NT of MATHEMATICS and STATISTICS

EGE OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS, MSU-ILIGAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

A Commission on Higher Education - Center of Excellence

MODULE 1: Vectors and

the Geometry of Space

JULIUS V. BENITEZ, Ph.D.

[email protected]

2nd Sem. A.Y. 2021-2022

DEPARTMENT
.
of MATHEMATICS and STATISTICS
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS, MSU-ILIGAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
A Commission on Higher Education - Center of Excellence
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Content

VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System
Vectors in Space
The Dot Product
The Cross Product
Planes and Lines in Space
Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution
Quadric Surfaces

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 1/93

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DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

Recall that cartesian product A × B of two sets A and B given by
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
and the two-dimensional space R2 given by
R2 = R × R = {(x, y) : x, y ∈ R}.
Consider the cartesian product R2 × R and R × R2 . Then
R2 × R = {(P, z) : P ∈ R2 and z ∈ R}
= {((x, y), z) : (x, y) ∈ R2 and z ∈ R}
and
R × R2 = {(x, P ) : x ∈ R and P ∈ R2 }
= {(x, (y, z)) : x ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R}.
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 2/93
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DMS Department of
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and STATISTICS

 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

If we do not distinguish the elements ((x, y), z) and (x, (y, z)), then we
may write the elements in R2 × R (and R × R2 ) by (x, y, z) and called it
ordered triple, and write

R3 = R2 × R = R × R2 .

The set R3 is called the three-dimensional Euclidean space (or simply

3-dimensional space). Analytic geometry describes every point in the
three-dimensional space R3 by means of three coordinates. That is,

R3 = {(x, y, z) : x, y, z ∈ R}.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 3/93

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DMS Department of
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 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

In the geometric representation of R3 , three coordinate axes are given,

usually each perpendicular to the other two at the origin (0, 0, 0), the
point at which they cross. They are usually labeled x, y, and z. Relative
to these axes, the position of any point in three-dimensional space is given
by an ordered triple of real numbers, each number giving the (directed)
distance of that point from the origin measured along the given axis,
which is equal to the distance of that point from the plane determined by
the other two axes. See Figure 1.

Other popular methods of describing the location of a point in

three-dimensional space include cylindrical coordinates and spherical
coordinates. These methods will be discuss in Chapter 4 of this notes.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 4/93

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DMS Department of
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and STATISTICS

2 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE 1

 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

z-axis
..
...
..........
..
...
... ...
.
... ....
... ....
... .......
... ....
....
... ....
... ....
... .......
..
... ....
... ....
....
... ....
... ........
... .....
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
.. .
.... ...
x-axis
.... .
...
....
.... ...
.... ...
....... ...
...... ...
..... ...
...... ...
...... ...
...... ...
..
............ ...
.... . ...
.. ...
...
y-axis ...
...
.

Figure: The three-dimensional Euclidean space R3 .

Figure 1.1: The three-dimensional Euclidean space R3 .
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 5/93
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DMS Department of
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and STATISTICS

 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

In R3 , we have 3 coordinate planes, namely:

1 xy−plane – plane contains x and y axes
2 xz−plane – plane contains x and z axes and
3 yz−plane – plane contains y and z axes.
We note that in Figure 1, R3 is divided into 8 compartments.
Definition 1.1
An octant is one of the eight compartments of R3 .

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 6/93

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DMS Department of
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and STATISTICS

 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

Remark 1.2
Let P (x, y, z) be a point in R3 . Then
1 x is the perpendicular (directed) distance of the point P from the
yz−plane.
2 y is the perpendicular (directed) distance of the point P from the
xz−plane.
3 z is the perpendicular (directed) distance of the point P from the
xy−plane.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 7/93

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DMS Department of
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and STATISTICS

 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

Theorem 1.3
In R3 ,
1 a line is parallel to yz-plane if and only if all points on the line have
equal x coordinates;
2 a line is parallel to xz-plane if and only if all points on the line have
equal y coordinates; and
3 a line is parallel to xy-plane if and only if all points on the line have
equal z coordinates.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 8/93

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DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

Theorem 1.4
In R3 ,
1 a line is parallel to x−axis if and only if all points on the line have
equal y coordinates and equal z coordinates;
2 a line is parallel to y−axis if and only if all points on the line have
equal x coordinates and equal z coordinates; and
3 a line is parallel to z−axis if and only if all points on the line have
equal x coordinates and equal y coordinates.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 9/93

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DMS Department of
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and STATISTICS

 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

Theorem 1.5
The undirected distance between two points P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) in R3 is given by
  p
P1 P2  = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 + (z1 − z2 )2 .

Example 1.6
Find the undirected distance between the points P (2, −1, −3) and
Q(4, 0, −1).

Solution : Using the formula, we obtain

  p √
P Q = (4 − 2)2 + (0 + 1)2 + (−1 + 3)2 = 4 + 1 + 4 = 3.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 10/93

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DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

Theorem 1.7
The coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment having endpoints
P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P1 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) are given by
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2
x= , y= , z= .
2 2 2

Example 1.8
Find the midpoint of the line segment whose endpoints are P (2, −1, −2)
and Q(4, 0, −1).

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 11/93

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DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

Solution : Using the formula, we obtain

x1 + x2 2+4
x= = = 3,
2 2
y1 + y2 −1 + 0 1
y= = =− ,
2 2 2
z1 + z2 −2 − 1 3
z= = =− .
2 2 2
Hence, the midpoint is M (3, − 12 , − 32 ).

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 12/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

Definition 1.9
The graph of an equation in R3 is the set of all points (x, y, z) whose
coordinates are numbers satisfying the equation. The graph of an equation
in R3 is called a surface.
One particular surface is the sphere.
Definition 1.10
A sphere is the set of all points in 3-dimensional space equidistant from a
fixed point called the center of the sphere. The measure of the constant
distance is called the radius of the sphere.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 13/93

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DMS Department of
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 The Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

Theorem 1.11
An equation of the sphere of radius r and center at (h, k, l) is

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 + (z − l)2 = r2 .

Theorem 1.12
The graph of any second-degree equation in x,, y and z of the form

x2 + y 2 + z 2 + Ax + By + Cz + D = 0

is either a sphere, a point or the empty set.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 14/93

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DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Vectors in Space

Definition 1.13
A vector in R3 is an ordered triple of real numbers hx, y, zi. The numbers
x, y and z are called the components of the vector hx, y, zi. Elements of
R are called scalar.
The set of all vectors in R3 is denoted by V3 ; i.e.
n o
V3 = hx, y, zi | x, y, z ∈ R3 .

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 15/93

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DMS Department of
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and STATISTICS

 Vectors in Space

Definition 1.14
−
* −
*
The magnitude of the vector A = ha1 , a2 , a3 i denoted by A is given by
− q
*
A = a21 + a22 + a23 .

−
* −
*
A vector U is a unit vector if U = 1.

There are four vectors in R3 having special notations:

ı̂ = h1, 0, 0i , ̂ = h0, 1, 0i , k̂ = h0, 0, 1i , and 0̂ = h0, 0, 0i .

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 16/93

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DMS Department of
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and STATISTICS

 Vectors in Space

Definition 1.15
The vectors ı̂, ̂ and k̂ are called the standard unit vectors in R3 and the
vector 0̂ is called the zero vector.
−
*
If A = ha1 , a2 , a3 i is a vector, the directed line segment having its initial
point at the origin and its terminal point at the point (a1 , a2 , a3 ) is called
−
*
the position representation of A. The point at (x, y, z) and the terminal
−
*
point at (x + a1 , y + a2 , z + a3 ) is also a representation of A.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 17/93

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DMS Department of
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 Vectors in Space

Definition 1.16
The direction angles of a nonzero vector are the 3 angles that have the
smallest nonnegative radian measures α, β and γ measured from the
positive x, y and z axes, respectively, to the position representation of the
vector.
We note that 0 ≤ α, β, γ ≤ π. It can be seen that
a1 a a3
cos α = * *2 , and cos γ = −
− , cos β = − * .
A
A
A

Definition 1.17
−
*
cos α, cos β, cos γ are called the direction cosines of A.
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 18/93
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DMS Department of
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 Vectors in Space
It can be seen also that

cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1.

Definition 1.18
−
* −
*
Let A = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and B = hb1 , b2 , b3 i be vectors in R3 and c ∈ R(a
scalar). We define the following:
* −
− *
1 A + B = ha1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 i (addition of vectors)
* −
− *
2 A − B = ha1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 i (difference of vectors)
−
*
3 − A = h−a , −a , −a i (negative of a vector)
1 2 3
−
*
4 c A = hca , ca , ca i (scalar product of vectors)
1 2 3

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 19/93

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DMS Department of
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 Vectors in Space

−
*
For any vector A = ha1 , a2 , a3 i, we can write
−
*
A = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂.

Theorem 1.19
−
* −
*
If A = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂, then the unit vector U −
* having the same
A
−
*
direction as A is given by
−
* a1 a2 a3
U−* = ı̂ + − −
A −
* * ̂ + * k̂.
A A
A

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 20/93

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DMS Department of
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 Vectors in Space
Example 1.20
Given the points P1 (2, 3, 4) and P2 (−1, 2, 2), find the unit vector having
−
*
the same direction as the vector V (P1 P2 ).
* −
− *
Solution : Let A = V (P1 P2 ). Then
−
* −
*
A = V (P1 P2 ) = h−1 − 2, 2 − 3, 2 − 4i = h−3, −1, −2i
−
* √ √
k Ak = 9 + 1 + 4 = 14
−
* a1 a2 a3 −3 (−1) (−2)
U− * = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ = √ ı̂ + √ ̂ + √ k̂
A −
* −
* −* 14 14 14
A A A
3 1 2 1
= −√ ı̂ − √ ̂ − √ k̂ or −√ · h3, 1, 2i
14 14 14 14

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 21/93

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DMS Department of
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 The Dot Product

We now introduce another vector operation, called the dot product.
Definition 1.21
−
* −
*
Let A = ha1 , a2 i and B = hb1 , b2 i be vectors in R2 . The dot product of
−
* −
* * −
− *
A and B, denoted by A · B, is given by
− −
* *
A · B = a1 b1 + a2 b2 .
Similarly, we define the dot product in R3 as follows:
Definition 1.22
−
* −
*
Let A = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and B = hb1 , b2 , b3 i be vectors in R3 . The dot
−
* −
* * −
− *
product of A and B, denoted by A · B, is given by
− −
* *
A · B = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 22/93
 .

DMS Department of
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and STATISTICS

 The Dot Product

Example 1.23
* −
− * −
* −
*
Find A · B where A = h2, 3, 4i and B = h−1, 2, −2i.

Solution : Using the formula,

− −
* *
A · B = 2(−1) + 3(2) + 4(−2) = −2 + 6 − 8 = −4

Theorem 1.24
−
* *− −
*
If A, B and C are any vectors in R3 , then
− −
* * − * − * −
* − * * −
− *
1 A·B =B·A 3 c( A · B) = (c A) · B, c ∈ R
* −
− * − * * −
− * − * − * * −
− * −
*
2 A · (B + C ) = A · B + A · C 4 A · A = k Ak2

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 23/93

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DMS Department of
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 The Dot Product

Definition 1.25
−
* −
* −
*
Let A and B be two nonzero vectors in V3 such that A is not a scalar
−
* −
*
multiple of B. If OP is the position representation of A and OQ is the
−
* −
*
position representation of B, then the angle between the vectors A and
−
*
B is defined to be the angle of positive measure between OP and OQ
−
* −
*
interior to the triangle P OQ. If A = c B, where c is a scalar, then if
c > 0, the angle between the vectors has radian measure 0, and if c < 0,
the angle between the vectors has radian measure π.

Theorem 1.26
−
* −
*
If θ is the angle between the two nonzero vectors A and B in V3 , then
* −
− * *
−
*
−
A · B = A B cos θ.
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 24/93
 .

DMS Department of
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 The Dot Product

Definition 1.27
Two vectors in V3 are parallel iff one of the vectors is a scalar multiple of
the other. Two vectors in V3 are said to be orthogonal iff the (scalar)dot
product of the vectors is equal to 0.

Remark 1.28
Two vectors in V3 are parallel iff the radian measure of the angle between
them is 0 or π.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 25/93

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DMSDepartment of
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 The Dot Product

Example 1.29
Prove by using vectors that the points (2, 2, 2), (0, 1, 2), (−1, 3, 3) and
(3, 0, 1) are vertices of a parallelogram.

Solution : Let P (2, 2, 2), Q(0, 1, 2), R(−1, 3, 3) and S(3, 0, 1). Set
R
......
......• ............................•
Q
−
* −
*
A = V (P R) = h−1 − 2, 3 − 2, 3 − 2i = h−3, 1, 1i . ... ..
* −
− * ....... .
. .....
B = V (SQ) = h0 − 3, 1 − 0, 2 − 1i = h−3, 1, 1i .
•........................... .....
..
* −
− * ....•.
C = V (RQ) = h0 + 1, 1 − 3, 2 − 3i = h1, −2, −1i P S
* −
− *
D = V (P S) = h3 − 2, 0 − 2, 1 − 2i = h1, −2, −1i
* −
− * − −
* *
Hence, Ak B and C kD. Thus, P RQS is a parallelogram.
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 26/93
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DMSDepartment of
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 The Dot Product

Example 1.30
Prove by using vectors that the points (−2, 1, 6), (2, 4, 5) and (−1, −2, 1)
are vertices of a right triangle.

Solution : Let P (−2, 1, 6), Q(2, 4, 5), and R(−1, −2, 1). Set

Q .•............
..... ....
....

− ...
....
....
−
* −
* * ....
....
A = V (P Q) = h2 + 2, 4 − 1, 5 − 6i = h4, 3, −1i A .. ....
....
..
....

.•...........................• R
....
−
* − * ....

B = V (P R) = h−1 + 2, −2 − 1, 1 − 6i = h1, −3, −5i

−
*
P B
−
* −
*
This shows that A and B are orthogonal. Hence, P QR is a right triangle
with ∠P = 90◦ .
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 27/93
 .

DMS Department of
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 The Dot Product

−
* −
*
THE A and
Let DOT B be
PRODUCT any vectors and θ be the radian measure of the angle
−
* −
*
between A and B.

................. ..............
.
.

. .
..... .........
..
* ..... .........
−
* ....
− . ... B.... ..
..
B.... ...
... −
* . ...
..
..
..
. ... A ........... .
θ...............β .
............P
. ... ..................
.
.. ...
...... ................
..
...
...
...
...
.. .. . . . . . . .
....
. .
...
.
c
.. . ....................O
.
.. .. ..
.. . . ..
...
.
.. θ ..................... ...............−
........................... c .
.....
...
...
...
...
...
. *
O A
(a) (b)

Figure:
Figure 1.2:

Refer to Figure 1.2(a), we have

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 28/93
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DMS Department of
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 The Dot Product

Refer to Figure 2(a), we have
− * −
− *
* A·B
c = |OP | = B cos θ =
−*

A
Now, refer to Figure 2(b), we also have
−
*
c = |OP | = B cos β
−
*
= B cos(π − θ)
−  
*
= B cos π cos θ + sin π sin θ
−
*
= B (− cos θ)
−
*
c = − B cos θ

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 29/93

 .

DMS Department of
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 The Dot Product

Definition 1.31
− − −
* * *
We call |OP | = B cos θ as the scalar projection of B onto A or
−
* −
* −
*
component of B in the direction of A and the vector V (OP ) is called
−
* −
*
the vector projection of B onto A.

Theorem 1.32
−
* −
*
If A and B are non-zero vectors and θ is the angle between them, then
−
* −
*
the scalar projection of B onto A is given by
−
*
B cos θ .

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 30/93

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DMS Department of
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 The Dot Product

Theorem 1.33
−
* −
*
If A and B are non-zero vectors and θ is the angle between them, then
−
* −
*
the vector projection of B onto A is given by
− −
* *
A·B * −
− 2 A.
*
A

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 31/93

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DMS Department of
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 The Dot Product

Example 1.34
−
* −
*
Given the vectors A = −6 ı̂ + 2 ̂ + 3 k̂ and B = −2 ı̂ + ̂ − 3 k̂. Find
−
* −
* −
*
(a) cos θ if θ is the angle between A and B (b) the component of B in
−
* −
* −
*
the direction of A (c) the vector projection of B onto A.
−
* −
*
Solution : Given A = h−6, 2, 3i and B = h−2, 1, −3i. Then
* −
− *
A·B 12 + 2 − 9 5
1 cos θ =
−
* * = √36 + 4 + 9 · √4 + 1 + 9 = √
−
k Ak · k Bk 7 14
−
* √ 5 5
2 k Bk · cos θ = 14 · √ =
7 14 7
−
* − *
A·B − * 5
30 10 15 
3
* 2 · A = 49 · h−6, 2, 3i = − 49 , 49 , 49
−
k Ak
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 32/93
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DMS Department of
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 The Dot Product

Example 1.35
−
* −
*
Given the vectors A = ı̂ + 2 ̂ + 3 k̂ and B = 4 ı̂ − 3 ̂ − k̂. Find (a) cos θ if θ is
−
* −
* −
* −
*
the angle between A and B (b) the component of B in the direction of A (c)
−
* −
*
the vector projection of B onto A.
−
* −
*
Solution : Given A = h1, 2, 3i and B = h4, −3, −1i. Then
−
* − *
A·B 4−6−3 −5 −5
1 cos θ =
−
* * = √1 + 4 + 9 · √16 + 9 + 1 = √
− √ = √
k Ak · k Bk 14 · 26 2 91
−
* √ −5 5
2 k Bk · cos θ = 26 · √ √ = −√
14 · 26 14
−
* − *
A·B − * −5
5 5 15

3
* 2 · A = 14 · h1, 2, 3i = − 14 , − 7 , − 14
−
k Ak

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 33/93

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DMS Department of
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 The Dot Product

Example 1.36
Find the distance from the point (2, −1, −4) to the line through the points
(3, −2, 2) and (−9, −6, 6).

Solution : Let

A = (2, −1, −4), P = (3, −2, 2), and Q = (−9, −6, 6)

L = line through P and Q
M = point on the line L such that M A ⊥ L
* −
− * * −
− *
A = V (P Q) and B = V (P A)
d = |M A|

See figure below:

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 34/93
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DMS Department of
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 The Dot Product

...
L
Q ..•............
.
......−
A •.......
...... d
....
.
..
....
. * .... ...
....
....

.... A
.... ...
.

..
....
.... ....
....
. .... ....
....
...
....
* ..
....

..•..M
.... ... ....
− .....
B .. .
. . ....
....

.. ....
......
..
....
... .......
....
....
......

......
..
....
....
....
....
....
•
...
..
.... P
Note that d is the perpendicular distance from the point A to the line L
−
* −
*
and P M is the (absolute value of) scalar projection of B onto A.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 35/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Dot Product

Now,
−
* − *
B = V (P A) = h2 − 3, −1 + 2, −4 − 2i = h−1, 1, −6i
−
* √ √
k Bk = 1 + 1 + 36 = 38 and
−
* − *
A = V (P Q) = h−9 − 3, −6 + 2, 6 − 2i = h−12, −4, 4i
−
* √ √ √
k Ak = 144 + 16 + 16 = 176 = 4 11 and

Moreover,
− *  
−   
*A · B h−12, −4, 4i · h−1, 1, −6i   12 − 4 − 24  4
     
|P M | =  −* = √ = √ = √ .
 k Ak   4 11   4 11  11

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 36/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Dot Product

By Pythagorean Theorem,
q
−
* −
*
2
d + |P M | = k Bk2 ⇒ d =
2
k Bk2 − |P M |2
r
16
⇒ d = 38 −
11
r
402
⇒ d= units
11

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 37/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

Definition 1.37
−
* −
*
If A = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and B = hb1 , b2 , b3 i are vectors which are nonparallel,
representations of the two vectors with same initial point, then the cross
−
* −
* * −
− *
product of A and B, denoted by A × B, is given by
− −
* *
A × B = ha2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 i .

This is also called vector product with an operation of obtaining the cross
product as vector multiplication.

Example 1.38
* −
− * * − −
*
Find A × B if A = h2, 3, −4i and B = h3, 2, 3i.

Solution : See solution to Example 1.39.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 38/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

 
a b
We recall that if M = is a 2 × 2 matrix, then the determinant
c d
det(M ) of M is given by
 
a b 
det(M ) =   = ad − bc.
c d

Mnemonic Device: Using determinant of 2 × 2 matrices, we may define

−
* −
*
the cross product of A = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and B = hb1 , b2 , b3 i by
     
* −
− * a2 a3  a1 a3 
 
a1 a2 
  k̂
A×B = ı̂ −  ̂ + 
b2 b3  b1 b3  b1 b2 
 
ı̂ ̂ k̂
* −
− *
Hence, if M = a1 a2 a3 , then A × B = det M .
b1 b2 b3
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 39/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

We illustrate this in the following example:

Example 1.39
* −
− * * − −
*
Find A × B if A = h2, 3, −4i and B = h3, 2, 3i.

Solution : Using the “Mnemonic Device”:

 
 ı̂ ̂ k̂       
* −
− *    3 −4 2 −4
 
2 3
 
A × B = 2 3 −4 =   ı̂ − 3 3  ̂ + 3 2 k̂
3 2 3
2 3
= (9 + 8) ı̂ − (6 + 12) ̂ + (4 − 9) k̂
= 17ı̂ − 18̂ − 5k̂ or h17, −18, −5i

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 40/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

Remark 1.40
The following can be verified easily:

ı̂ × ı̂ = 0 ̂ × ̂ = 0 k̂ × k̂ = 0
ı̂ × ̂ = k̂ ̂ × k̂ = ı̂ k̂ × ı̂ = ̂
̂ × ı̂ = −k̂ k̂ × ̂ = −ı̂ ı̂ × k̂ = −̂

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 41/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

Theorem 1.41
For any vectors A, B and C in R3 ,
* −
− * − *
1 A×A= 0
* −
− * − *
2 0 ×A= 0
−
* − * − *
3 A× 0 = 0
* −
− * −
* − *
4 A × B = −( B × A)
−
* * −
− * * −
− * * −
− *
5 A × ( B + C ) = ( A × B) + ( A × C )
−
* * −
− * −
* −
* − *
6 (c A) × B = A × (c B) = c( A × B)

* −
− * − * −
* − * − *
7 A · ( B × C ) = ( A × B) · C
−
* * −
− * * −
− *− * * −
− *−*
8 A × ( B × C ) = ( A · C ) B − ( A · B) C

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 42/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

Theorem 1.42
−
* −
*
A and B are two vectors in R3 and θ is the radian measure of the angle
−
* −
*
between A and B, then
− * * −
* − − *
A × B sin θ.
= A B

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 43/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

Example 1.43
−
* −
* −
* −
*
Let A = h1, 2, 3i, B = h4, −3, −1i, C = h−5, −3, 5i and D = h−2, 1, 6i. Find
* −
− *
1 A × B
− *
* −
2 A × B

* −
− * − * − *
3 ( A × C ) · ( B × D)

Solution :
1
 
 k̂       
* −
− *  ı̂ ̂
2 3  1 3  1 2 
A × B = 1 2 3  =   ı̂ −   ̂ +  k̂
4 −3 −1 4 −1 4 −3
−3 −1
= (−2 + 9)ı̂ − (−1 − 12)̂ + (−3 − 8)k̂ = 7ı̂ + 13̂ − 11k̂ or h7, 13, −11i
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 44/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

− * √
* − √
2 A × B = 49 + 169 + 121 = 339
* −
− * * −
− *
3 ( A × C ) · ( B × D):
 
 ı̂ ̂ k̂       
* −
− *   2 3  1 3 1 2 
A×C = 1 
2 3 =   
ı̂ −   
̂ +  k̂
−5 −3 5 −3 5 −5 5 −5 −3

= (10 + 9)ı̂ − (5 + 15)̂ + (−3 + 10)k̂

= 19ı̂ − 20̂ + 7k̂ and h19, −20, 7i

and

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 45/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

 
 ı̂ ̂ k̂       
* −
− *   −3 −1  4 −1  4 −3

B × D =  4 −3 −1 =   
ı̂ −   
̂ +   k̂
−2 1  1 6 −2 6  −2 1 
6
= (−18 + 1)ı̂ − (24 − 2)̂ + (4 − 6)k̂
= −17ı̂ − 22̂ − 2k̂ or h−17, −22, −2i

Hence,
* −
− * * −
− *
( A × C ) · ( B × D) = h19, −20, 7i · h−17, −22, −2i
= (19)(−17) + (−20)(−22) + (7)(−2)
= −323 + 440 − 14 = 103

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 46/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

−
* −
* CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND THE − −
*GEOMETRY
* OF SP
Let A and B be vectors in R3 . We may draw the vectors A and B in R3
such that they have the same initial point. See Figure 3.

Q
XXX
 XXX
−
* X R
A
J
l
l
P XθXX l
*XXX
− l
z
X
l
B S
Figure Figure:
1.3: Area ofaaParallelogram.
Area of Parallelogram.

eeModule
that theandarea
1: Vectors A(PofQRS)
the Geometry Space of the parallelogram P QRS is
J.V. Benitez 47/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

We see that the area A(P QRS) of the parallelogram P QRS is

A(P QRS) = |P Q| · |SJ|.

Note also that

− −
* *
|SJ| = B sin θ and |P Q| = A .

Hence,
− * − *
* − * −
A(P QRS) = |P Q| · |SJ| = A B sin θ = A × B .
− *
* −
Therefore, we may interpret A × B as the area of the parallelogram
−
* −
*
whose side are A and B.
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 48/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

Example 1.44
Show that the quadrilateral having vertices at P (−2, 1, −1), Q(1, 1, 3),
R(−5, 4, 0) and S(−8, 4, −4) is a parallelogram. Find its area.

Solution : Given P (−2, 1, −1), Q(1, 1, 3), R(−5, 4, 0) and S(−8, 4, −4).
Then
−
* −
*
A = V (P Q) = h1 + 2, 1 − 1, 3 + 1i = h3, 0, 4i
* −
− *
B = V (SR) = h−5 + 8, 4 − 4, 0 + 4i = h3, 0, 4i
* −
− *
C = V (SP ) = h−2 + 8, 1 − 4, −1 + 4i = h6, −3, 3i
* −
− *
D = V (RQ) = h1 + 5, 1 − 4, 3 − 0i = h6, −3, 3i .

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 49/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

−
* −* −
* − *
Hence, Ak B and C kD; so the quadrilateral P QRS is a parallelogram.
−
* − *
The area of P QRS is given by k A × C k:
 
 ı̂ ̂ k̂       
* −
− *     0 4 3 4  3 0 
A × C = 3 0 4 =   ı̂ −    
6 3 ̂ + 6 −3 k̂
6 −3 3 −3 3

= (0 + 12)ı̂ − (9 − 24)̂ + (−9 − 0)k̂

= 12ı̂ + 15̂ − 9k̂ or h12, 15, −9i
− −
* * √ √ √
k A × C k = 144 + 225 + 81 = 450 = 15 2 sq. units

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 50/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

Theorem 1.45
−
* −
* − −
* * −
*
If A and B are vectors in R3 , then A × B is orthogonal to both A and
−
*
B.

Theorem 1.46
−
* −
* −
* −
* − −
* *
A and B are two vectors in V3 , A and B are parallel iff A × B = 0̂.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 51/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 The Cross Product

Example 1.47
−
* −
*
Show that the vectors A = 2ı̂ − 3̂ + k̂ and B = −4ı̂ + 6̂ − 2k̂ are parallel.
* −
− *
Solution : We will show that that A × B = 0̂. Then
 
 ı̂ ̂ k̂       
* −
− *   −3 1  2 1   2 −3
A × B =  2 −3 1  =    
ı̂ −  
̂ +   k̂
−4 6 −2 6 −2 −4 −2 −4 6 

= (6 − 6)ı̂ − (−4 + 4)̂ + (12 − 12)k̂

= 0ı̂ + 0̂ + 0k̂ = h0, 0, 0i = 0̂
−
* −
*
Hence, by Theorem 1.46, A and B are parallel.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 52/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

The equations x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0 represent the yz-plane, xz-plane,

and xy-plane, respectively. These are special planes in R3 . We will now
proceed in finding a general form of a plane in R3 . Our basic requirement
is a nonzero vector and a point in the plane.
Definition 1.48
−
*
If N is a given nonzero vector and P0 is a given point, then the set of all
−
* −
*
points P for which V (P0 P ) and N are orthogonal is defined to be a plane
−
*
P0 having N as a normal vector.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 53/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Theorem 1.49
−
*
If P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is a point in a plane and N = ha, b, ci is a normal vector
to the plane then an equation of the plane is

a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0.

Example 1.50
Draw a sketch of the plane of 4x − 4y + 2z − 9 = 0.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 54/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Example 1.51
Find an equation of the plane containing the point P (2, 1, −1) and having
−
*
the normal vector N = −ı̂ + 3 ̂ + 4 k̂.
−
*
Solution : Taking N = h−1, 3, 4i and P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (2, 1, −1), we
obtain
0 = a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 )
⇒ 0 = −(x − 2) + 3(y − 1) + 4(z + 1) = −x + 3y + 4z + 3.
Hence, the required equation of the plane is
0 = −x + 3y + 4z + 3
or
0 = x − 3y − 4z − 3.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 55/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Example 1.52
Find an equation of the plane containing the points (0, 0, 2), (2, 4, 1) and
(−2, 3, 3).

Solution : Let A = (0, 0, 2), B = (2, 4, 1) and C = (−2, 3, 3). Set

−
* −
* −
* −
*
A = V (AB) and B = V (AC).

Then
−
* −
*
A = V (AB) = h2 − 0, 4 − 0, 1 − 2i = h2, 4, −1i and
−
* − *
B = V (AC) = h−2 − 0, 3 − 0, 3 − 2i = h−2, 3, 1i .

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 56/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

* −
− * −
*
Since A × B and A are orthogonal, we may choose the normal vector
 
 ı̂ ̂ k̂ 
−
* − * − *  
N = A × B =  2 4 −1 
 −2 3 1 

= (4 + 3)ı̂ − (2 − 2)̂ + (6 + 8)k̂

= h7, 0, 14i .
−
*
Taking N = h7, 0, 14i and P0 (0, 0, 2), we obtain

0 = a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 )

⇒ 0 = 7(x − 0) + 0(y − 0) + 14(z − 2) = 7x + 14z − 28
⇒ 0 = x + 2z − 4.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 57/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Example 1.53
Find an equation of the plane perpendicular to the line through (2, 2, −4)
and (7, −1, 3) and containing the point (−5, 1, 2).

Solution : Let A = (2, 2, −4), B = (7, −1, 3), and P0 (−5, 1, 2). Take
−
* − *
N = V (AB) = h7 − 2, −1 − 2, 3 + 4i = h5, −3, 7i

Thus, the required equation of the plane is given by

0 = a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 )

⇒ 0 = 5(x + 5) − 3(y − 1) + 7(z − 2)
⇒ 0 = 5x − 3y + 7z + 25 + 3 − 14
⇒ 0 = 5x − 3y + 7z + 14.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 58/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Example 1.54
Find an equation of the plane perpendicular to each of the planes
x − y + z = 0 and 2x + y − 4z − 5 = 0 and containing the point (4, 0, −2).

Solution : The normal vectors of the given planes are as follows:

−
*
P1 : x − y + z = 0 ⇒ N P1 = h1, −1, 1i and
−
*
P2 : 2x + y − 4z − 5 = 0 ⇒ N P2 = h2, 1, −4i .
Since the required plane is perpendicular to each of the given planes, we
take the normal vector of the required plane as follows:
 
 ı̂ ̂ k̂ 
−* − * −
* 
N = N P1 × N P2 =  1 −1 1  = (4 − 1)ı̂ − (−4 − 2)̂ + (1 + 2)k̂
 2 1 −4 
= h3, 6, 3i .
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 59/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

−
*
Using N = h3, 6, 3i and P0 (4, 0, −2), the required equation of the plane is

0 = a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 )

⇒ 0 = 3(x − 4) + 6(y − 0) + 3(z + 2)
⇒ 0 = 1 · (x − 4) + 2 · (y − 0) + 1 · (z + 2)
⇒ 0 = x + 2y + z − 2.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 60/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Let P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) be a point on a line L. Suppose L is parallel to the
−
*
vector A = ha, b, ci. Then
n −
* *o
−
L = P (x, y, z) ∈ R3 : V (P0 P ) is parallel to A .

If P (x, y, z) ∈ L, then there exists a scalar t 6= 0 such that

−
* −
*
V (P0 P ) = t A; i.e. hx − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 i = hta, tb, tci. Thus,
x − x0 = ta, y − y0 = tb and z − z0 = tc. Thus,

x = x0 + ta, y = y0 + tb, z = z0 + tc (1)

Definition 1.55
We call (1) the parametric equations of the line L.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 61/93

 .

DMS Department of
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and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

These equations can be written as

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= = . (2)
a b c

Definition 1.56
The equation (2) is called symmetric equations of L. We call a, b and c
the direction numbers of L.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 62/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Example 1.57
Find two sets of symmetric equations of the line through the points
(1, 2, 1) and (5, −1, 1).

Solution : Direction numbers:

−
*
A = h5 − 1, −1 − 2, 1 − 1i = h4, −3, 0i = ha, b, ci .

Since c = 0, we use
x − x0 y − y0
= and z = z0 .
a b

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 63/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Hence,
x−1 y−2
using (1, 2, 1) : = and z = 1
4 −3

x−5 y+1
using (5, −1, 1) : = and z = 1.
4 −3

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 64/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Example 1.58
Find the equations of the line through (2, 0, −4) and parallel to each of
the planes x + y − z = 0 and x + 3y + 5z = 0.

Solution : The normal vectors of the given planes are as follows:

−
*
P1 : x + y − z = 0 ⇒ N P1 = h1, 1, −1i and
−
*
P2 : x + 3y + 5z = 0 ⇒ N P2 = h1, 3, 5i .
Hence, we take
 
 ı̂ ̂ k̂ 
−
* −
* −
*  
A = N P1 × N P2 =  1 1 −1  = (5 + 3)ı̂ − (5 + 1)̂ + (3 − 1)k̂
 1 3 5 
= h8, −6, 2i .
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 65/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

−
*
Using A = h8, −6, 2i and P0 (2, 0, −4), the required equations of the line
are
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
a b c
x−2 y−0 z+4
= =
8 −6 2
x−2 y
= =z+4
4 −3

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 66/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Example 1.59
Prove that the line
1
x + 1 = − (y − 6) = z
2
lies in the plane 3x + y − z = 3.

Solution : Note that

1 x − (−1) y−6 z−0
L : x + 1 = − (y − 6) = z ⇒ = =
2 1 −2 1
−
*
⇒ A L = h1, −2, 1i and P0 = (−1, 6, 0)
and
−
*
P : 3x + y − z = 3 ⇒ N P = h3, 1, −1i

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 67/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

−
* −
*
We show that A L and N P are orthogonal and P0 satisfies the plane P .
Now,
−
* −
*
A L · N P = h1, −2, 1i · h3, 1, −1i = 3 − 2 − 1 = 0 and
P0 = (−1, 6, 0) and P : 3x + y − z = 3 ⇒ 3(−1) + 6 − 0 = 3.

This shows that the line

1
x + 1 = − (y − 6) = z
2
lies in the plane 3x + y − z = 3.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 68/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Example 1.60
Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the line
1 1 1
(x − 2) = − (y + 3) = (z − 1)
4 2 7
and the plane 5x − y + 2z − 12 = 0.

Solution : Let
x−2 y+3 z−1
L: = = ,
4 −2 7
P : 5x − y + 2z − 12 = 0, and

Q = (u, v, w) be the required point of intersection of the line L and the

plane P .
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 69/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Then

 u−2 v+3
 
 =
 u−2 = v+3 = w−1 
 4 −2
4 −2 7 ⇒ u−2 w−1
  =
5u − v + 2w − 12 = 0 
 4 7


5u − v + 2w − 12 = 0

 − 21 (u − 2) − 3 = v


7
⇒ 4 (u − 2) + 1 = w



5u − v + 2w − 12 = 0

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 70/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Solving the system of equations, we have
   
5u − − 12 (u − 2) − 3 + 2 47 (u − 2) + 1 − 12 = 0
⇒ 5u + 12 (u − 2) + 3 + 72 (u − 2) + 2 − 12 = 0
⇒ 10u + (u − 2) + 6 + 7(u − 2) + 4 − 24 = 0
⇒ 10u + u − 2 + 6 + 7u − 14 + 4 − 24 = 0
30 5
⇒ 18u − 30 = 0 ⇒ u= 18 = 3

so,

v = − 12 (u − 2) − 3 = − 21 ( 53 − 2) − 3 = − 17
6
and
w = 47 (u − 2) + 1 = 47 ( 53 − 2) + 1 = 5
12

Hence, the point of intersection of L and P is ( 53 , − 17

6
, 5
12
).
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 71/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Example 1.61
Find the perpendicular distance from the point (−1, 3, −1) to the line
x − 2z = 7, y = 1.

Solution : Let Q = (−1, 3, −1). Note that

L : x − 2z = 7, y = 1 ⇒ x − 7 = 2z, y − 1
x−7 z−0
⇒ = , y−1
2 1
−
*
⇒ A = h2, 0, 1i and P0 (7, 1, 0).

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 72/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

−
* − *
Let M be the point on the line L such that M Q ⊥ L, B = V (P0 Q) and
d = |M Q|. See figure below:

.. L
....
....

......
Q •..... ....

...... d
....

.
.
. −.
....
....
....
....
....

.... A
....
* ....
..
.... ...
.... ....
. .... ....
....
....
....

* ... .•...M
....
.... .......
− .
.......
...
B. .
. ....

.. ....
....
......

... .......
..
....
....
....
....
..... ....
....
•...
....
....
.......
....
....
.
P 0
....
.......
.....
....
....

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 73/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

Note that d is the perpendicular distance from the point (−1, 3, −1) to the
line x − 2z = 7, y = 1 and |P0 M | is the (absolute value of) scalar
−
* −
*
projection of B onto A. Now,
−
* −
*
B = V (P0 Q) = h−1 − 7, 3 − 1, −1 − 0i = h−8, 2, −1i
−
* √ √ −
* √ √
k Bk = 64 + 4 + 1 = 69 and k Ak = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5.

Moreover,
− *  
−   
*A · B h2, 0, 1i · h−8, 2, −1i   −16 + 0 − 1  17
     
|P0 M | =  −* = √ = √ = √ .
 k Ak   5   5  5

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 74/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Planes and Lines in Space

By Pythagorean Theorem,
q
−
* −
*
2
d + |P0 M | = k Bk2 ⇒ d =
2
k Bk2 − |P0 M |2
r
289
⇒ d = 69 −
5
r
56
⇒ d= units.
5

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 75/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution

Definition 1.62
A cylinder is a surface that is generated by a line moving along a given
plane curve in such a way that it always remains parallel to a fixed line not
lying in the plane of the given curve. The moving line is called a generator
of the cylinder and the given plane curve is called a directrix of the
cyclinder. Any position of a generator is called a ruling of the cylinder.

Example 1.63
Consider a cylinder whose directrix is y 2 = x and rulings are parallel to the
z−axis. The graph of this cylinder is called a parabolic cylinder. The
graph of the cylinder y 2 = x in R3 is given below.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 76/93

 .

Example 1.63 Consider a cylinder whose directrix is y 2 = x andDMS ruling Department of

re parallel to the z−axis. The graph of this cylinder is called a paraboli MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

ylinder . The graph of the cylinder y 2 = x in R3 is given below. 1

 Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution

Figure: Graph of x = y 2 in R3 .
Figure 1.5: Graph of x = y 2 in R3 .
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 77/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution

Example 1.64
Consider the cylinder whose directrix is 9y 2 + 16x2 = 144 and rulings
parallel to the z−axis. The graph of

y 2 x2
+ 2 =1 (or 9y 2 + 16x2 = 144)
42 3
in R3 is given below and is called an elliptic cylinder.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 78/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution

CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPA

Figure: Graph of 9y 2 + 16x2 = 144 in R3 .

Figure 1.6: Graph of 9y 2 + 16x2 = 144 inJ.V.RBenitez
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space
3
. 79/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution

Example 1.65
The cylinder whose directrix is 25y 2 − 4x2 = 100 and rulings are parallel to
the z−axis is called a hyperbolic cylinder. The graph of

y 2 x2
− =1 (or 25y 2 − 4x2 = 100)
4 25
in R3 is given below.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 80/93

 y 2 x2 .

− = 1 (or 25y 2 − 4x2 = 100) DMS

4 25 Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

in R3 is given below. 1

 Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution

y

x z

Figure: Graph of 25y 2 − 4x2 = 100 in R3 .

Figure 1.7: Graph of 25y 2 − 4x2 = 100 in R3 .
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 81/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution

Theorem 1.66
In R3 , the graph of an equation in two of the three variables x, y and z is
a cylinder whose rulings are parallel to the axis associated with the missing
variable and whose directrix is a curve in the plane associated with the two
variables appearing in the equation.

Definition 1.67
A cross section of a surface in a plane is the set of all of the surface that
lie in the given plane.

Remark 1.68
If a plane is parallel to the plane of the directrix of a cylinder, the cross
section of the cylinder is the same as the directrix.
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 82/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution

Definition 1.69
If a plane curve is revolved about a fixed line lying in the plane of the
curve, the surface generated is called a surface of revolution. The fixed
line is called the axis of the surface of revolution and the plane curve is
called the generating curve.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 83/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution

We following list is very useful in obtaining the equation of the surface of
revolution.
Equation Axis Replace By Resulting Equation
√  2
1. f (y, z) = 0 y-axis z ± x2 + z 2 x2 + z 2 = f (y)
p  2
2. f (y, z) = 0 z-axis y ± x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 = f (z)
√  2
3. f (x, y) = 0 y-axis x ± x2 + z 2 x2 + z 2 = f (y)
p  2
4. f (x, y) = 0 x-axis y ± y2 + z2 y 2 + z 2 = f (x)
p  2
5. f (x, z) = 0 x-axis z ± y2 + z2 y 2 + z 2 = f (x)
p  2
6. f (x, z) = 0 z-axis x ± x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 = f (z)
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 84/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution

Example 1.70
Consider y 2 + z 2 = r2 , z ≥ 0 about the y−axis.

Example 1.71
Find an equation of the surface of revolution generated by revolving the
plane curve about the indicated axis. Draw a sketch of the surface.
1 x2 = 4y; about the y−axis
2 y 2 = z 3 ; about the z−axis
3 x2 + 4z 2 = 16; about the x−axis
Solution : √
1 Using (3.) in the Table, replace x by ± x2 + z 2 :
p
x2 = 4y ⇒ (± x2 + z 2 )2 = 4y ⇒ x2 + z 2 = 4y
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 85/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Cylindrical Surfaces and Surfaces of Revolution

Solution :
p
2 Using (2.) in the Table, replace y by ± x2 + y 2 :
p
y 2 = z 3 ⇒ (± x2 + y 2 )2 = z 3 ⇒ x2 + y 2 = z 3
p
3 Using (5.) in the Table, replace z by ± y 2 + z 2 :
p
x2 + 4z 2 = 16 ⇒ x2 + 4(± y 2 + z 2 )2 = 16
⇒ x2 + 4y 2 + 4z 2 = 16

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 86/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Quadric Surfaces

Definition 1.72
The graph of a second degree equation in three variables x, y and z,

Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Exz + F yz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0

is called quadric surface.

The following are special quadric surfaces and their corresponding names.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 87/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Quadric Surfaces
Equation Name of the Quadric Surface
x2 y2 z2 Ellipsoid
2
+ 2 + 2 =1
a b c
x2 y2 z2 Elliptic Hyperboloid of one sheet
+ − =1
a2 b2 c2
x2 y2 z2 Elliptic Hyperboloid of two sheets
− − + =1
a2 b2 c2
x2 y2 z Elliptic Paraboloid
2
+ 2 =
a b c
y2 x2 z Hyperbolic Paraboloid
2
− 2 =
b a c
x2 y2 z2 Elliptic Cone
+ − =0
a2 b2 c2
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 88/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Quadric Surfaces

Remark 1.73
As in the conic section, quadric surfaces has also its corresponding
equations using translation of axes.

The simplest types of quadric surfaces are the parabolic, elliptic and
hyperbolic cylinders.
Definition 1.74
Ellipsoid, Elliptic Hyperboloid of one sheet and Elliptic Hyperboloid of two
sheets are called central quadrics since they are symmetric with respect to
each of the coordinate planes and symmetric with respect to the origin.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 89/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Quadric Surfaces 1.7. QUADRIC SURFACES 17

Ellipsoid Elliptic Hyperboloid of 1 sheet Elliptic Hyperboloid of 2 sheets

Elliptic Paraboloid Hyperbolic Paraboloid Elliptic Cone

Figure 1.8: Quadric Surfaces

Figure: Quadric Surfaces
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 90/93
 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Quadric Surfaces

Definition 1.75
The numbers a, b, and c are the lengths of the semiaxes of the ellipsoid. If
any two of these three numbers are equal, we have an ellipsoid of
revolution which is also called spheroid. A spheroid for which the thrid
number is greater than the two equal numbers is said to be prolate. A
prolate spheroid is shaped like a football. An oblate spheroid is obtained if
the third number is less than the two equal numbers. If all three numbers
a, b and c ar equal, the ellipsoid is a sphere. a, b and c are positive.

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 91/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Quadric Surfaces

Example 1.76
Name the surface corresponding to the ff. equations and draw a sketch of
the graph.

1 9x2 − 4y 2 + 36z 2 = 36 4 4x2 + 9y 2 + z 2 = 36

2 4x2 − 9y 2 − z 2 = 36 x2 z2
5 + = 4y
x2 z2 36 25
3 − = 9y
36 25 6 4x2 − 16y 2 + 9z 2 = 0

Solution :
x2 y 2 z 2
1 9x2 − 4y 2 + 36z 2 = 36 ⇒ − + =1
4 9 1
⇒ Elliptic Hyperboloid of one Sheet

Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 92/93

 .

DMS Department of
MATHEMATICS
and STATISTICS

 Quadric Surfaces
x2 y 2 z2
2 4x2 − 9y 2 − z 2 = 36 ⇒ − − =1
9 4 36
⇒ Elliptic Hyperboloid of two Sheet
x2 z2 x2 z2 y
3 − = 9y ⇒ − =
36 25 122 152 1
⇒ Hyperbolic Paraboloid
x2 y 2 z2
4 4x2 + 9y 2 + z 2 = 36 ⇒ + + =1
9 4 36
⇒ Ellipsoid
x2 z2 x2 z2 y
5 + = 4y ⇒ + =
36 25 122 102 1
⇒ Elliptic Paraboloid
x2 y 2 z2
6 4x2 − 16y 2 + 9z 2 = 0 ⇒ − + =0
36 9 16
⇒ Elliptic Cone
Module 1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space J.V. Benitez 93/93