MST 112: People and the Earth’s Ecosystem

Population ecology is a branch of ecology that studies the dynamics of species

populations and how they interact with their environment.

● Ecology is the scientific study of different organisms and how they interact
with their environment. An ecologist studies the relationship between living things and their habitats.
● Population refers to a group of the same species living in the same area at the same time.

Community Ecology is the study of the organization and functioning of communities, which are assemblages
of interacting populations of different species living within a particular area or habitat. Groups of different
organisms living together and figure out how they influence each other.

Ecosystem Ecology is the study of how all living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) things interact within an
ecosystem.

POPULATION ECOLOGY THEORY

The first significant contribution to the theory of population ecology was that of
Thomas Robert Malthus (February 13, 1766 – December 23, 1834) , an English
clergyman, who in 1798 published his Essay on the Principle of Population. This work
contained his famous argument that human populations tend to grow faster than
agricultural output, resulting in famines, war, and disease. Moreover, he expresses that
plants and animals produce far more offspring than can survive, and that humanity too is capable of
overproducing if left unchecked, which in turn, leads the population to outgrow the available resources.

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PROPERTIES OF POPULATION ECOLOGY:

1. Population size - represents the total number of individuals in a habitat. It is determined by the number
of births, death, immigration, and emigration.

● Birth or natality - It refers to the number of living individuals born in a population (birth rate).
● Death or mortality - It refers to the number of deaths of individuals in a population (death rate).
● Immigration - In population ecology, immigration occurs when an animal establishes a home in
a habitat that is ideal for them.
● Emigration - In population ecology, emigration occurs when an animal leaves its home because
the habitat is no longer ideal for them and they need to find a more suitable environment.

2. Population density - refers to how many individuals reside in a particular area.

● Low-density areas would have more organisms spread out.
● High-density areas would have more individuals living closer together, leading to greater
resource competition.

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 3. Population Dispersion - describes the arrangement of individuals within a habitat at a particular point
in time, and broad categories of patterns are used to describe them. The three dispersion patterns are
clumped, random, and uniform.

● In uniform dispersion, individuals of a population are spaced more or less

evenly. One example of uniform dispersion comes from plants that secrete
toxins to inhibit growth of nearby individuals—a phenomenon called
allelopathy. IN addition, penguins exhibit uniform dispersion as they
maintain defined territories, especially in nesting.

● In random dispersion, individuals are distributed randomly, without a

predictable pattern. An example of random dispersion comes from
dandelions and other plants that have wind-dispersed seeds.

● In a clumped dispersion, individuals are clustered in groups. A clumped

dispersion may be seen in plants that drop their seeds straight to the
ground—such as oak trees—or animals that live in groups—schools of
fish or herds of elephants.

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CALCULATING THE POPULATION OF SPECIES

First Method: Mark-Recapture Method

The Mark-Recapture method is used to estimate the size of a population when direct count is impossible.
This method is ideal for estimating the population of fast moving animals.

The basic idea is that you capture a small number of individuals, put a harmless mark on them, and release
them back into the population. At a later date, you catch another small group, and record how many have a
mark. In a small population, you are more likely to recapture marked individuals, whereas in a large population,
you are less likely. This can be expressed mathematically using the equation, N = (M*C) / R, where:

N = estimated Number of individuals in the population

M = number of individuals captured and Marked

C = total number Captured in the second visit (with and without a mark)

R = number of individuals Recaptured (those with a mark already)

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Example:

Let's say that your neighborhood has a

population of snails, which come out onto the
sidewalk when the sprinklers come on, and the
rest of the time they hide in the vegetation. If you
catch 20, and mark them and, then, a week later,
after they have had a chance to disperse into the
population, you catch 15, and 6 have marks on
them, what is the estimated size of the
population?

Solution:

N = (M*C) / R

N = (20 * 15) / 6

N = 50

Therefore, the estimated size of the population of snails on the sidewalk is 50.

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SECOND METHOD: QUADRAT METHOD

Quadrat method is a technique by which organisms in a certain proportion (sample) of the habitat are
counted directly. This method is ideal for estimating the population of plants, as well as immobile and slow
moving animals.

Procedure:
1. Divide the area to be sampled into a grid using measuring tapes placed at right angles to each other.
2. Use random numbers to generate coordinates
within the grid on which to place the quadrats.
3. Place a quadrat at each coordinate.
4. Count the numbers/estimate percentage cover of
each species in each quadrat.
5. Use a key to identify each species.
6. Record results in a table.
7. Calculate the average of each species.

Example:

Suppose that the table above is a field of sunflowers,

and each dot represents a single sunflower plant. There
are 10 columns and 10 rows (10 by 10 blocks), and each
block has a measurement of one meter (1m) on each
side. Note that each square represents one quadrant.
Now, let us randomly select five (5) samples in the
quadrant (Q1 = 3, Q2= 3, Q3= 3, Q4 = 2, and Q5=4).
Determine the estimated population of sunflowers in
field using the formula, N = (A\a), where:

N = estimated number of individuals in the population

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A = total number of species from the selected quadrats

a = number of quadrats beings studied

n = total number of quads

Solution:
Step 1: Add the number of species of each selected quadrat (A), Q1 = 3, Q2= 3, Q3= 3, Q4= 2, and
Q5=4.
3 + 3 + 3 +2 + 4 = 15

Step 2: Divide the total number of species from the selected quadrats (A) by the number of quadrats
being studied (a).
15 ÷ 5 = 3

Step 3: Multiply the quotient of the species in the quadrat by the total number of quads (n).
3 × 100 = 300

Therefore, the estimated population of sunflowers in the field is 300.

Note, if you arrive at a decimal answer, always round down the value, because it refers to the
individuality of a species in a population.

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Carrying capacity is the maximum number of species an ecosystem can “carry” or sustain.

Limiting factors: Ecologists study factors that limit population growth. This helps them understand the
changes populations undergo and predict potential events that might happen for the population of a species.

● Density-dependent factors - is an ecological factor that regulates the population size and growth in a
density-dependent manner. The biological phenomena that limits the number of a population are the
availability of resources, space and shelter, predation, competition, disease, as well as migration.

● Density-independent factors - is an ecological factor that affects the size of a population, arising from
physical and environmental phenomena, such as changes in weather and climate, global warming, and
natural catastrophes (typhoon or hurricane, storm surges, landslide, flooding, earthquake, tsunami, and
drought).

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Basic Concept of High Rate in Ecosystems

Introduction
Ecosystems are complex networks of organisms and their physical environment, in which energy and
nutrients are continuously cycling. High rate in ecosystems refers to the rate at which energy and nutrients flow
through an ecosystem. This report aims to provide a basic understanding of high rates in ecosystems, including
its types and implications.

Types of High Rate in Ecosystems:

High rate in ecosystems can refer to different types, depending on the specific process or component being
considered. The following are a few examples:

Primary productivity rate: This is the rate at which plants and other autotrophic organisms produce organic
matter through photosynthesis. A high primary productivity rate means that there is a lot of energy available for
the rest of the food chain to use.

Decomposition rate: This is the rate at which organic matter is broken down into simpler compounds by
decomposers like bacteria and fungi. A high decomposition rate can help to recycle nutrients back into the
ecosystem and maintain its overall health.

Population growth rate: This is the rate at which a population of organisms is increasing over time. A high
population growth rate can indicate that a species is thriving in its environment, but it can also lead to
overpopulation and resource depletion.

Nutrient cycling rate: This refers to the rate at which nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon move
through the ecosystem, being taken up by organisms, released into the environment, and eventually recycled. A
high nutrient cycling rate is important for maintaining the productivity of the ecosystem and preventing nutrient
imbalances.
Implications of High Rate in Ecosystems:

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 High rate in ecosystems can have both positive and negative implications. On one hand, a high rate can
indicate a healthy and productive ecosystem with a lot of biodiversity. For example, a high primary productivity
rate.

Positive and Negative Effects of High Rate in Ecosystems:

Positive Effects:
● Increased Biodiversity: A high rate of primary productivity, nutrient cycling, and decomposition can
support a diverse array of plant and animal life within an ecosystem. This biodiversity can lead to a
more resilient ecosystem that is better able to withstand disturbances and environmental changes.

● Efficient Use of Resources: High rates of nutrient cycling and decomposition can help to recycle
nutrients back into the ecosystem, allowing them to be used by other organisms. This leads to a more
efficient use of resources and can help to maintain the productivity of the ecosystem.

● Increased Biomass: A high rate of primary productivity can lead to an increase in the overall biomass of
an ecosystem. This increased biomass can support larger and more complex food chains, which can in
turn support larger populations of predators and herbivores.

Negative Effects:
● Resource Competition: A high rate of primary productivity can lead to increased competition for
resources, such as sunlight, water, and nutrients. This can lead to a decrease in the availability of these
resources for certain organisms, which can in turn impact their growth and survival.
● Disease Transmission: A high rate of population growth can lead to overcrowding and increased
susceptibility to disease. This can result in the spread of diseases throughout the ecosystem, which can
have negative impacts on the health of the overall ecosystem.

● Eutrophication: A high rate of nutrient cycling can lead to eutrophication, which is an increase in the
concentration of nutrients in a body of water. This can lead to an overgrowth of algae and other aquatic

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 plants, which can in turn lead to a decrease in the availability of oxygen in the water, causing harm to
fish and other aquatic life.

Examples of the Positive and Negative Effects of High Rates in Ecosystems

Primary Production Rate:

● Positive Effect – Increased Biodiversity: A high primary productivity rate can support a diverse food
chain, providing habitat for a variety of species.
● Negative Effect – Resource Competition: A high primary productivity rate can lead to increased
competition for resources, such as sunlight and nutrients. This can lead to a decrease in the availability
of these resources for certain organisms.

Decomposition Rate:
● Positive Effect – Efficient Use of Resources: A high decomposition rate can help to recycle nutrients
back into the ecosystem, allowing them to be used by other organisms. This leads to a more efficient use
of resources and can help to maintain the productivity of the ecosystem.
● Negative Effect – Eutrophication: A high decomposition rate can lead to eutrophication, which is an
increase in the concentration of nutrients in a body of water. This can lead to an overgrowth of algae and
other aquatic plants, which can in turn lead to a decrease in the availability of oxygen in the water,
causing harm to fish and other aquatic life.

Population Growth Rate:

● Positive Effect – Increased Biomass: A high population growth rate can lead to an increase in the overall
biomass of an ecosystem. This increased biomass can support larger and more complex food chains,
which can in turn support larger populations of predators and herbivores.
● Negative Effect – Disease Transmission: A high population growth rate can lead to overcrowding and
increased susceptibility to disease. This can result in the spread of diseases throughout the ecosystem,
which can have negative impacts on the health of the overall ecosystem.

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Nutrient Cycling Rate:
● Positive Effect – Increased Biodiversity: A high nutrient cycling rate can support a diverse array of plant
and animal life within an ecosystem. This biodiversity can lead to a more resilient ecosystem that is
better able to withstand disturbances and environmental changes.
● Negative Effect – Eutrophication: A high nutrient cycling rate can lead to eutrophication, which is an
increase in the concentration of nutrients in a body of water. This can lead to an overgrowth of algae and
other aquatic plants, which can in turn lead to a decrease in the availability of oxygen in the water,
causing harm to fish and other aquatic life.

Key factors that can Affect the Rates in Ecosystems:

Climate: Climate can have a significant impact on the rates in ecosystems. Temperature, precipitation, and other
climatic factors can influence the growth and reproduction of plants and animals, nutrient cycling rates, and
other ecological processes.

Soil Quality: Soil quality can affect the rates in ecosystems by influencing the growth and reproduction of
plants, nutrient cycling rates, and decomposition rates. Factors such as pH, nutrient content, and texture can all
influence the quality of soil in an ecosystem.

Availability of Resources: The availability of resources such as sunlight, water, and nutrients can have a
significant impact on the rates in ecosystems. High availability of resources can lead to high rates, while limited
availability can lead to lower rates.

Species Interactions: The interactions between different species in an ecosystem can also affect the rates. For
example, predators may reduce the population growth rates of prey species, while symbiotic relationships can
increase the growth rates of both species involved.

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Human Activities: Human activities such as deforestation, pollution, and overfishing can have a significant
impact on the rates in ecosystems. These activities can disrupt ecological processes and reduce the availability
of resources, leading to lower rates in ecosystems.

Examples of How each Factors can Affect the Rates in Ecosystems:

Climate:
Example 1: In a tropical rainforest ecosystem, high levels of rainfall and consistent warm temperatures can
support high rates of primary productivity.
Example 2: In an arctic tundra ecosystem, cold temperatures and limited sunlight can result in low rates of
primary productivity.

Soil Quality:
Example 1: In a grassland ecosystem with nutrient-rich soil.
Example 2: In a desert ecosystem with nutrient-poor soil.

Availability of Resources:
Example 1: In a coral reef ecosystem with clear, nutrient-rich water and ample sunlight.
Example 2: In a lake ecosystem with high levels of pollution and low levels of oxygen.

Species Interactions:
Example 1: In a grassland ecosystem, grazing animals such as bison and antelope.
Example 2: In a forest ecosystem, the presence of certain plant species such as mycorrhizal fungi.

Human Activities:
Example 1: In a marine ecosystem, overfishing.
Example 2: In an agricultural ecosystem, the use of pesticides and other chemicals.

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Intrinsic Rate of Natural Increase

The rate of natural increase (RNI) is a measure of how quickly a population is growing or declining. The rate of
natural increase is the actual number (usually written as a percentage) that illustrates the natural increase in an
area over time given a set population. The natural increase calculation is not as difficult as you might expect.
Let's take a look at the formula.

(Number of births - number of deaths) ÷ population = rate of natural increase

r=b-d ÷ P

EXAMPLE:
Suppose that at the beginning of 2022, 'Sailor Town' had a population of 10,000. Over the course of the year,
500 new babies were born, and 250 people passed away.

b=500
d= 250
P= 10,000
r=b-d ÷ P
(500 - 250) ÷ 10,000 = 0.025
(0.25)100= 2.5% (convert to percentage)

So, for 2022, Sailor Town had a rate of natural increase of 2.5%.

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 If a population has an intrinsic rate of natural increase of zero, then it is said to have a stable age distribution
and neither grows nor declines in numbers. Values above zero indicate that the population is increasing. The
higher the value of r, the faster the intrinsic growth rate of the population.

In Nicaragua, the birth rate is 20 and the death rate is 5. The population of the place is 1,000. Following the
formula for finding RNI for this year.

b=20
d= 5
P= 1,000
r=b-d ÷ P
r= 20-5 ÷ 1,000
=15 ÷ 1,000
r= 0.015 or 1.5%

So, Nicaragua’s rate of natural increase is 1.5%.

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