------------------CHAPTER 4--------------------

PLANTS
Advantages Of Multicellularity
- Energy efficient
- Longer life span
- Sexual reproduction -> genetic variation
- Less vulnerable to short term changes
- Can grow significantly larger.
- More efficient at locating resources and avoiding negative stimuli
- More complex response to stimuli
Disadvantages of Multicellularity
- More energy required for survival
- Cells are dependent on other cells for survival
- Asexual reproduction
- Less longer to evolve
Cell Differentiation in Plants
- Cell differentiation is when stem cells become specialised
- Refer to chapter 3 for specialisation in animals
- In plants stem cells are present in meristem tissue
o Found in the tips of roots and shoots in a region called apical meristem
o Leaves and flowers come from shoot apical meristem
o Root growth comes from root apical meristem

Levels of Organisation
- Specialised cell: a cell with features that allow it to perform a specialised function
- Tissue: a group of specialised cells working together to carry out a specific function
- Organ: two or more tissues that work together to perform one or more specialised tasks
- System: a group of organs that work together to perform vital functions

Gene Expression
- The process in which information stored in genes is used to build the different structures in a cell
- Gene expression determines how the cell will differentiate and function
- Cell specialisation makes cells more efficient because they have only one function rather than many

Organs in Vascular Plants

- Roots:
o Absorbing and storing water and nutrients
o Support and anchor plants to ground
o Two types of root systems:
 Tap root System (roots branch out from one large root and
travel deep underground) present in dicots
 Fibrous root System (roots branch out and grow shallow to the
ground) present in monocots
o Refer to Diagram of labelled root system
 Epidermis: help deter excess water loss and transports water from the soil deep into the root
 Cortex: consists of parenchyma cells which have thin walls enabling water to diffuse cell to
cell, facilitating the transport of water.
 Endodermis: controls the flow of substances (water and ions) deep into the root
 Pericycle: support, protect and functionally assist xylem and phloem cells
 Xylem and phloem: explained in vascular tissue (refer after this topic)
 Pith (located only in monocot roots): made of parenchyma cells, transports nutrients
throughout the plant and then store nutrients within its cells
 - Leaves:
o Primary organ of photosynthesis
o Major tissues that make up the leaf include epidermis, photosynthetic tissue and vascular tissue.
o Cross section of root:
 Cuticle: waxy waterproof layer secreted by upper
epidermal cells
 Upper epidermis: thin transparent tissue protecting
inner cells, prevents water loss + allows sunlight
 Palisade Mesophyll: Cell with the highest amount of
chloroplast. Maximises energy transfer and
photosynthesis occurs primarily in these cells
 Spongy Mesophyll: Allows the exchange of gases
that are needed for photosynthesis
 Vascular tissue: tubular vessels transport fluids
 Guard cell (stomata): guard cells work in pairs to
create an opening called a stoma, which regulates gas exchange and water loss

- Stems:
o Support the plant’s leaves, flowers and fruit
o Store nutrients
o Transport water and nutrients between the roots and shoots
o Grow new plant tissue
o Made of three prominent types of tissue:
 Dermal tissue, ground tissue and vascular tissue

Systems in Vascular Plants

- Root System
o Primarily underground
o Functions to support structure & absorb water and nutrients from soil
- Shoot System
o Made of two parts:
 Non reproductive (vegetative) parts of the plant
 Leaves & stems
 Reproductive parts of the plant
 Flowers & fruits

What are Vascular Plants?

- Plants that usually grow in terrestrial environments

- Characterised by the presence of vascular tissue
- Examples include:
o Ferns, cycads, conifers and flowering plants

Photosynthesis
- Chemically correct formula: 6Co2+6H2O  C6H12o6 + 6O2
- Carbon Dioxide + Water – sunlight Sugar + Oxygen
- Process of Photosynthesis:
o Chloroplast traps light energy
o Used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen
o Hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide to make glucose
 o Oxygen is released into the atmosphere as a waste product

Structure and Function of Vascular Tissue

- Arrangement of vascular tissue in roots, stems and leaves are different

o Dicot roots have xylem in a star or cross shape with phloem between the arms of
the xylem
Monocot roots have a ring of phloem with a central xylem and pith core
o In stems and leaves xylem and phloem are grouped into vascular bundles
- Xylem is the vascular tissue that transports water and mineral ions absorbed from the
soil and transported up through the plant. Composed of xylem vessels and tracheids
XYLEM VESSELS
o Mature xylem vessel is a long water filled tube consisting of specialised
elongated cells joined end to end.
o Cell wall is strengthened with lignin becoming stronger as cytoplasm and nucleus disintegrate.
Mature xylem vessels have
 Cylindrical skeletons of dead cells joined together to make continuous tubes
 Perforated or complete openings at either end so fluid can flow directly through
 Pits and Perforations in sidewalls to allow sideways movement of substances
 No nucleus or cytoplasm
TRACHEIDS
o Single, large, tapering water-filled specialised cells. When mature, tracheids lose their nucleus and
cytoplasm. This leads to cell death but creates an open structure for water to flow through
Mature Tracheids have:
 Cylindrical skeletons dead cells joined together to form continuous tubes (like xylem vessels)
 Pits and perforations in their lignified cell walls
 No nucleus or cytoplasm

Unlike xylem vessels, tracheids are not connected end to end. Instead, their ends overlap, and
water is transferred horizontally through adjoining pits.

- Phloem transports organic solutes (sugars such as sucrose) form site of synthesis (leaves) to site of use or
storage (stems and roots) and back again when necessary. Phloem tissues are alive and composed of:
o Sieve tubes
 Form linear rows of elongated cells lacking a nucleus and lignin from their cell walls
 Transport substance directly from one cell to another through small pores
 Usually found with adjoining companion cells
o Parenchyma cells
 Make up the soft tissue of a plant
 Contain chloroplast to enable photosynthesis to occur
o Companion cells
 Type of parenchyma cells that give metabolic support to sieve tube cells
 Without metabolic products from companion cells sieve tube would not survive
o Sclerenchyma cells
 Have very thick cell wall to provide structural support for the plant
 Most commonly found in mature stems of plants
ANIMALS

Organisation in Complex Animals

- Specialised cells
o Human body consists of about 210 different types of cells
o Many of these cell types differentiate during embryonic development
- Tissues
o Cells do not need to be identical to be considered a tissue
o Tissues in vertebrates are grouped into four basic types
 Muscle tissue: formed by cells that can contract
 Nerve tissue: consists highly specialised cells, neurons that sense stimuli and transmit signals
 Connective tissue: forms the supporting and connecting structures of the body
 Epithelial tissue: one or more layers of cell that cover majority of surfaces of organism
- Organs
o Structure made up of two or more tissues that perform a specific function
 Examples include eye, skin, kidney, heart

Systems in Complex Animals

- System are groups of functionally similar organs working as a unit. Major systems in complex animals are:
o Integumentary system: enclose internal body structures and site of many sensory receptors
 Hair, Skin, Nails
o Skeletal system: supports the body and enables movement (with muscular system)
 Cartilage, bones, joints
o Lymphatic system: returns fluid to blood and defends against pathogens
 Thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels
o Respiratory system: removes carbon dioxide from the body and delivers oxygen to blood
 Nasal passage, trachea, lungs
o Muscular system: enables movement (with skeletal system) and helps maintain body temperature
 Skeletal muscles, tendons
o Nervous system: detects + processes sensory information and activates bodily responses
 Brain, spinal chords, peripheral nerves
o Digestive system: processes food for use by the body and removes waste from undigested food
 Stomach, liver, gall bladder, large intestine, small intestine
o Urinary System: controls water balance in body and removes and excretes waste from blood
 Kidneys, urinary bladder
o Endocrine system: secrets hormones and regulates bodily processes
 Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal gland, testes (ovaries in females)
o Cardiovascular system: delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues and equalises temperature in body
 Heart, blood vessels
o Male reproductive system: produces and delivers sex hormones and gametes to female
 Prostate, testes, epididymis
o Female reproductive system: produces sex hormones and gametes, supports embryo, produces milk
 Mammary glands, ovaries, uterus
o Excretory System: removes waste products form the body
These systems do not work in isolation they have vital connections to one another and many of their
functions overlap. Each system maintains homeostasis to ensure the survival and reproduction of an
organism.
Digestive System

- Nutritional requirements
o Carbohydrates: important source of immediate energy.
 Monosaccharide glucose is broken down to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during
cellular respiration. Animals store carbohydrates in the form of polysaccharide glycogen.
o Lipids: important energy store in animals
 Include fats and oils
 Required for plasma membrane, hormones, and vitamins
o Amino Acids: required for protein synthesis
 Animals cannot make all the amino acids they need but can change some acids into others
 there are 9 amino acids that cannot be made this way (essential amino acids)
 Must be included in diet
 Not stored so they must be present in blood for protein synthesis to occur smoothly
o Vitamins: required in very small amounts for cellular processes
 Diverse group of organic compounds
 Made by plants, some simple animals and microorganisms
 Not used to supply energy but needed to make certain enzymes
o Minerals: essential for cellular processes
 Dietary minerals are chemical elements
 Required as essential nutrients by an organism
- Food Digestion
o Digestion is the breakdown of food into a form that can be used by an organism for metabolism. This
involves physical and chemical breakdown.
o The food eaten does not become part of your body until it has been absorbed by the cells lining the
walls of your intestine.
o Digested food then passes into the bloodstream and is carried throughout the body
 If food is not absorbed, it continues through the intestine and is passed out again as faeces
(egestion).
 Excretion refers to the removal of substances that were once part of the body and occurs
largely in the kidneys
- Physical Breakdown
o Digestive enzymes can only act on the outside surface of food. Digestion is faster if food is in small
pieces and the enzymes have a proportionally larger area to act upon
o Physical breakdown takes place before chemical digestion
o In contrast to chemical breakdown, physical breakdown does not chemically change food molecules
o Bile is important in the physical breakdown of fats (lipids) but it is not an enzyme.
 Produced by specialised hepatocyte cells in the liver and then released into the small
intestine where it acts like a detergent to emulsify fats (breaking up large fatty masses into
small droplets)
 Increases surface area to volume ratio for chemical digestion by lipases
- Chemical digestion
o Process of breaking apart complex molecules into simple molecules
 Carried out by Digestive enzymes
o Enzymes are important in digestion because they greatly increase the rate of breakdown in food
molecules
o Most digestive enzymes split food molecules by process of hydrolysis
 Splitting food molecules at a particular point by adding a water molecule
o Three Main types of digestive enzymes are:
 Amylase: acts on carbohydrates
  Protease: acts on proteins
 Lipase: acts on lipids
 (Enzymes in digestion often named according to subject they act on)
o Digestive enzymes are manufactured by specific cells
 Salivary glands contain specialised cells known as serous cells that secrete amylase
 Gastric chief cells are able to secrete proteases
 Pancreas contains range of specialised cells that can secrete amylase, protease and lipase
o Many very large food molecules can be broken down only by several enzymes acting on one another
 In this case, different enzymes are produced at appropriate sites along digestive system
o Enzymes are proteins and are sensitive to changes in pH levels.
 Altering pH levels changes shape of protein molecules which alters chemical properties
 Changed shape alters the wat that enzyme binds with molecule upon which it acts
o Enzymes have certain pH levels over which they operate best
 Different regions of the gut have different pH levels to suit the enzymes found in that region
 Pepsin and Trypsin are both enzymes that digest proteins, different pH requirements
 Pepsin release in stomach and most active in stomach’s acidic environment
 Trypsin is most active in slightly alkaline small intestine
- Extracellular digestion
o Chemical digestion can be extracellular or intracellular. Extracellular digestion is chemical digestion
that occurs outside of cells.
 Eg. Cells release enzymes into the lumen (central cavity) of the smaller intestine where
enzymes split food molecules, with smaller molecules being absorbed
o Sometimes, digestive enzymes can be found on the surface of cells
 As food is digested into smaller molecules the molecules pass immediately into cells
o All mammals rely on some sort of extracellular digestion

- Features of an Efficient Digestive System

o Every animal’s digestive system must support their nutritional requirements
o Because mammals are endothermic ( meaning they maintain a stable body temperature usually
higher than their environment) they require a lot of energy to maintain their body temperature
 Therefore need digestive systems that can efficiently extract large amounts of energy and
nutrients from food resources. Characteristics of efficient digestive systems include:
 Effective mechanism for capture and preliminary handling of food
 Appropriate physical breakdown of food
 A one way gut with separation of tasks along its length
 Efficient transport and storage of ingested food
 Efficient sequential release of digestive enzymes
 Adequate surface area for maximal absorption of nutrients and water
 Efficient egestion of unwanted materials
- Animal Digestive Systems
o Herbivores spend much of their day eating
o Carnivores spend much less time eating
 Animal matter has much higher proportion of extractable energy per gram than plant matter
 Carnivore gut produces all the enzymes needed for the complete digestion of meat so
digestion is quicker and more efficient.
 Digestive systems are shorter and simpler in carnivores than herbivores
o Plant material must be repeatedly ground by teeth to expose as much surface area as possible for
enzyme action and to release the contents from broken cells. As a food, it provides much less energy
than meat and it takes a long time to extract that energy.
- Human Digestive Systems
o The digestive system in mammals breaks down food, making it simple enough to pass across plasma
membrane and be useful to cells
o Simple process that occurs in the digesti ve system:
 Before food passes it is physically broken into small pieces by teeth
 Mucus is secreted to protect the lining of the gut and to lubricate food for easier passage
 Food moves along gut past a series of digestive enzymes that sequentially break down
various compounds for absorption
 Proteins are broken down into amino acids
 Fats and lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
 Complex carbohydrates into simple sugars
 Useful substances such as water are absorbed
 Leaves unwanted, undigested substances to be eliminated through faeces
o Key organs in the digestive system:
 Mouth
 Teeth mechanically break food into smaller pieces
 Saliva lubricates food
 Amylase enzyme (produced by serous cells) digests starch into maltose
 Epiglottis
 A flap found at the entrance to the larynx
 Prevents food from entering the trachea and respiratory system
 Directs bolus down the oesophagus
 Oesophagus
 Food travels down the tube to the stomach
 Aided by muscular peristaltic contractions
 Stomach
 Proteases (protein digesting enzymes) and gastric juices are secreted by gastric chief
cells and other specialised epithelial cells in the stomach to aid food digestion
 Peristaltic contractions in the stomach further breaks the food down and pushed it
through the digestive system
 Liver
 Regulating metabolism
 Removing toxins
 Processing nutrients
 Stores excess glucose as glycogen (polysaccharide or carbohydrate) for later
conversion back into glucose when needed for energy
 Site where bile is produces by specialised hepatocyte cells – break down fats
 Gall Bladder
 Stores and concentrates bile before releasing it into the small intestine
 Pancreas (Endocrine organ)
 Digestive enzymes are produced in the pancreatic acinar cells
 Activated when food reaches duodenum (first part of small intestine)
 Pancreas also produces insulin (beta cells) and glucagon (alpha cells)
o Regulates sugar levels in blood
 Sodium Bicarbonate is also produced
o Neutralises stomach acids in the food
 Small intestine
 Primary function is to absorb nutrients and minerals from food
  Enzymes produced in the pancreas and bile from the liver and gall bladder further
break down food products to facilitate nutrient and water absorption
 Small intestine’s many blood vessels absorb the nutrients and waste products of
digestion and deliver them to the circulatory system
 Large intestine
 Water is absorbed with soluble compounds like vitamins and minerals
 Undigested food leaves the body as faeces
- The Small Intestine
o Thinner in diameter, but longer than large intestine
o Contains specialised cells:
 Epithelial cells (known as enterocytes) line the internal surface and absorb nutrients
 Covered with microvilli further increasing SA:V for absorption
 Epithelial lining is only one cell thick, allowing rapid transfer of nutrients to the blood
and lymphatic vessels beneath the surface which transport nutrients to body tissues
 Goblet cells secrete mucin to protect the lining of the lumen
 Small intestine is long with large SA:V well suited for absorption
 Internal SA increased by millions of tiny folds called villi
 Small finger like projections
 Nutrients pass through the lining of the small intestine by facilitated diffusion or active
transport along the concentration gradient
 Lipid soluble molecules (products of fat digestion – fatty acids and glycerol) diffuse easily
through the membranes of the epithelial cells along a concentration gradient
 Reassemble into fats before passing into lacteals
 Lacteals are capillaries of the lymphatic system near the intestine and have a milky
appearance because of their high fat content after a fatty meal
 Lipid-soluble vitamins pass through the intestinal epithelium by passive diffusion
 Water soluble molecules (amino acids sugars: monosaccharides such as glucose, water
soluble vitamins and minerals) pass through membrane of epithelial cells by active transport
and facilitated diffusion. Can occur down or against a concentration gradient – ensures all
essential nutrients are absorbed quickly
 Most water (90-95%) entering small intestine is absorbed.
 Absorption is passive.
 Water diffuses across the lining of the intestine osmotically
 Product of digestion are absorbed
 Blood Leaving intestine passes first into live through hepatic portal vein
 Absorbed nutrients can be removed and stored in the liver
 Passes into a general venous circulation
- Utilising Cellulose
o Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls, but molecules too large to be absorbed without
digestion. Only a few animals can make the enzyme cellulase that is needed to digest cellulose
o Consequently, herbivores have a symbiotic partnership called mutualism with bacteria that can
produce cellulase
 Bacteria live in the gut animal, receive shelter + free nutrients
 Convert cellulose into simpler molecules that can be absorbed by the gut
 Bacteria also supply important vitamins (B group and vitamin K)
o Environment inside gut is warm and wet with little to no oxygen
 Breakdown of cellulose must occur anaerobically by fermentation
 Part of intestine where break down of cellulose occurs is called fermentation chamber
o In herbivorous mammals, fermentation takes place in different parts of the intestine in different
species with varying degrees of efficiency.
o Herbivorous mammals belong to either hindgut or foregut fermenters:
HINDGUT
  Occurs in the caecum (enlarged pouch where small and large intestine join or firs part of the
large intestine, or both)
 Both of these are located after the small intestine which is the region where most absorption
takes place
 This arrangement limits the advantage obtained from the symbiotic relationship, because
products of digestion are not completely absorbed.
 Hindgut fermenters and their relative inefficiency is visible through large amount of
undigested plant material in faeces
 Some fermenters are able to overcome this by producing two types of faeces
 One type comes directly from the caecum at night and re-ingested so that it can go
through the intestine again
o This means vitamins are products of cellulose digestion from the bacteria are
available for absorption from the small intestine
 Soft faeces that is eaten and not re-ingested

FOREGUT
 Fermentation chamber is located before the before the stomach
 Ruminants such as cattle and sheep it is called the rumen
 Food can be regurgitated back into the rumen for continued chemical breakdown by
bacteria. This regurgitated food is called cud
 Obvious advantage that products of digestion by microorganisms that are available for
absorption along the entire length of the small intestine
 Kangaroos and wallabies are the only marsupial foregut fermenters

Endocrine System

- Homeostasis often involves negative feedback mechanisms through which a stable internal environment is
maintained
- Growth, metabolism and cellular regulation in animals rely on chemical messenger systems to ensure survival
- Hormones are chemical messengers that are used as signalling molecules to have relatively long lasting
effects on cells within tissues
- In vertebrates the endocrine system is made up of many glands and organs within the body
o Secrete and synthesise hormones into the blood stream (or lymphatic system)
- Once hormones are secreted into the bloodstream they are transported to the site in which they are needed.
o Generally affect specific organs and only one type of cell within the tissue of that organ known as the
target cell which has a specialised receptor to receive that hormone.

- Animal Hormones
o Hormones help regulate the rates of chemical reactions within the cell (metabolism)
 Transport of substances in and out of the cell
 Production and secretion of other hormones
 Growth and reproduction of cells
o Hormones are highly specific in their action; in order for hormone to have an effect on a target cell
the cell must have a specific receptor to that hormone
 The hormone binds with the receptor to result in cellular change
 E.g. sudden shock causes adrenaline to be secreted from adrenal gland, only those
cells have adrenaline receptors in the plasma membranes, such as the muscle cells of
the heart and blood vessels, can respond to the adrenaline in blood
o Hormones can exert their effects on a target cell by either:
 Directly passing through the plasma membrane to reach and intracellular receptor or by
interacting with a receptor found on the surface of the plasma membrane
- Types of Hormones
Hormones can be broadly grouped into three main classes
LIPID HORMONES
o A class of hydrophobic signalling molecules derived from fatty acids (eicosanoids) or cholesterol
(steroids).
 Eicosanoids include prostaglandins which are involved in cell growth , fever and
inflammation
 Steroid hormones help to regulate metabolism, salt and water balance, inflammation and
sexual function. (e.g. testosterone, oestrogen and cortisol)
PEPTIDE AND PROTEIN HORMONES
o Hydrophilic signalling molecules.
 E.g. Peptide hormone is insulin, protein hormone is growth hormone
AMINO ACID DERIVED HORMONE
o Class of small signalling molecules derived from amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan
 Can further be divided into catecholamines and thyroid hormones
 Thyroid hormones such as thyroxine are hydrophobic
 Catecholamines are hydrophilic; examples include adrenaline and dopamine
(dopamine acts as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone and is secreted by
dopamine cells within the hypothalamus)
o A single hormone can trigger different responses in multiple target cells at the same time.
 Adrenaline (produced by specialised zona fasciculata cells in the adrenal cortex) targets
cardiac muscle cells, vascular smooth muscle cells & glands and organs in digestive system
 Increase of adrenaline in the bloodstream will result in an increase in heart rate and
blood pressure & will decrease digestive function, preparing flight or fight response
 The sensitivity of a cell to a specific hormone depends directly upon the number of receptors that cell had for
that particular hormone. The more receptors for a particular hormone, greater degree of sensitivity that cell
has to the hormone.
o Process of cell detection and responding to a signalling molecule is known as signal transduction
General characteristics signal transduction in hormones depends if hydrophobic or hydrophilic
Signal transduction can be considered in terms of stimulus response model:
1. Reception: detection of hormones by a receptor
2. Transduction: relay of hormones signal into the cell
3. Cellular response: activation of a cellular activity or process

 Reception involves detection of a hormone by a cell

 Receptor detects a hormone that can be located on the surface of the plasma
membrane or in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the cell
o Position of receptor depends if hormone is hydrophobic or hydrophilic
 If Hydrophobic – bind to receptor on nuclear membrane
 If hydrophilic- bind to receptor on plasma membrane
o Receptors are specific and will only bind to a particular hormone
 Transduction involves converting the signal into a form that can be relayed to reach its final
destination within the cell and bring about cellular response. Following transduction
response is initiated. Cellular responses include any cellular activity:
 Activation of genes, enzymes or secretion of other molecules by the cell
o Responses can occur in the Nucleus, cytoplasm or plasma membrane
- Endocrine Glands
o Pituitary gland
 Often called the ‘master gland’ because it produces many of the body’s hormones which
regulate the production of other hormones around the body
 Hormones secreted are also involved in range of cellular processes including:
o Growth, reproduction, lactation, kidney function, skin pigmentation &
regulation of the activity of the thyroid and the adrenal glands
 Pituitary gland has two distinct parts
 Anterior lobe produces and releases hormones
 Posterior lobe does not produce but rather releases into the circulation
 Range of specialised cells found in the pituitary gland capable of producing hormones
 Thyrotropes secrete thyroid stimulating hormone
 Gonadotropes secrete follicle stimulating hormone & luteinising hormone
 Somatotropes secrete growth hormone
 Specialised cells contain specific cellular structures and organelles
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum & Golgi apparatus
o Supports production and export of hormones
 High amounts of mitochondria
o Cells secrete hormones via exocytosis which requires a lot of ATP energy &
increase demands for cellular respiration
o Hypothalamus
 Connects directly to the pituitary gland
 Responsible for detecting internal stimuli from all over the body and determine whether or
not optimal conditions are being maintained
 Internal stimuli trigger the production of releasing hormones from the hypothalamus
 Control and regulate specific hormone production in the pituitary gland
Excretory System

- Function of the Excretory System

o Accumulation of carbon dioxide from cellular respiration and nitrogenous waste from protein break
down can prevent cells from functioning properly
o Function of kidneys is to excrete nitrogenous wastes
 Usually involves loss of water & works closely with circulatory system
 Excretion is the removal of substances that were once part of the organism
 Egestion is the removal of undigested food from the gut via faeces
o Internal environment of animals is the extracellular fluid which has highly regulated composition
o Protein Breakdown process:
 Protein is broken down into Ammonia (NH3: highly toxic, very soluble in water) and the rest is
recycled into carbohydrates & lipids.
 Ammonia converted into Urea (low toxicity, very soluble in water)
 Then converted into Uric acid ( low toxicity, insoluble in water)
- Nature of waste
o During normal activities, animal cells break down and replaced carbohydrates, lipids and proteins,
producing waste products that usually cannot be used by the body.
o Carbon Dioxide
 When carbohydrates or lipids are broken down during cellular respiration to release energy
carbon dioxide and water are produced
 Release into surrounding environment across membranes in the respiratory system
o Nitrogenous Wastes
 Protein consists of amino acids which contain nitrogen
 When amino acids are broken down nitrogenous parts are split off and remainder of the
molecule is converted back into carbohydrates or lipids which can be used for energy
 Remaining nitrogenous wastes must be remove from cell before they become toxic

Excretory System in Mammals

- Kidneys
o Function by filtering blood then reabsorbing useful
substances and secreting unwanted ones
 Blood is filtered through blood vessel
walls to form a primary filtrate that has
the same composition as plasma (except
large protein have been filtered out)
 Blood enters the Kidney from the aorta
through the renal artery and leaves
through the renal vein
o Nephrons: functional units of the kidney
 Bowerman’s capsule surrounds a
glomerulus consisting of the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle and distal convoluted
tubule which leads to the collecting tubule.
 Glomerulus: clump of looping capillaries that have a thin layer of flattened
endothelial cells embedded into Bowerman’s capsule & network of capillaries
wrapped around the remainder of the tubule
 Formation of urine involves passive filtration, selective reabsorption and secretion
 The nephron takes out everything and then puts back what is useful
  Two distinct regions in the kidney: outer cortex and inner medulla
 Glomeruli are located in cortex.
o Narrow diameter, large surface area and close contact with the Bowman’s
capsule ensure a fast filtering process
o Blood vessel walls contain numerous pores (fenestrae) which allow the free
filtration of fluid, plasma solutes and small protein molecules
o Not large enough that red blood cells can pass through
o Outside surface of Glomerular capillaries is lined with podocyte cells
 Group of specialised cells that form tissue control filtration of
protein molecules.
 Form a tissue like layer and have specialised branching structures
allow cells to wrap around capillaries to increase surface area
available for exchange of waste materials.
 If the walls of the glomerular capillaries are damages in a diabetic
patient, it can allow larger protein molecules to pass into urine
(nephropathy)
o Filtration: occurs across glomerulus into Bowman’s capsule
 High pressure of blood in glomerular blood vessels forces force fluid through walls of
glomerular capillaries and into the Bowmans capsule
 Only small molecules and water can pass through wall mebranes
 Blood cells and large blood proteins remain behind in the glomerular capillaries
 (primary filtrate)
 If red blood cells or large proteins were found in urine, indicates normal filtration
mechanism has broken and blood is leaking from the glomerulus into the bowman’s
capsule
o May occur as a result of damages glomerular blood vessels or very high
blood pressure
o Reabsorption: approximately 99% of primary filtrate (salts, amino acids, water, half or less of urea)
undergoes reabsorption along the length of the nephron.
 All amino acids and glucose are reabsorbed convoluted tubules by active transport against a
concentration gradient.
 Specific salts (sodium chloride) are actively reabsorbed (active processes consume energy)
 Presence of glucose or amino acids in the urine indicate kidney malfunction
 Water is reabsorbed from urine passively along osmotic gradient
 Mechanism which kidney is able to produce concentrated urine involved loop of Henle
 Large amount of sodium chloride pumped out of loop of Henle is retained in the
medullary region of the kidney producing very high salt concentration
 Osmotic concentration within kidney increases from outer cortex to medulla
 When urine passes down collecting tubule towards ureter passes through region of high salt
concentration
 Collecting tubule is permeable to water but not to salt water passes from collecting
tubule back into kidney and into blood vessels
o Urine becomes more concentrated
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) from pituitary gland increase permeability of collecting
tubule to water, increasing reabsorption of water
o Secretion: active removal (excretion) of substances by the cells in the tubular walls
 Ammonium, potassium and hydrogen ions are actively secreted into convoluted parts of the
tubules.
 Substances such as penicillin & aspirin added to filtrate as it passes through the nephron
 -------------CHAPTER 5------------

Gas Exchange in Vascular Plants

- Plant cells loosely packed

o Allow rapid diffusion of gases through intracellular spaces (filled with air)
o During Gas exchange oxygen and carbo dioxide diffuse from these air spaces through the water film
covering the cells and into the cells along concentration gradients
 Diffusion can also occur against the concentration gradient
- Controlling Guard cells
o Guard cells have the following structural features relating to their function
 Joined at their ends in pairs
 Cell walls are thicker on the side closer to stoma
 Bands of inelastic fibres run around each cell wall
o Process of Guard cells opening:
 Water passes into the guard cells and internal fluid pressure (turgor)
 Causes them to expand lengthways
 Guard cell buckles and stoma opens
o Stoma acts to balance the plant’s need to obtain carbon dioxide against the dangers of drying out due
to loss of water from leaves.
o Conditions that favour the opening of stomata are abundant water, bright light and low internal
carbon dioxide concentrations
- Stems and Roots
o In the epidermis of green stems there are stomata through which gas exchange takes place
o Woody stems and mature roots; epidermis is replaced y a layer of cork cells that are waterproof and
airproof.
 Air passes freely through group of loosely packed cells called lenticel

Movement of Water and Solutes

- Vascular tissue transports water and mineral ions (from soil) and sugar (from leaves) to cells throughout the
plant.
o Vascular tissue forms continuous, closed tubular pathways through roots, stems and leaves

- Root Absorption
o Extracellular Pathway
 Most water and some mineral ions pass through or between cell walls
o Cytoplasmic Pathway
 Most mineral ions and some water pass through cytoplasm of living root cells
 Involves substances entering root hair cell by crossing cell’s plasma membrane and passing
from cell to cell through channels called plasmodesmata
 Three types of transport that move substances across plasma membrane across cytoplasmic
pathways are as follow:
 Active transport
o Most dissolved mineral ions selectively taken into roots by active transport
o Proteins in plasma membrane of root cells (specific for each ion)
o Concentration of ions in vascular tissue can be more than 100 times
concentration in water of surrounding soil
  Osmosis
o High concentration of ions in vascular tissue of terrestrial plants (large
osmotic gradient)
 Osmotic gradient: difference between concentration of solutions on
either side of semi-permeable membrane
o Large amounts of water move into root cells along osmotic gradient
 Diffusion
o Some mineral ions (potassium, phosphate) enter roots through diffusion
o Uptake of nutrients depends on rate of water uptake
o Entering Xylem
 Between roots & xylem is a waterproof layer of cells that form barrier called Casparian strip
 At this barrier water travelling through extracellular pathway is forced into cytoplasm
 Casparian strip ensures regulation of substances entering xylem
o Root Pressure
 In some plants osmotic gradient draw in so much water they can travel up to 10 metres up
stem (known as root pressure)
 Root pressure causes rising of sap (water & mineral ions) does not occur in all plants
o Transpiration
 Transpiration is the passive movement of water through a plant from roots (includes
evaporation through stomatal pores in leaves)
 Plant uses a small amount of water for metabolic processes but 99% of water is absorbed by
roots and lost via transpiration
 Transpiration is a passive process
 Does not require energy expenditure by plant
 Driven by heat energy in sunlight which breaks cohesive bonds between water
molecules allowing evaporation through stomata
Chapter 5.1
Chapter 5.2