INDEX

ENGINEERING PHYSICS SUBJECT CODE- BT-201

OBJECTIVE OF THE EXPERIMENT
S.N.

1 To find the V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode.

To study and plot forward & reverse bias VI characteristics of Zener

2
diode.

3 To study and plot the characteristics curve of Light Emitting diode.

4 To study the V-I characteristics of Solar Cell .

To determine the Energy Band Gap in a semiconductor using temperature

5
dependence of reverse saturation current.

To determine the radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens by using

6
Newton’s ring apparatus.

To determine the wavelength of different colours of white light using

7
diffraction grating by spectrometer.

To determine the refractive index of material of prism by using

8
spectrometer.

9 To determine the resolving power of Telescope.

10 To study the angular divergence of laser beam.

 EXPERIMENT-06
Object:
To determine the radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens by using
Newton’s ring apparatus.

Apparatus required:
Sodium lamp, Traveling microscope, Newton’s ring apparatus
consisting of an optically plane circular glass plate, convex lens, a
rectangular glass plate inclined at 45 Reading lamp and reading
lens.

Formula Used:
The wavelength of sodium light is given by
−
=
4
Where
= Radius of curvature of Plano convex lens
= an integer
= Diameter of ( + ) ring
= Diameter of ring

Theory:
The experimental arrangement for obtaining Newton’s ring is
shown in figure 1(a) L is a Plano convex lens of large radius of
curvature, its convex surface is placed on the upper surface of the
plane glass plate P. The lens makes contact with the plate at point
O. Light from an extended monochromatic source falls on the glass
plate G kept at 45 0 with the vertical. The glass plate reflects a part
of light incident normally on air film enclosed by lens L & the glass
plate P. Newton’s ring are observed due to the interference of two
rays one which is reflected from the bottom of Plano convex lens
& other ray which is reflected from the top of the plane glass plate.
These rings are the localized in the air film, and can be seen with a
microscope.
The formation of Newton’s ring can be
explained with the help of figure 2(b) AB is a monochromatic ray
of light, which fall on the system. A part of it is reflected at C
which goes out in a form of ray 1. The other part which is refracted
along CD, after reflection from D it comes out as ray 2, with a
phase reversal of (due to Stroke’s law). The ray 1 & 2 satisfies
the condition of interference and so they interfere and produce dark
and bright fringes. As the ring are observed in the reflected light,
the path difference between them is given by

= 2 cos +
2
For air film = 1 and normal incidence r = o hence in this case,

the path difference is 2t + at the point of contact = 0 and the

path difference is , which is the condition of minimum intensity.

Thus the central spot is dark. For nth bright fringe we have

2 + =
2
As = [Condition for max. intensity.]
And = [Condition for min. intensity.]

Let be the radius of curvature of the surface of lens in contact

with the plate. be the wavelength of light used and and

the diameter of and ( + ) dark rings respectively, then

= 4

= 4( + )
 − = 4
= −
4
Diagram:

Figure 1(a): Newton's Ring Figure 1(b): Schematic Diagram for

Apparatus Newton’s ring

Figure 2(a): Newton’s rings Figure 2(b): Interference of reflected rays

Procedure: Adjustments:
1. First the glass plate G, Plano convex L and the plate P
are cleaned to ensure that there are no dust particles.
2. Now the light from the sodium lamp is made to fall on
the convex lens L and the parallel light from the lens L
fall on the Glass plate G which is kept at 450. This
ensure that light is falling normally on the system of
plano-convex lens and the plane glass plate kept in
contact with plano-convex lens.
3. Note down the least count of traveling microscope.
4. Move the eyepieces to and for inside tube so as to adjust
it such that cross wires are distinctly seen.
5. Focus the microscope to obtain distinct Newton’s rings
in the field of view by lowering or rising up the
microscope by rack and pinion arrangement.

2. Measurement of diameter of rings:

1. The Microscope is moved horizontally (say toward left)
with the help of tangential screw for counting the rings,
the cross-wire is made tangential on the bright circular
ring (Say 10th ring). The reading of microscope is noted.
Now the microscope is gradually moved towards right
and the reading of say 9, 8, 7,6,5,4,3,2,1 rings are noted.
2. Now keep on moving the tangential screw of the
microscope in the same direction till 1st ring on the right
hand side reached. Again note the readings 2, 3, 4,
5,6,7,8,9,10. The difference in reading on the two sides
of rings will be its diameter.
Observation table for the diameter of rings:
Value of 1 division on the main scale of microscope ( ) = … … …

Total number of divisions on the Vernier scale ( ) = … … … …

 Value of one small main scale division (x)
Least count of microscope =
Total number of division on vernier scale

No. Reading of microscope Diameter −

of rings
of On left side On right side (in cm2) (in cm2)
= −
rings . . . . . . . .( ) . . . . . . . .( ) for P=5
( ) ( ) (in cm)
10 −
9 = ⋯………

8 −
7 = ⋯………

6
−
5 = ⋯………

4
−
3 = ⋯………

2 −
1 = ⋯………

Calculations:
The standard value of wavelength of sodium light is =
5893 Å
We have
( – )
=
4
Result:

The radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens by using

Newton’s ring apparatus is calculated as………………..(cm)
Percentage Error:

( – )
= × 100%

Precautions:

1. The glass plate, lens must be cleaned.

2. The glass plate should be kept at 450.
3. The radius of curvature of the Plano convex lens must
be large so that the large diameter rings may be
obtained.
4. The source must be monochromatic and extended.
5. The tangential screw of the microscope must be
moved in the same direction to avoid backlash error.
6. While measuring the diameter the cross-wire should
be tangential to bright ring.

Viva-voice:

1. At what phenomenon of light Newton’s rigs depends?

2. What is interference?
3. Why Newton’s rings are circular?
4. Why centre of Newton’s rings is dark?
5. Why do the rings get closer as the order of the rings
increases?
6. Why we use the extended monocromatic source of
light in this experiment?
 EXPERIMENT-07

Object:
To determine the wavelength of different colours of white light
using diffraction grating by spectrometer.

Apparatus required:
Plane transmission grating, spectrometer, reading lens, reading lamp
and mercury lamp, sprit level.

Theory:
A plane transmission grating is an arrangement consisting of a large
number of close, parallel, straight, transparent and equidistance slits
each of equal width. When a parallel beam of monochromatic light of
wavelength  is incident normally on a grating, then by Huygens’s
principle each point of each slit acts as a source of secondary wavelets
which spread out in all directions, which interfere and get focused in
the telescope. The path difference between the diffracted waves at an
angle from the corresponding points of two consecutive slits is
( + ) sin . When this path difference is equal to integer multiple
of wavelength, the waves produce constructive interference. Hence
for principal maxima.

( + ) sin =  ℎ = 0,1,2,3, … … … …
Where
= ℎ
= ℎ
+ = .
=
  = ℎ ℎ
Here is called the order of the spectrum. For = 0 we get zero
order maxima and for = 1, 2, … … … … we get first order, second
order…. maxima respectively on either side of zero order maxima.
Thus knowing the grating element and the angle of diffraction in a
particular order n, the wavelength of light can be calculated. To
determine the angle of diffraction θ spectrometer is used. Now if
white light is made incident on a grating, in each order the value of
will be different corresponding to different wavelengths  present in
the incident white light. Thus we get spectrum in each order .The first
order principal maxima of wavelengths in the incident light form the
first order spectrum. Similarly the second order principal maxima of
wavelengths in the incident light from the second order spectrum.
Since angle of diffraction = 0 for the principal maxima of all
wavelengths corresponding = 0, therefore the zero order maxima is
white in the direction of incident light.

Formula used:
The wavelength of spectral line is given by
( + )
=

Where
( + ) = Grating element= .
= 1.69 × 10
= Order of spectrum
= Angle of diffraction
Diagram:

Figure(2): Diffraction through

gratin Figure(3) : Spectrum obtained

Figure(4): Spectrum of white Figure (5): Formation of spectrum though grating

light
Procedure: Setting the grating for normal Incident:-
1. The spectrometer is well adjusted for parallel beam using
the usual procedure of seeing a far object.
2. The position of the telescope is adjusted in such way that
the image of the slit is focused on the vertical cross wire of
the telescope. In this position, the collimator and the
telescope are in the same line. The reading is noted on the
circular scale.
3. The telescope is now turned 90 degree and clamped.
4. Grating is mounted on the prism table normal to the
 collimator. The prism table is now rotated so that the image
of the slit reflected from the grating surface lies at the
intersection of the cross wire.
5. Prism table is now rotated through the angle of 45 degree.
In this condition the plane of grating is optically normal to
the incident rays.

Determination of Diffraction Angle ( ) :

1. Telescope from the position of the direct slit is rotated
towards left till the first order spectrum is seen in the field of
the view. Reading of the Vernier for violet, green and yellow
by coinciding the cross wire with these spectrum are noted.
2. Now the telescope is turned on the right side of the direct
image of slit and reading of Vernier are noted for the same
spectral lines in the first order spectrum.
3. The difference of the reading of the same Vernier gives twice
angle of diffraction for that line in the first order. The average
of two Vernier is taken.

Observations:
Observation Table:

1 = ⋯…………………°

ℎ = ⋯………………

1 0.5 1
= = =
30 60
=1
 Color Readings of L.H.S. Reading of R.H.S. Differenc
of spectrum Spectrum e Mean
S.N. Scale
spectra
l line Total Total = ~
MSR VSR MSR VSR
(A) (B)
V1
1. Violet
V2

V1
2. Green
V2

V1
3. Yellow
V2

V1
4. Red
V2

CALCULATION:
( + )
 = sin

Where = 1

 = ( + )
2.54
= 1.69 × 10 (
and ( + ) = 15000
= 15,000 / ℎ)

(i) For violet color:

= ……………….
= ………………. ( 1Å = 10 )
(ii) For green color:
 = ……………….
………………. ( 1Å = 10 )
(iii) For yellow color:
= ……………….
= ………………. ( 1Å = 10 )

−
= × 100%

1. For violet color = ------------------%

2. For green color = ------------------%
3. For yellow color = ------------------%
Result:
The wavelength of violet, yellow and green and red color are as
shown in table:

Observed
Color of Standard wavelength Percentage error
S.N. wavelength
spectrum line  ( Å) (%)
 ( Å)
1 Violet 4050

2 Green 4962

3 Yellow 5780

4. Red 7000
Precautions:
1. The adjustment of the spectrometer must be
made correctly.
2. The slit should be as narrow as possible.
3. Handle the grating carefully.
4. The light should fall normally on grating surface.
5. The ruled surface should face always from the
collimator.
6. While taking observation, the prism table should be
clamped.

Viva-voice:
1. What do you mean by diffraction of light?
2. What is diffraction grating?
3. Define the least count of spectrometer.
4. What is difference between interference and diffraction?
5. What is grating element?
6. What is main difference in the grating spectrum and
prism spectrum?
 EXPERIMENT-09

Object:
To determine the resolving Power of telescope.

Apparatus required:
Telescope with variable slit, Board which has equidistance lines of
white color, monochromatic light source, Vernier calipers, and meter
scale.

Theory:
According to Rayleigh’s criterion two objects of equal intensities are
said to be just resolved when in their diffraction pattern the principal
maxima of one coincides with the minima of other. The resolving
power of telescope is equal to the reciprocal of the angle subtended at
the objective lens of the telescope by the two far point objects when
their images formed in the focal plane of telescope are just resolved.
In figure and are two far objects. The light rays of wavelength
form these objects are incident on the objective lens of telescope
subtending and angle θ. After refraction they form images ’ and ’ in
its focal plane. From the diagram, it is clear that angular separation
between principal maxima ’and ’ = .
.
Or =
 Figure(1): Image formation by a telescope

Figure (2): Telescope

Figure (3):The angular separation between Figure (4): Rayleigh’s Criterion of

the two maxima Resolution

Hence resolving power of telescope = =

.
 Now if the width of slit mounted on the objective lens is a , when it
just resolves the two strips at separation b on the card-board kept at a
distance , then

The angle subtended by the strips at the slit =

Angular separation between the two principal maxima or the angular

spread of principal maxima =

Hence, just at the limit of resolution,

or =

Thus resolving power of telescope R.P. =

.

Formula used:

Resolving power of telescope R.P.= rad-1

.

Where
= diameter of objective of telescope,
= distance of card − board from the objective of telescope,
= width of slit mounted on the objective of telescope in the position
of just resolution
= Separation between the two strips drawn on the card-board.

Procedure:
1. The card-board is clamped on a vertical stand and is
illuminated by placing light at its back.
2. The telescope is clamped horizontally on another vertical stand
 and is placed at a distance 4-5 meter from the card-board. The
axis of telescope should be horizontal and the height of
telescope should be in line with the strips drawn n the cared-
board.
3. Mount the rectangular variable slot on the objective of
telescope such that the slit is vertical and parallel to the strips
of the card-board.
4. Note the least count of the micrometer screw provided with the
rectangular slit.
5. Then open the rectangular slit completely and focus the
telescope on the strips drawn on the card-board so that distinct
image of strips is seen in the field of view. Now gradually
decrease the width of the slit by the micrometer screw till the
separate visibility of the two strips just disappears. Note the
reading of micrometer screw in this position.
6. The micrometer screw is rotated in the same direction till there
is complete darkness in the field of view. The reading of
micrometer screw is again noted. The difference in the two
readings of the micrometer screw gives the width a1 of the
rectangular slit in the position of just resolution of the two
strips.
7. Now the slit is completely closed and then opened gradually.
As we get light in the field of view, the reading of micrometer
screw is noted. Then the micrometer screw is turned in the
same direction till the two strips just appear to be separated
from each other. Again the reading of micrometer screw is
noted. The difference in the two readings of micrometer screw
gives the width of the rectangular slit in the position of just
resolution of two strips
8. The experiment is repeated for the different separation of
telescope and the card-board.
9. Note the distance between two strips on card-board (i.e. b).
10.Find the diameter d of the objective lens of the telescope after
removing the slit from it with the help of vernier calipers.
11.Measure the distance D of the card-board from the objective of
telescope, using a meter scale.
Observation:
Table 1:
For width of the slit in the condition of just resolution
Least count of the micrometer……………………………
Micrometer readings while closing the Micrometer readings while opening the
slit slit

darkness in the field of view Width of the

When there is completely

When the resolution just

When the light starts
When tholution just

S.N slit

Width of the slit

Width of the slit

)

= ′ − ′
)

)
)

coming
.
−
( − )

starts
ends(

( ′
( ′
(

= 2

1
2
3
4
5

Table 2:
Observations for the diameter of the objective lens of telescope
Least count of Vernier calipers…………………………………..
Zero error ±………………..

Main scale Vernier Scale

S.N. Total readings
reading readings
In one direction
1
In perpendicular direction

In one direction
2
In perpendicular direction

In one direction
3
In perpendicular direction
Calculations:

Resolving power R. P. = rad = ⋯ … … … … … ..

.

Result:
The resolving power of the given telescope = ⋯ … … … … . . rad

Precautions:
1. The axis of telescope must be horizontal.
2. To avoid the backlash error, the micrometer screw must always
be turned in one direction.
3. The plane of the slit must be parallel to the card-board.
4. The width of slit at the position of just resolution must be
adjusted carefully.

Viva-voice:
1. What is meant by the resolving power of telescope?
2. What is Rayleigh’s criterion of just resolution?
3. On what factors does the resolving power of the telescope
depend
4. How does is the resolving power affected if
5. Card-board is moved away?
6. The separation between the strips is increased?
7. How can you increase the resolving power of a telescope?
8. Why do the strips get resolved on increasing the slit width?
 EXPERIMENT-08

Object:
To determine the refractive index of material of prism by using
spectrometer.

Apparatus Required:
Spectrometer, prism, spirit level, reading lens, mercury vapour
lamp and reading lamp.

Theory:
When a monochromatic light ray is incident at the point of
the surface of the prism , it follows the path after
refraction through the surface , bending towards the normal
. This ray again suffers refraction from glass to air at the
surface and bends away from the normal ’ and follows the
path . The emergent ray is . The angle of incidence is , the
angle of refraction is and angle of emergence is . In the absence
of prism, the light ray would have followed the straight line. Thus
the angle of deviation is the angle due to refraction at both the
surfaces of prism.
If the angle of incidence of the incident ray on the prism is
gradually increased, the angle of deviation first decreases, then at a
particular angle of incidence, the angle of deviation becomes
minimum
 Figure:(1) Minimum Angle of deviation

Figure (2): Change in the angle of deviation with increasing angle

of incidence
With further increase in angle of incidence, the angle of deviation
again starts increasing. The minimum value of angle of deviation is
called the angle of minimum deviationδ . In the position of
minimum deviation, if the refracting angle of prism , the
refractive index of the material of prism is

sin
μ=
sin
Formula used:
The refractive index of the material of the prism

sin
μ=
sin

Where
A = Angle of Prism
= Minimum angle of deviation

Fig. (3): Determination of Apex angle of prism A

Procedure:
1. Adjustment of the spectrometer
2. Measurement of the refracting angle A of the prism.
3. Measurement of angle of minimum deviation
Adjustment of the spectrometer:
1. First adjust the thickness of the slit provided in the collimator
for a fine pencil of beam.
2. Focus the collimator of the spectrometer with help of
focusing screw.
3. Adjust the height of the prism table so that the maximum
light should fall on the prism.
4. Focus the telescope with the help of focusing screw provided
to obtain a fine image of beam.
5. Level the spectrometer with the help of spirit level and
levelling screws.

Measurement of the refracting angle A of the prism:

1. First find the least count of the scale provided of the
spectrometer
2. Now the prism is kept on the prism table such that the vertex
A of the prism is at the centre of prism table and its base is
normal to the direction of incident light figure (4). In this
position, the parallel rays coming from the collimator fall on
the faces AB and AC of the prism and get reflected from
these faces.
3. Illuminate the slit of collimator with the mercury lamp.
4. Now the telescope is turned towards the face AB of the prism
and the image of slit formed by the light reflected from this
face AC is brought on the vertical cross-wire of telescope .,
This position of telescope is read with the help of the Vernier
scales on the circular scale.
5. Then the telescope is turned towards the face AC and the
above process is repeated.
6. Find the difference in both readings of each Vernier
 separately. This difference is twice the refracting angle of the
prism (2A). Taking half of this the refracting angle A of the
prism is obtained.

Measurement of angle of minimum deviation δ

1. The prism is placed on the prism table such that light from
collimator falls obliquely on one refracting face AB of the
prism.
2. On lightning the mercury lamp it is kept near the slit of
collimator and the spectrum is seen by bringing the telescope
towards the other refracting face AC of the prism.
3. When spectrum is seen the prism table is turned such that the
spectrum begins to shift towards the axis of collimator. With
this the angle of incidence gradually increases and the angle
of deviation gradually decreases. On turning the prism table a
stage is reached when the angle of incidence is such that the
angle of deviation becomes minimum. This position is shown
in figure (5). If the prism table is further rotated the angle of
deviation will increase. The position of prism from where the
spectrum begins to shift in opposite direction is called the
position of minimum deviation.
4. In the position of minimum deviation, the red, yellow and
violet spectral line is made to coincide with the vertical
cross-wire by turning the telescope is brought just in front of
the axis of collimator and the image of slit is made coincide
with the vertical cross- wire of telescope. This position of
telescope is again noted by taking the readings of the verniers
on the circular scale.
5. Now the prism is removed from the prism table and the
telescope is brought just in front of the vertical cross-wire of
 telescope. This position of telescope is again noted by taking
the readings of both verniers on the circular scale
6. Then taking the difference in the two readings of each
vernier separately find their mean value. This will give the
angle of minimum deviation for the red, yellow and
violet colours.

Observation:
Table 1:Observation table for the prism angle A

Value of 1 division of circular scale of spectrometer x = 0.5

Total number of divisions on the Vernier scale n = 30

Least count of Vernier

Value of 1 main scale division x
=
Total number of divisions on vernier scale n
0.5 1
= = =1
30 60

Reflection from first Reflection from second

Diff Mean
face face
S.N. Vernier ~ Value
V.S.R Total V.S. Total = 2 of 2
M.S.R. M.S.R.
. ( ) R. ( )

1
Table 2: Observation table for the angle of deviation for different color

After refraction from In line with the axis of

Color
S. prism collimator
of Vernier
N. Total Total =
light M.S.R. V.S.R. M.S.R. V.S.R.
(A) (B) ~
Violet

1
Yellow

2
Red

Calculations:
Refracting angle of prism A = … … … … … …

Refractive index for red color

μ = = ---------

Refractive index for yellow color

[ ]
μ = = ---------
( )

Refractive index for violet color

[ ]
μ = = ---------
( )
 ~
% error = × 100

+
= sin = ⋯ … … … ..
sin

+
= sin = ⋯ … … … ..
sin

+
= sin = ⋯ … … … ..
sin

Result:
The value of refractive index for different colors are shown in the
table-

Color of the Observed Standard %

spectral line value value Error
Violet 1.52136

Yellow 1.51124

Red 1.50917

Precautions:
1. Spectrometer should be well adjusted before starting the
experiment
2. The source of light must be placed near the slit of
collimator.
3. The prism should be clean and its faces should not be
touched with hands.
 4. The reading in the position of minimum deviation is taken
only when on turning the prism table in one direction, the
spectral line of given color (say yellow) begins to return
back after coinciding exactly with the vertical cross-wire of
the telescope.
5. Both the Vernier of the spectrometer should be read to
avoid error.

Viva-voice:
1. Define least count of spectrometer?
2. Define prism & what is angle of prism?
3. What do you mean by refractive index of prism and what is
its unit?
4. On what factor does the refractive index of the prism
depends?
5. How is the refractive index related with speed of light?
6. What do you mean by monochromatic and chromatic light?
7. How do you define wavelength?
8. How does refractive index vary with wavelength?
9. What is angle of minimum deviation?
 EXPERIMENT-04

Objective:
To study the V-I characteristics of Solar Cell.
Apparatus Used:
Solar energy trainer kit, Solar Panel, DB15 connector and Patch
cords.
Theory:
Solar cell is also known as photovoltaic cell. A photovoltaic is
the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level.
Some materials exhibit this property that causes them to absorb
photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons
are captured an electric current results that can be used as
electricity.
Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor
materials, such as silicon. For solar cells, a thin semiconductor
wafer is specially doped to form an electric field, positive on one
side and negative on the other. When light energy strikes the
solar cells, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the
semiconductor material. If electrical conductors are attached to
the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the
electrons can be captured in the form of an electric current i.e.
electricity. This electricity can then be used to power a load such
as a light or a tool.
A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and
mounted in a support structure or frame is called a photovoltaic
module. Modules are designed to supply electricity at a certain
voltage, such as a common 12 volts system. The current
produced is directly dependent on how much light strikes the
 module.
Multiple module can be wired together to form an array. In
general, the larger the area of a module or array, the more
electricity that will be produced. Photovoltaic modules and array
produce direct-current (dc) electricity. They can be connected in
both series and parallel electrical arrangements to produce any
required voltage and current combination.

Figure (1): Schematic symbol of a Solar cell

Figure (3): Circuit diagram for characteristics of a Solar cell

Procedure:

1. Take the Solar Energy Trainer along with Solar Panel.

2. Place the solar panel in the stand and adjust the panel at
an angle of about 45ºwith the ground. Direct the sunlight
straight at the solar panel (angle of 90º).
Note: If sunlight is not properly available then any source
 of light like lamp can be used.
3. Connect the Solar Energy Trainer with Solar Panel. Then
wait for 1 minute to avoid errors due to temperature
fluctuations.
4. Set the potentiometer to maximum resistance i.e. at fully
clockwise position.
5. Connect the solar cell as shown in the circuit diagram.
6. Record the values of corresponding voltage and current
into the Observation Table.
7. Now gradually move the potentiometer in anti- clockwise
direction so that the resistance of the potentiometer
decreases. Now measure the resistances at successively
smaller values and record the corresponding values of
voltages and current into the observation table.
8. Plot the − characteristics from the measurements
recorded in the table, to show how the photoelectric
current depends on the photoelectric voltage and to find
maximum power point.
Observation:

S.N. Voltage(V) Current(I)

( ) ( )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Graph:
Expected I-V curve is as follows

Figure (4): Voltage-Current characteristic of the Solar cell

Results:
The Voltage-Current characteristic of a Solar cell have been
plotted. The plotted curves follow the systematic trend.

Precautions:
1. The sunlight should fall straight at the solar panel (angle
of 90º).
2. After connecting solar energy trainer to panel, one should
wait for five minutes to avoid temperature fluctuations.
3. Reading should be taken carefully.
4. Graph plotted should be smooth.

Viva-voice:
1. What is a Solar cell?
2. What is Photo electric effect?
3. What are energy losses in a Solar cell/
4. How solar energy is converted into electrical energy?
5. What are the applications of Solar cell?
 EXPERIMENT 03
Object: To study and plot the characteristics curve of Light Emitting diode.

Apparatus LED Trainer kit, patch chords, power supply.

Required:
Theory: The Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a solid state source. LED’s replaced
incandescent lamps in many applications because they have the
following advantage.

(1) They are easy to use.

(2) They are cheaper.
(3) They have batter portability.
(4) They consume less power as compare to the incandescent lamps.

In a Forward bias free electrons and holes recombine at the

junction. When a free electron falls into a hole, it drops from a higher
energy level to a lower one. As the electrons falls, it radiates energy in
form of heat and light. Because silicon is opaque (not transparent) none
of light escapes to the environment. A LED is different to begin with
semitransparent materials are used instead of silicon. In a forward biased
LED, heat and light again are radiated when free electrons and holes
recombine at the junction.

Because the materials is semitransparent, some of the light escapes to the

surroundings. By using element like gallium, arsenic and phosphorus, a
manufacture can produce LEDs that radiate red, green and yellow, amber
or infrared (invisible) light. LED that produce visible radiations are used
in instrument display, calculator display, digital clocks, etc. The infrared
LED finds application in burger-alarm systems and other area requiring
 invisible radiation. LED’s have a typical voltage drop from 1.5 Volt to
2.5 Volt for currant between 10mA and 50mA. Incidentally LED has a
reverse voltage rating.

Figure (1): LED symbol

Circuit Diagram-

Figure (4): Symmetric circuit diagram

Procedure: 1. Connect the 0-3 Volt DC supply in sockets.

2. Connect the voltmeter & ammeter to the circuit as shown in figure
(3).
3. Switch on the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided
on front panel.
4. Keep output of potentiometer fully anti-clock wise. Vary the input
voltage in small steps & note down the observation in table.

Observation Observation Table:

Table :
Least cont of voltmeter………( )

Least count of ammeter…………( )

 . . ℎ ℎ ℎ

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Result : The graph between Voltage and Current shown in figure.

Precautions: 1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the LED.
This may lead to damage of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in
the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the
circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.

Application (1) LED S are used in digital displays in watches and calculator. They
: are also used as indicator lamps.
(2) Infrared LEDs are use in burger alarm and remote control system.
(3) Infrared LEDs are also use in many areas where require in visible
radiation.
 EXPERIMENT-01
Object:
To find the characteristics of a PN junction diode.
Apparatus Require:
PN Junction Diode , Resistance 1k ohm , Regulated power supply (0–
30) V, Ammeter (0-10) mA and (0-100) μA , Voltmeter (0 – 3)V, (0 –
30)V, Training board and connecting wires.

Theory:

A junction is formed at the boundary between a p-type and n-type

semiconductor created in a single crystal of semiconductor by doping
Based on electrical conducting properties, materials can be classified in to
three types as metal, insulator and semiconductor. In case of insulators
there is a large value of energy gap between valance and conduction
band. Hence, they have large value of resistance R. For semiconductors,
the value of energy gap is comparatively less in comparison with the
insulators. Therefore they posses moderate value of . In case of metals,
the valence and conduction band overlap each other and hence
considerable amount of free electrons are available for electrical
conduction. Due to this the value of resistance is very small when we
compare with semiconductors and insulators.
There are two types of semiconductors namely P type and N type. In P
type semiconductors the majority charge carriers are holes and in N type
semiconductor the majority charge carries are electrons. When we join P
and N type semiconductors near the junction the holes from P type and
electrons from N type join together by diffusion. Due to this the holes and
electrons recombine at the interface. It creates immobile neutral ions at
the interface in the form of a barrier. This barrier prevents further
movement of holes or electrons from P and N. this layer of barrier is
 called as depletion layer. Symbol of Diode

Figure (1): Symbol PN junction diode

Forward Bias

When we join the positive terminal of the battery or voltage source to the
P type and negative terminal to N type semiconductors than it is called as
forward bias. Under this condition the thickness of depletion layer will
decrease. Thus by allowing the movement of majority charge carriers
across the diode. Therefore the current will start to flow. If we increase
the value of voltage the current value also increase.
Circuit Diagram: Circuit Diagram for forward bias.

Figure (2): Forward bias circuit

diagram on traning board
Reverse Bias:

When we join the positive terminal of the battery or voltage source to the
N type and negative terminal to P type semiconductors than it is called as
reverse bias. Under this condition the thickness of depletion layer will
increase. Therefore the current cannot flow through the diode. However,
beyond certain value of applied voltage, the minority carries (electrons in
P type and holes in N type) will break the barrier. Therefore the current
will start to flow as soon as the barrier breaks. This called the breakdown
voltage. This breakdown occurs due to the fact that the minority carriers
after getting sufficient energy start to break more and more covalent
bands. Therefore it creates more free charge carriers for the conduction of
 Figure (5): Symetric reverse bias
circuit diagram

Procedure:

1. Connect the PN Junction diode in forward bias i.e. Anode is

connected to positive of the power supply and cathode is connected
to negative of the power supply.
2. Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30)V and a series
resistance of 150Ω.
3. For various values of forward voltage note down the
corresponding values of forward current .

Observation Table for forward bias:

Least count of voltmeter………( )

Least count of ammeter…………( )

. . Voltage ( ) Current ( )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
In Reverse biased condition:

1. Connect the PN Junction diode in Reverse bias i.e. anode is

connected to negative of the power supply and cathode is
connected to positive of the power supply.
2. For various values of reverse voltage note down the
corresponding values of reverse current( ).

Observation :Table for reverse bias

Observation Table for Reverse bias- Table-2

Least count of voltmeter………( ).Least count of
ammeter…………( )

Voltage (In Volt) Current (in µA)

. .

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Graph:

Plot the graph by taking the value of voltage on X- axis and current on the
Y-axis.

Forward Bias

Voltage

Current
Reverse Bias

Figure (8): Forward and reverse bias graph

Result:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the

diode. This may lead to damage of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as
shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked
the circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.

Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the

diode. This may lead to damage of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as
shown in the circuit diagram.
 3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have
checked the circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.

Viva-Voice:

4. What is a P-N junction diode?

5. What is depletion layer?
6. Give the name of any five diodes.
7. Give any four uses of P-N junction diode.
8. What are semiconductors?
9. Give the types of semiconductors.
10.What are majority charge carriers?
11.What are minority charge carriers?
12.What do you understand by biasing?
13.How many types of biasing may possible in a P-N junction
diode?
14.What is avalanche break down?
 EXPERIMENT-02
Object:

To study and plot forward & reverse bias VI characteristics of Zener

diode.
Apparatus Require:

Zener Diode IZ, Resistance 1 Ω , Regulated power supply (0 – 30V)

Ammeter(0 − 30) , (0 − 150) , Voltmeter (0 – 15) , Bread board
and connecting wires.
Theory:

The Zener diode is a silicon diode having a special reverse current

characteristics. In a Zener diode as the reverse voltage applied to p-n
junction is increased, a limit comes when the current increase very rapidly
forms its cut off value and the Zener diode begins to behave almost like a
conductor. This limiting voltage is called the Zener voltage of breakdown
voltage and the resulting large current as Zener current.

Figure (1): Symbol of Zener Diode.

The mechanism of breakdown in Zener diode:-
If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region
at the junction reduces. Application of even a small voltage at the junction
ruptures covalent bonding and generates large number of charge carriers.
Such sudden increase in the number of charge carriers results in Zener
mechanism.
Forward Bias

When we join the positive terminal of the battery or voltage source to the
P type and negative terminal to N type semiconductor than it is called as
forward bias.
Circuit Diagram: Circuit Diagram for forward bias.

Figure (4):symmetric forward bias

symmetric circuit diagram
Reverse Bias:

When we join the positive terminal of the battery or voltage source to the
N type and negative terminal to P type semiconductor than it is called as
reverse bias.

Figure (6): symmetric reverse bias

symmetric circuit diagram.

Procedure(In Forward Biased Condition)

1. Connect the Zener diode in forward bias i.e. anode is connected to

positive of the power supply and cathode is connected to negative
of the power supply as shown in Circuit.
 2. Use a regulated power supply of range (0 − 15) and a series
resistance of 1 Ω.
3. For various values of forward voltage ( ) note down the
corresponding values of forward current( ) .
Observation Table for forward bias:

Least count of voltmeter………( )

Least count of ammeter…………( )

. . Voltage ( ) Current ( )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Procedure(In Reverse biased condition):

1. Connect the Zener diode in Reverse bias i.e. anode is connected to

negative of the power supply and cathode is connected to positive
of the power supply as in circuit.
2. For various values of reverse voltage( ) note down the
corresponding values of reverse current ( ).
Observation :Table for reverse bias

Observation Table for Reverse bias- Table-2

Least count of voltmeter………( ).Least count of
ammeter…………( )

. . Voltage (In Volt) Current (in µA)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Graph:
Plot the graph by taking the value of voltage on X- axis and current on the
Y-axis.

Figure (8): Forward and reverse bias graph

Result:

The Zener diode characteristics have been plotted.

Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode.
This may lead to damage of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in
the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the
circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.

Viva-Voice:

1. What is p-type crystal?

2. What is a junction?
3. What is depletion layer?
4. What is meant by Zener diode?
5. What is main application of Zener diode?
6. Can you name the other break down phenomenon?
 EXPERIMENT-05
Object:

To determine the Energy Band Gap in a semiconductor using temperature

dependence of reverse saturation current.
Apparatus Require:
A junction diode, d.c. power supply, small oven, thermometer, micro
ammeter and connecting wires

Theory:

When the P-N junction is kept at reverse bias, the current flows through
the junction are due to the minority charge carriers. The concentration of
these current careers depends on the energy gap . The saturation value
of reverse current Is depends on the temperature of the junction diode.
In semiconductor materials there is a small enough gap between the
valance band and the conduction band. With such a small gap, the
presence of a small percentage of doping material can increase the
conductivity dramatically.
The energy band gap is an energy range in a solid where no electron
states can exist. The band gap generally refers to the energy difference (in
electron volts) between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the
conduction band in semiconductors materials.
Formula Used:

The energy band gap is given by

− slope of straight line (between log10 Is and 10 /T)
=
5.036

= …………………

Figure (1): Circuit diagram Figure (2): Symetric diagram

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

 2. Now insert the thermometer and switch on the oven.
3. When temperature reaches up 65ºC switch off the oven.
4. After switching off the oven the temperature will not be remain
constant. It still increases up to 75ºC and then decreases.
5. At this position note down the value of current in (µA).
6. Now note the value of current ((µA) as the temperature decreases by
5ºC.
7. Now draw the graph between log10Is on Y-axis and 103/T temperature
on X-axis and calculate the slope.

Observation :Table for reverse bias

Least Count of the micro ammeter = …………..µA

Least Count of Thermometer = …………………ºC

S.No. Current Temperatur Temperatur 103/T Log10 Is

(in µA ) e (in ºC) e (in K) (in K-1)
1

6
Calculations:

− slope of straight line (between log10 Is and 10 /T)

=
5.036
From the graph between log10 Is and 103/T, the slope of the straight line
= − … … … … ..
Thus Energy band gap
= ……… … ….
Standard value for germanium = 0.67

Graph:

Figure: Graph ploted between log and

Result:

The Energy Band Gap is = …… …… .

Percentage Error:

–
% = 100

Precautions:

1. Temperature should not exceed 65ºC.

2. Thermometer should be put properly to have good thermal conduct
with PN diode.
3. Use reverse bias to the diode.
4. Reading of both current and temperature should be taken
simultaneously during cooling.
5. Silicon diode should not be used.

Viva-Voice:

1. What do you mean by Energy Band Gap & what is the other name
use for it?
2. What do you mean by Band Gap Energy?
3. Explain the principle of this experiment.
4. Can you use silicon diode in this experiment if No Why?
5. Explain the meaning of forward and reverse bias.
6. What do you understand by semiconductors?
7. Explain P and N type semiconductors.
8. What is reverse saturation current?
9. What do you mean by least count?
10.What do you mean by doping?
11. Why there is a small current in reverse bias?
 EXPERIMENT- 10
Aim: To study the angular divergence of laser beam.

Apparatus Required:

Laser source, Optical test bench, Screen with an mm graph paper.

Theory:

The term LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated

Emission of Radiation. It is a mechanism for emitting electromagnetic radiation
via the process of stimulated emission. The laser was the first device capable of
amplifying light waves themselves. The emitted laser light is a spatially
coherent, narrow low-divergence beam. When the waves (or photons) of a beam
of light have the same frequency, phase and direction, it is said to be coherent.
There are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light, or emit different
wavelengths of light simultaneously.

Diameter of
Original beam diameter D1 bean on
Laser source
screen D2

S = distance from laser to screen

The angular divergence of the laser beam is (Ǿd) given by:

D
d 
S

Where, D = D2 - D1

‘D’ is the diameter of laser beam spot on the screen graph paper at the distance
‘S’ from the source.

Procedure:
This lab needs to do do in a dark room so the student can clearly see the beam
pattern on a surface.

1. Mount laser in a fixed position and level the laser.

2. The source is illuminated and the spot of the beam is marked.
3. The screen containing the mm graph is moved at a distance in suitable
steps and the diameter ‘D’ and the corresponding distance ‘S’ is
measured.
4. A straight line plot is obtain and the slope determines the value of Ǿd .

Observation Table:
S. No.
Distance to screen S Original Screen Distance of
(mm) beam pattern D2-D1=D
diameter diameter (mm)
(D1) (D1)
(mm) (mm)

Calculation:

The graph is plotted between ‘D’ and ‘S’. Thus Ǿd is obtained.

Result:

The angular divergence of laser beam is given

Ǿd = ………

Precautions:

 The distance of the spot should be measured accurately.

 The mm graph paper on the screen should be kept normal to the
incident beam.
 The laser source should not be seen directly.