5. Skew lines 12

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A6. Distance from a point to a line

Consider the line L7 : r = (1, 5, 0) + (0, −6, 3)t. It is easy to check that the point
(1, 2, 3) does not lie on the line. What is the distance from the point to the line?

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A6. Distance from a point to a line 13

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A6. Distance from a point to a line

In general, let L be a line passing through P and

with direction v. We can show that the distance S
from a point S to L is given by
−→
kPS × vk L
.
kvk

Part A: Lines in three dimensions A6. Distance from a point to a line 14

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A Lines in three dimensions
B Planes in three dimensions
C Graphs of multivariable functions
D Some special curves and surfaces
E More coordinate systems

Part B: Planes in three dimensions 15

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

B1. Normal to a plane

We have seen that a line can be described by specifying a point and a direction.
The same is true for a plane in some sense. A plane can be uniquely determined by
a point and the direction of a normal n, which is a vector that is orthogonal to
every vector on the plane.
n

Part B: Planes in three dimensions B1. Normal to a plane 16

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

B2. Equation of a plane

Suppose a plane passes through the point (1, 3, 5) and has normal vector (2, 4, 6).
What is the equation of the plane?

Part B: Planes in three dimensions B2. Equation of a plane 17

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

B2. Equation of a plane

In general, if a plane passes through the point (p, q, r ) and has normal vector
(A, B, C ), its equation is given by

A(x − p) + B(y − q) + C (z − r ) = 0

In vector form, this can be expressed as

n · (r − r0 ) = 0.

Conversely, given the equation of a plane in the form Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, we

know that the vector (A, B, C ) is normal to the plane.

Part B: Planes in three dimensions B2. Equation of a plane 18

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

B2. Equation of a plane

A plane in three dimensions can also be determined by three points. For instance,
can you find the equation of a plane that passes through the points (1, 0, 0),
(0, 2, 0) and (0, 0, 3)?

Part B: Planes in three dimensions B2. Equation of a plane 19

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

B3. Parallel planes

The two planes

x − 2y + 3z = 4 and 2x − 4y + 6z = −3

are parallel. How can you tell if the figure is not given?
z

2x − 4y + 6z = −3
x − 2y + 3z = 4
y

Part B: Planes in three dimensions B3. Parallel planes 20

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

B4. Intersection of planes

Can you solve the following system of equations?


x +y +z = 1
2x − 3y − z = 2

Can you interpret the result in terms of the intersection of two planes?

Part B: Planes in three dimensions B4. Intersection of planes 21

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

B4. Intersection of planes

We can also find the intersection of the planes

x +y +z =1 and 2x − 3y − z = 2

using a vector approach as follows.

Part B: Planes in three dimensions B4. Intersection of planes 22

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

B5. Intersection of a line and a plane

Can you find the point of intersection of the plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6 with the
straight line
3x − 8 y
= = z − 1?
6 −2

Part B: Planes in three dimensions B5. Intersection of a line and a plane 23

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

B6. Distance from a point to a plane

It is easy to check that the point (1, 1, 3) does not lie on the plane
3x + 2y + 6z = 6. What is the distance from the point to the plane?

Part B: Planes in three dimensions B6. Distance from a point to a plane 24

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

B6. Distance from a point to a plane

More generally, we can show that the distance from the point (p, q, r ) to the plane
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 is given by

Part B: Planes in three dimensions B6. Distance from a point to a plane 25

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A Lines in three dimensions
B Planes in three dimensions
C Graphs of multivariable functions
D Some special curves and surfaces
E More coordinate systems

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions 26

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C1. Graph of a function y = f (x)

Let f be a function of one variable x. For each value of x in the domain, there
corresponds a value f (x). This gives us a point (x, f (x)) on the coordinate plane.
By collecting all such points, we get the graph of y = f (x), which is a curve in
general.

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C1. Graph of a function y = f (x) 27

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C2. Graph of a function z = f (x, y )

Now suppose f is a function of two variables x and y . For each pair of (x, y ) in
the domain, there corresponds a value f (x, y ). This gives us a point (x, y , f (x, y ))
in the three-dimensional coordinate system. By collecting all such points, we get
the graph of z = f (x, y ), which is a surface in general.

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C2. Graph of a function z = f (x, y ) 28

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C2. Graph of a function z = f (x, y )

Let’s examine the graphs of some functions of two variables.

(a) f (x, y ) = 3

3.5

2
2.5
−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C2. Graph of a function z = f (x, y ) 29

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C2. Graph of a function z = f (x, y )

Let’s examine the graphs of some functions of two variables.

(b) f (x, y ) = 2x + 3y − 1

10

2
−10
−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C2. Graph of a function z = f (x, y ) 30

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C2. Graph of a function z = f (x, y )

Let’s examine the graphs of some functions of two variables.

(c) f (x, y ) = 2 − x 2 − y 2

−5 2

−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C2. Graph of a function z = f (x, y ) 31

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C2. Graph of a function z = f (x, y )

Let’s examine the graphs of some functions of two variables.

(d) f (x, y ) = x 2 − y 2

4
2
0
−2
2
−4
−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C2. Graph of a function z = f (x, y ) 32

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C3. Implicit functions

If y is a function of one variable x, then the graph of y = f (x) is a curve in two

dimensions. This is an example of an explicit function.

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C3. Implicit functions 33

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C3. Implicit functions

If y is a function of one variable x, then the graph of y = f (x) is a curve in two

dimensions. This is an example of an explicit function.
Sometimes we may also consider implicit functions of the form f (x, y ) = 0. We
can likewise collect all points (x, y ) satisfying f (x, y ) = 0 and get the graph of
such implicit functions which again is a curve in general.

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C3. Implicit functions 33

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C3. Implicit functions

If y is a function of one variable x, then the graph of y = f (x) is a curve in two

dimensions. This is an example of an explicit function.
Sometimes we may also consider implicit functions of the form f (x, y ) = 0. We
can likewise collect all points (x, y ) satisfying f (x, y ) = 0 and get the graph of
such implicit functions which again is a curve in general.

y
(x − 3)2 + y 2 = 4

x
O

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C3. Implicit functions 33

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C3. Implicit functions

Likewise, instead of an explicit function of the form z = f (x, y ), we may also

consider implicit functions of the form f (x, y , z) = 0. We can collect points
(x, y , z) satisfying f (x, y , z) = 0, and we get a surface in three dimensions.
z

4x 2 + 4y 2 + z 2 = 9
y

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C3. Implicit functions 34

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C4. Reduction to one-variable functions

Suppose z = f (x, y ) is a function of two independent variables x and y .

Sometimes we may want to fix one variable and let the other variable vary. This
essentially reduces the two-variable function to a one-variable function.
For instance, if we fix a certainly value of x, say, x = 1, then z = f (1, y ) becomes
a function of a single variable y . Similarly if we fix y then z becomes a function of
x only.

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C4. Reduction to one-variable functions 35

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C4. Reduction to one-variable functions

We can illustrate this with some previous examples.

(b) f (x, y ) = 2x + 3y − 1

10

2
−10
−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C4. Reduction to one-variable functions 36

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C4. Reduction to one-variable functions

We can illustrate this with some previous examples.

(b) f (x, y ) = 2x + 3y − 1

Setting x = 1, we get

f (y ) = 3y + 1. 10

2
−10
−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C4. Reduction to one-variable functions 36

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C4. Reduction to one-variable functions

We can illustrate this with some previous examples.

(b) f (x, y ) = 2x + 3y − 1

Setting x = 1, we get

f (y ) = 3y + 1. 10

0
Setting y = 0, we get
2
f (x) = 2x − 1. −10
−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C4. Reduction to one-variable functions 36

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C4. Reduction to one-variable functions

We can illustrate this with some previous examples.

(d) f (x, y ) = x 2 − y 2

4
2
0
−2
2
−4
−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C4. Reduction to one-variable functions 37

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C4. Reduction to one-variable functions

We can illustrate this with some previous examples.

(d) f (x, y ) = x 2 − y 2

Setting x = 1, we get

f (y ) = 1 − y 2 . 4
2
0
−2
2
−4
−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C4. Reduction to one-variable functions 37

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C4. Reduction to one-variable functions

We can illustrate this with some previous examples.

(d) f (x, y ) = x 2 − y 2

Setting x = 1, we get

f (y ) = 1 − y 2 . 4
2
0
Setting y = 0, we get
−2
2
2
f (x) = x . −4
−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C4. Reduction to one-variable functions 37

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C5. Contour lines

Suppose z = f (x, y ) is a function of two independent variables x and y . Just now

we have seen that by fixing either x or y , we reduce f to a one-variable function.
What if we fix z instead?

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C5. Contour lines 38

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C5. Contour lines

Suppose z = f (x, y ) is a function of two independent variables x and y . Just now

we have seen that by fixing either x or y , we reduce f to a one-variable function.
What if we fix z instead?
By choosing a constant value of z, we are collecting all pairs (x, y ) at which the
function value is equal to that constant. That essentially means we take a
collection of points with the same height, and that gives us a contour line (also
called a level curve if consider it as a curve in two dimensions), something you
would have come across when you learnt map reading in the subject geography.

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C5. Contour lines 38

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C5. Contour lines

Again we illustrate this with a previous example.

(c) f (x, y ) = 2 − x 2 − y 2

−5 2

−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C5. Contour lines 39

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C5. Contour lines

Again we illustrate this with a previous example.

(c) f (x, y ) = 2 − x 2 − y 2

Setting z = 1, we get

x 2 + y 2 = 1.
0

−5 2

−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C5. Contour lines 39

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C5. Contour lines

Again we illustrate this with a previous example.

(c) f (x, y ) = 2 − x 2 − y 2

Setting z = 1, we get

x 2 + y 2 = 1.
0

Setting z = 0, we get
−5 2
x 2 + y 2 = 2.
−2 0
−1
0
1
2 −2

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C5. Contour lines 39

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

C5. Contour lines

If we draw many contour lines and take a top view, we get the following contour
map of the function f (x, y ) = 2 − x 2 − y 2 :

f (x, y ) = 2
f (x, y ) = 1
f (x, y ) = 0
f (x, y ) = −1
f (x, y ) = −2
f (x, y ) = −3

Part C: Graphs of multivariable functions C5. Contour lines 40

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A Lines in three dimensions
B Planes in three dimensions
C Graphs of multivariable functions
D Some special curves and surfaces
E More coordinate systems

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces 41

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D1. Familiar curves in R2

You should be familiar with straight lines, circles and parabolas in R2 :

y y y
2 2
x + y − 4x − 6y + 4 = 0
y = x 2 − 5x + 4

y = 2x + 3

x x x

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D1. Familiar curves in R2 42

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D1. Familiar curves in R2

The parabolas you encountered before usually open upward or downward. They
can also be rotated by 90 degrees (or by other angles, although we shall not go
into the details of that):
y y

y 2 − 2y = −2x
2
y = 2x

x x

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D1. Familiar curves in R2 43

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D2. Conic sections

Circles and parabolas belong to a more general class of curves in R2 known as

conic sections. As we shall see, these are curves in R2 that can be represented by
an equation of degree 2 in x and y , whose general form is

Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D2. Conic sections 44

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D2. Conic sections

A circle is the locus of a point that is at a fixed distance r from a point P. How
about a parabola?
y

x = − 12
y2 = x

( 12 , 0)
x

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D2. Conic sections 45

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D2. Conic sections

Given two points F1 and F2 , the locus y

of a point whose sum of distances from
x2 y2
F1 and F2 is a constant forms an ellipse. 4 2
+ 2 =1
5 4
The standard form of an ellipse is

x2 y2
2
+ 2 = 1.
a b (−3, 0) (3, 0)
−5 5 x

−4

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D2. Conic sections 46

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D2. Conic sections

Given two points F1 and F2 , the locus

y
of a point whose difference of distances
from F1 and F2 is a constant forms a
hyperbola. The standard form of a
hyperbola is

x2 y2 (−5, 0) (5, 0)
− = 1. x
a2 b2

x2 y2
2
− 2 =1
3 4

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D2. Conic sections 47

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D2. Conic sections

We can also rotate by 45 degrees to get y

the alternative form

xy = k.
xy = 1

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D2. Conic sections 48

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D3. Cylindrical surfaces

A curve f (x, y ) = 0 in R2 can be used to generate a surface g (x, y , z) = 0 in R3

by defining g (x, y , z) = f (x, y ). The resulting surface is called a cylindrical
surface. The level curves are just the generating curve f (x, y ) = 0.

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D3. Cylindrical surfaces 49

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D3. Cylindrical surfaces

We can likewise generate two other types of cylindrical surfaces by using curves in
the xz-plane and the yz-plane respectively.
z z

y y

x
x
y2 z2
2 2 − =1
x +z =4 9 16

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D3. Cylindrical surfaces 50

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D4. Quadric surfaces

A quadric surface is a surface in R3 that can be represented by an equation of

degree 2 in x, y and z. Its general form is

Ax 2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Eyz + Fzx + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0

and it is a natural generalisation of the notion of conic sections in R2 . Note that

some cylindrical surfaces we have seen are also quadric surfaces.

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D4. Quadric surfaces 51

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D4. Quadric surfaces

A sphere centred at the origin with radius r

has equation

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2.

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D4. Quadric surfaces 52

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D4. Quadric surfaces

An ellipsoid is a surface of the form

x2 y2 z2
+ + = 1.
a2 b2 c2
Its horizontal cross sections are ellipses.
Its vertical cross sections are .

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D4. Quadric surfaces 53

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D4. Quadric surfaces

An elliptic paraboloid is a surface of the

form
x2 y2 z
2
+ 2
= .
a b c
Its horizontal cross sections are .
Its vertical cross sections are .

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D4. Quadric surfaces 54

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D4. Quadric surfaces

A hyperbolic paraboloid is a surface of the

form
x2 y2 z
2
− 2
= .
a b c
Its horizontal cross sections are .
Its vertical cross sections are .

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D4. Quadric surfaces 55

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D4. Quadric surfaces

An elliptic cone is a surface of the form

x2 y2 z2
+ = .
a2 b2 c2
Its horizontal cross sections are .
Its vertical cross sections are .

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D4. Quadric surfaces 56

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D4. Quadric surfaces

An hyperboloid of one sheet is a surface of

the form
x2 y2 z2
2
+ 2 = 2 + 1.
a b c
Its horizontal cross sections are .
Its vertical cross sections are .

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D4. Quadric surfaces 57

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

D4. Quadric surfaces

An hyperboloid of two sheets is a surface of

the form
x2 y2 z2
2
+ 2 = 2 − 1.
a b c
Its horizontal cross sections are .
Its vertical cross sections are .

Part D: Some special curves and surfaces D4. Quadric surfaces 58

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

A Lines in three dimensions
B Planes in three dimensions
C Graphs of multivariable functions
D Some special curves and surfaces
E More coordinate systems

Part E: More coordinate systems 59

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E1. Polar coordinates

In addition to rectangular coordinates (in two and three dimensions), you should
also be familiar with the polar coordinate system:
90
120 60

150 30

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
180 0

210 330

240 300
270

Part E: More coordinate systems E1. Polar coordinates 60

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E1. Polar coordinates

Some graphs can be represented by nice and simple equations in polar coordinates.
2π
(a) θ =
3
90
120 60

150 30

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
180 0

210 330

240 300
270

Part E: More coordinate systems E1. Polar coordinates 61

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E1. Polar coordinates

Some graphs can be represented by nice and simple equations in polar coordinates.
2π
(a) θ =
3
90
120 60

150 30

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
180 0

210 330

240 300
270

Part E: More coordinate systems E1. Polar coordinates 61

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E1. Polar coordinates

Some graphs can be represented by nice and simple equations in polar coordinates.
(b) r = 2 sin θ
90
120 60

150 30

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
180 0

210 330

240 300
270

Part E: More coordinate systems E1. Polar coordinates 62

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E1. Polar coordinates

Some graphs can be represented by nice and simple equations in polar coordinates.
(b) r = 2 sin θ
90
120 60

150 30

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
180 0

210 330

240 300
270

Part E: More coordinate systems E1. Polar coordinates 62

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E1. Polar coordinates

Some graphs can be represented by nice and simple equations in polar coordinates.
(c) r 2 = 4 cos θ
90
120 60

150 30

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
180 0

210 330

240 300
270

Part E: More coordinate systems E1. Polar coordinates 63

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E1. Polar coordinates

Some graphs can be represented by nice and simple equations in polar coordinates.
(c) r 2 = 4 cos θ
90
120 60

150 30

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
180 0

210 330

240 300
270

Part E: More coordinate systems E1. Polar coordinates 63

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E2. Cylindrical coordinates

By adding a ‘vertical dimension’ and z-coordinate to the polar coordinate system,

we get the cylindrical coordinate system which describes positions in three
dimensions. The coordinates are denoted by (r , θ, z).

Part E: More coordinate systems E2. Cylindrical coordinates 64

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E3. Latitudes and longitudes

Positions on Earth (a two-dimensional surface) can be described by a pair of

coordinates known as latitudes and longitudes.
The latitude measures the angle relative to the equatorial plane. With north
π π
being positive, it ranges from − to .
2 2
The longitude measures the angle relative to the prime meridian. With east
being positive, it ranges from −π to π.

Part E: More coordinate systems E3. Latitudes and longitudes 65

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E4. Spherical coordinates

If we assume that the Earth is spherical, then essentially the latitude and longitude
system allows us to denote positions on the surface of a sphere (which are at a
fixed distance from the ‘origin’).
We can then naturally extend this to allow us to denote positions in three
dimensions by introducing an extra coordinate which denotes the distance from the
origin.

Part E: More coordinate systems E4. Spherical coordinates 66

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E4. Spherical coordinates

The spherical coordinate system uses a z

triple (ρ, φ, θ) to denote the position of a
point P in three dimensions. P
ρ is the distance of P from the φ
origin O ρ
φ is the angle with from the positive O
−→
z-axis to OP (it ranges from 0 to π) y
θ
θ is the same angle when P is
expressed in cylindrical coordinates x
(it ranges from 0 to 2π)
Note that φ and θ play similar roles as
the latitude and longitude respectively.

Part E: More coordinate systems E4. Spherical coordinates 67

MATH 2822: Mathematical Methods for Actuarial Science II Chapter 1: Coordinate Geometry

E5. Conversion between coordinates

Now we know three coordinates in three dimensions: rectangular, cylindrical and

spherical. How can we convert between them? Can you complete the table below?

Rectangular coordinates Cylindrical coordinates Spherical coordinates

(x, y , z) (r , θ, z) (ρ, φ, θ)
√
(1, 3, 2)
 
2π
1, ,1
3
 
5π π
4, ,
12 4

Part E: More coordinate systems E5. Conversion between coordinates 68