Private Pilot License

Flight Training Essentials

Theory and Procedures

Francis Hane

© 2021
v. 3.0
 Preface

When I began writing these notes as a flight instructor, I

wanted to distill down, to the bare minimum, the procedures
and background knowledge the student required to
successfully begin a lesson. These notes were part of the
school syllabus that every student received at the beginning
of their flight training. Over time, I adapted these notes to
serve as reminder lesson plans that I could reference when
conducting preparatory ground instruction.

In this recent version, I added some theory of flight pages (A,

B, C, etc.). These pages are a bit dense, but if you’re a bit of a
geek like I am and the incorrect and dumbed down info in most
pilot texts doesn’t suit your fancy, this should whet your
appetite. If the intro material (A, B, C, etc.) is completely over
your head, don’t worry about it. I’d like to thank John Denker
(www.av8n.com) for the information and diagrams. I never
properly learned how a wing develops lift until I read and
understood Denker.

Lastly, I’d be remiss to mention that some of the figures

contained herein are taken from some fantastic loose-leaf
lesson plans that I found written by a guy named J. Thompson
from Voyageur Airways in 1984. If you’re J. Thompson, thanks
for the awesome cartoons!

Safe Flying,
Francis Hane
[email protected]
A Energy Management
Energy: quantitative property that must be transferred to a
body to perform work on, or heat, that body.
Power: the rate of doing work (P=W/t).
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed – only transformed.
Push-over

Potential Energy Kinetic Energy

(Altitude) (Airspeed2)

Pull-Up
Climb Rocket re-entry!

0
Chemical Energy Thermal Energy
(Fuel) (Heat)

Combustion

Potential Energy  Kinetic Energy trade-off – 9’/kt per 100 kts.

Measurement Instruments
Energy Power
Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator
Airspeed2 Tachometer
Fuel Quantity Fuel Flow

• Stable approach to landing

is a linear reduction in
energy (potential energy
gradually decreases, while
kinetic energy is constant).
• Kinetic energy is a function
of airspeed2. Being a bit
slow requires more power
to correct than being a bit
low.
B Lift
How a Wing does NOT Produce Lift:
• The air around the top of the wing speeds up so that it
meets up with the air at the bottom at the same time.
• It’s like when you hang a spoon under a faucet.
How a Wing DOES Produce Lift:
• When you stick your hand out the window of a moving car.

• Streamlines cannot cross.

• Streamlines are compressed
in higher velocity regions.
• Free stream pressure is ~0.2
psi at 100 knots. This is the
maximum pressure in the
system and is the pressure at the front stagnation point.

• The shape of the wing exerts a force on the air forcing the
air along a curved path. This causes the air to accelerate
around the top of the wing (circulation effect) and
decelerate around the bottom of the wing (obstacle effect).
• Air that accelerates to a higher velocity has lower pressure
(conservation of momentum - Bernoulli theorem).
• Air has mass and momentum and therefore velocity
information can be converted to pressure information. A
curved streamline (air accelerating) corresponds to a
pressure gradient. (Note curvature and pressure gradient.)

Velocity Pressure
• Note the maximum pressure (~0.2 psi @ 100 knots) at the
stagnation point (max. deflection-curving of air).
Circulation
• Let’s begin with an imaginary paddle wheel aircraft
travelling forward.
• Will this “wing” produce lift? YES!!
Lift ∝ Circulation • Velocity
• Surprisingly the airflow around a
real wing also has “circulation”.
• Think of a paddlewheel in the middle of the wing’s
airflow. The upper airflow is moving faster than the
bottom airflow. The paddlewheel will turn clockwise.
• The airflow does not make a turn at the trailing edge
because the TE curvature is too steep (Kutta condition).
• As AOA increases, increased circulation is needed to meet
the Kutta condition.
• Kutta-Joukowski Theorem:
L = Γ • ρ • s • V (lift equals circulation • density • span • velocity)

• To measure the circulation, measure the velocity of air at

various equidistant points along an imaginary circle around
the airfoil, multiplying by the distance between the points
and add up all the values*. Note that the slower air on the
bottom of the wing will have negative values because the
airflow is opposite the direction of the loop.
Velocity along this point (V) x infinitesimal distance (ds)
(add up these products to get circulation - Γ)

If you don’t
understand you can
never be a pilot �

𝛤𝛤 = − � 𝑉𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − �(∇ × 𝑉𝑉) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= ½ 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 ∙ 𝑉𝑉 (units: m2/s)
* Yes I know my dumbed down interpretation of the line integral isn’t exactly right.
L = ½ CL ρ span chord V2 = Γ ρ span V
Γ = ½ CL chord V
Wing Tip Vortices
• Circulation comes off the wing tip as a vortex.
• Vortices are a by-product of circulation (in fact the vortex
is the circulation coming off the end of the wing) and are
absolutely necessary for the production of lift.
• The strength of the vortex is exactly proportional to the
lift produced. See equation above.
• If you wanted to measure lift, you could measure the
vorticity (i.e., circulation) of the vortex and multiply by
span, air density and velocity.
• Vortex is strongest when circulation is the highest –
maximum lift at low speed (high AOA on rotation).
C Angle of Attack
Angle of Attack (AOA): angle
between the relative airflow
and wing chord (angle that air
hits the wing).
• Almost everything depends on AOA – airspeed, lift produced,
drag, etc.
• Coefficient of lift increases
linearly with AOA, then drops
at the critical angle. Drag
increases exponentially with
AOA increase.
• Airspeed is inversely related
to AOA. A high airspeed will
result in a low AOA while a low
airspeed will have a high AOA.
• Don’t chase airspeeds and rates of climb. Aim for pitch
attitudes that, on average, the aircraft will achieve a given
airspeed and rate of climb.
𝑊𝑊
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = CL=coefficient of lift, W=weight,
𝜌𝜌 ∙ 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 ∙ 𝑉𝑉 2
ρ=air density, WA=wing area, V=velocity
• A C150 (1600 lbs) will require a CL of 0.6 (AOA 5°) for flight
at 70 kts and CL of 0.35 (AOA 1°) at 90 kts.
• At a given speed, adding power will increase the pitch angle
and rate of climb, but the AOA will remain the same.
• The trim control can be thought of as an AOA (or airspeed)
selector. If the trim is constant, the aircraft will tend to
return to the “selected” airspeed after a disturbance via a
series of oscillations.
• It is rare that you need to push forward on the controls.
Rather, to pitch down at low speeds, control back
pressure is released (stall recovery, levelling in ground
effect).
D Aircraft Performance
• Aircraft performance is dependent on AOA + Excess power.
• Induced drag is a function of lift.
• Di ∝ 1/V2
• Parasite drag caused by form drag &
skin friction. Dp = 1/2•CD•ρ•WA•V2
• Min. drag (L/Dmax) is at the speed for
best range.
• We can multiply drag vs V curve by V
to get power required as a function of
V.
• Best rate of climb (Vy) is at the
greatest difference between power
required and power available.
• Stall Speed (Vs0) and top speed occur
where the power available and power
require curves cross.

• V vs rate of climb can be plotted for a given power setting.

• 500 fpm descent
at 80 knots at
1700 RPM (A).
• The plane is level
at 80 knots at
2000 RPM (B) and
climbing at 500 fpm at 2300 RPM (C).
• Leaving the power at 2300 RPM, but levelling off (D) results
in a cruise of 110 knots. The energy used to gain altitude in
(C) is now used to overcome the increased drag at higher
airspeed.
• If the engine thrust equals drag, (and no energy is lost by
pitching up), the aircraft will remain in level flight.
• Fuel energy is used to pay for the energy lost from drag.
2 Preparation for Flight
Documents Needed for Flight (AROWJIP)
Airworthiness Certificate (C of A)
- Aircraft met airworthiness standards when
manufactured.
- Aircraft must be operated IAW POH, have no
airworthiness defects.
Registration Certificate (C of R)
- Indicates who the aircraft is registered to.
Operating Handbook (POH)
Weight and Balance
- Filled out by AME after equipment removed/installed.
Journey Logbook
- Ensure maintenance done IAW mtc schedule.
- All defects rectified or deferred.
Insurance
- Must be operated IAW CAR’s and POH for insurance to
be valid.
Pilot Licence (including valid Medical)

Map and Canada Flight Supplement Recommended

Things to Do Before Flying

1) Check Weather/NOTAM’s (www.plan.navcanada.ca)
2) Sufficient Fuel?
3) Check Journey Log for defects/maintenance due
4) Weight and Balance
5) Pre-Flight Inspection (Walk Around)
6) Navigation Log (if required)
7) Flight Plan (if required)

Review different parts of

airplane, controls, instruments.
3 Ancillary Controls
Background Theory
Mixture control: As air gets less dense with increasing
altitude, the mixture control allows pilot to adjust fuel:air
ratio to maintain optimum mixture. Optimum is ~1:15 by mass.
Carburetor heat: At high humidity and cooler temperatures,
airflow in venturi in carburetor cools air to below freezing
point leading to the icing up of the carburetor. Hot air from
exhaust shroud is directed into the carburetor.
Cabin Heat: air from around exhaust is directed into the
engine.

Procedure
Mixture control: Once in cruise, slowly turn mixture out and
observe RPM increase. Once RPM starts to decrease, increase
mixture to peak RPM. Alternatively, if you have an EGT gauge,
set the maximum EGT and then enrichen by 75 degrees.
Carburetor Heat: Apply carb heat for 10 seconds every ten
minutes in cruise and prior to landing. Some aircraft are far
more susceptible to carb ice than others (C150>>C172).
Cabin Heat: Monkey cold. Monkey turns heat on. Monkey happy.

IF ENGINE RUNS ROUGH WHEN CARB HEAT IS APPLIED

YOU LIKELY HAVE CARBURETOR ICE WHICH IS MELTING
AND GOING THROUGH THE ENGINE! LEAVE THE CARB
HEAT ON UNTIL ENGINE RUNS SMOOTH!

BEWARE OF CO POISONING FROM CABIN HEAT.

HEADACHE, DIZZINESS, LIGHTHEADEDNESS.
4 Taxiing
Background Theory

Procedure
• Vary taxi speed to suit conditions from slow walk (on
congested ramp) to bicycle speed (long, straight taxiway).
• Don't ride brakes.
• Taxi into headwind: ailerons into wind.
• Tail wind taxi: elevators down, ailerons opposite to wind.
5 Attitudes and Movements
Background Theory
• The basis of all aircraft handling in the air.

Procedure
4 Attitudes
• Cruise Attitude – about 4 fingers below horizon
• Nose Up Attitude – can be gentle, medium, steep
• Nose Down Attitude – can be gentle, medium, steep
• Banked Attitude – can be gentle (15°), medium (30°), steep
(>30°)

3 Movements
• Pitch (lateral axis) controlled by elevators
• Roll (longitudinal axis) controlled by ailerons
• Yaw (normal or vertical axis) controlled by rudder

Causes of Yaw
• Slip stream
• Asymmetric thrust
• Torque
• P-factor & gyroscopic precession
• Turbulence
• Pilot induced

SPEND 90% OF YOUR TIME LOOKING OUTSIDE.

DON’T FOCUS ON INSTRUMENTS!
6 Straight and Level Flight
Background Theory
• In unaccelerated flight, aircraft is in equilibrium.
• Straight flight: constant heading.
• Level flight: constant altitude.

ATTITUDE + POWER = PERFORMANCE!

(Actually AOA + EXCESS POWER = PERFORMANCE)

Magnetic Compass Errors

• Turning Error: Compass lags from northerly headings (may
go wrong way) and leads from southerly headings.
• Acceleration error: On East/West headings, Acceleration-
North, Deceleration-South (ANDS).

Trim
• Trim is used to relieve control pressure.
• Elevator trim can be thought of as an AOA (or airspeed)
selector.
• Aircraft will remain at same airspeed regardless of power.

Procedure
• Use elevator to maintain level flight
• Use ailerons to maintain straight flight
• When increasing airspeed, add power, lower nose to remain
level and trim
• Control yaw with rudder

DON’T GET LAZY DURING STRAIGHT AND LEVEL FLIGHT.

LOOK FOR OTHER TRAFFIC, NAVIGATE, ETC.
7 Climbing
Background Theory
• Rate of climb is a function of excess thrust (NOT excess
lift).
• Climb at enroute, best rate (Vy), best angle (Vx) speeds.
• Increased density altitude (high temperature & elevation)
results in reduced climb performance.
• Weight, flaps, carb heat reduce climb performance.
• Aircraft yaws left (right rudder needed) in climb because
down-going (right) blade has higher angle to airflow than
up-going (left) blade).

Procedure
Entering a Climb
• Attitude – nose up
• Power - Add
• Trim

Level Off
• Attitude – cruise
• Power - reduce
• Trim

- start to level off 10% of rate of climb.

- may need right rudder during climb to counteract torque.

HIGH DENSITY ALTITUDE DRASTICALLY REDUCES ROC!

8 Descending
Background Theory
• Descending is achieved
when drag exceeds
thrust or weight
exceeds lift or a
combination of both.
• Rate of descent can
be controlled using
attitude and power.

Procedure
Entering a Descent
• Power – Reduce (carb heat on if required)
• Attitude – Lower nose to maintain desired airspeed
• Trim

Level off
• Power – add (carb heat off if required)
• Attitude – to cruise attitude
• Trim

Judging Gliding Distance

• Pick a spot on the ground.
• If the spot moves “up” your windshield you will hit the
ground before the spot.
• If the spot moves “down” your windshield you will hit the
ground after the spot.

Balked Approach (aka go-around aka aborted landing)

• Power - full (including carb heat)
• Attitude – arrest descent & accelerate to climb speed
• Flaps up in stages
9 Turns
Background Theory
• Lift is perpendicular to wing, therefore in a turn you need
more lift so vertical component of lift still equal to weight.
• Horizontal component of lift (centripetal force) is
responsible for the turning of the aircraft.
• Higher load factor, angle of attack and therefore stall
speed in turn (2x ie 2G @60°, 1.4x @45°).
• Higher angle results in higher LF, lower radius.

Procedure
• Roll into desired banked attitude
• Coordinate turn with rudder
• Back pressure to maintain altitude
• Add power to maintain airspeed

Steep turns may be precision or non-precision

Steep turns require a HASEL check first

Height – 2000’ AGL
Area – not built up
Security – seatbelts tight, object secure
Engine – mixture rich, check carb heat
Lookout – look both ways for traffic
10 Flight for Range and Endurance
Background Theory
Best Range: Most distance per unit
fuel (min. drag or max L/D) – usually
similar to best glide speed and best
rate of climb.
Best Endurance: Most time per unit
fuel (min. power req.).

• Found in POH charts.

• Factors Affecting Range: wind,
weight, CG, altitude.

Procedure
Best Endurance
• Reduce RPM 100 RPM and note
speed until no longer able to maintain level flight.
• Increase power to return to minimum power and speed.

LEAN MIXTURE!
11 Slow Flight
Background Theory
• Speed between stall and best endurance speed
• High induced drag
• Increasing power slows aircraft
• ~45-55 KIAS in C172
• Symptoms: sluggish controls, stall horn, nose high
• Consider flaps to lower nose
• Occurs on balked landings & performance take-offs

Procedure
Entry
• HASEL check
• Reduce power to 1500 RPM
• Lower 10° - 20° flaps
• Raise nose to reduce airspeed to below best endurance.
• Add power to maintain altitude.

Recovery
• Attitude – lower nose
• Power - Full
• Return to cruise

Climbing/Descending/Turns
• Add rpm to climb, maintain airspeed
• Reduce rpm to descend maintain airspeed
• Climbs/Descents - very small change in pitch
• Requires lots of rudder (climb, turn)
• Add power in turn to maintain altitude
12 Stalls
Background Theory
• Occurs when the angle of attack exceeds the critical angle
and there in no longer sufficient lift to maintain flight.
• An aircraft can stall at any attitude, at any airspeed, and
at any altitude as long as the critical angle is exceeded.
• Factors affecting stalls: weight, CG, power, flaps, load
factor.
• Symptoms: nose high (usually), low airspeed (usually).

AN AIRCRAFT MAY STALL AT ANY ALTITUDE, AT ANY

AIRSPEED, AND AT ANY ATTITUDE, AS LONG AS THE
CRITICAL ANGLE IS EXCEEDED!

Procedure
Entry
• Complete HASEL check
• Set power and flaps as directed
• Raise nose to maintain altitude (don't climb)
• Control Yaw
*At 55 KIAS, you may need to “jerk back” the control column
for a more defined stall.

Recovery
• Attitude – gentle nose down attitude
• Power – full
• Control Yaw - keep wings level with rudder
• Return to cruise & raise flaps
13 Spins
Background Theory
• Occurs when one wing
(down going wing) is more
stalled than the other wing.
• Down going wing has higher
angle of attack.
• Symptoms: low speed, nose
low, high rate of decent,
AI may be tumbled.
• Starts as incipient spin and
progresses to fully developed.
• Aircraft rotates among all 3 axis.

Procedure
Entry
• Power Off
• Controls back to stall
• Full Rudder once plane stalls

Recovery
• Power Idle
• Opposite Rudder
• Ailerons neutral
• Control column forward to break the stall if required
• Level Wings with Ailerons (once spin stops)
• Ease out of dive

MUST BE DONE WITHIN THE UTILITY CATEGORY.

MANY AIRCRAFT ARE NOT CERTIFIED FOR SPINS
AND WILL NOT RECOVER!
14 Spiral Dives
Background Theory
• Wings NOT stalled.
• Symptoms: high and rapidly increasing airspeed, high rate
of decent, increasing G-loading.
• Can occur from poor spin entry or steep turn.
• Usually occurs within 3 minutes following inadvertent entry
into clouds.

Procedure
- instructor will enter from a poor steep turn or bad spin
entry

Recovery
• Power - Idle
• Level Wings with coordinated aileron and rudder opposite
the direction of spiral
• Ease out of Dive

RECOVERY STEPS MUST BE DONE ONE AT A TIME,

NOT ALL AT ONCE!
15 Slipping
Background Theory
• Includes forward slip (to lose altitude), side slip (to
maintain track in a cross wind landing, and slipping turn (to
lose altitude in a turn).
• Turn coordinator will show ball out of center (towards low
wing).

Procedure
Forward slip
• Reduce power.
• Lower one wing with ailerons.
• Maintain a constant track with rudder (you will be tracking
a slightly different direction than your nose is pointing.
• Lower nose to maintain speed.

Side slip
• Lower into wind wing with aileron – aileron corrects for
drift.
• Maintain a constant track with rudder – rudder keeps the
nose of the a/c in line with the centerline.
• Lower nose to maintain speed.

Slipping Turn
• Start a turn with ailerons.
• Apply rudder toward the “up” wing – opposite Recover by
coordinating (input proper rudder-center the ball) turn.
16 Take-off
Procedure
Normal
• Use all available runway.
• Select flaps in accordance with POH.
• Add full power.
• Maintain centerline using rudder, ailerons into wind.
• At rotation speed (55 KIAS), rotate to gentle nose up
attitude and climb at desired airspeed (70-80kt).
• At safe altitude complete After Take Off Checks.

Short Field Take Off

• Consult POH for flap settings and rotation speeds.
• Full brakes, full power.
• If obstacle, climb out at POH recommended speed of best
angle of climb speed, otherwise accelerate in ground
effect.

Soft Field Take Off

• Hold control column fully
back, flaps 10˚.
• Don't stop rolling, add full
power smoothly.
• Keep nosewheel off the ground. (May need to release back
pressure to prevent tail strike.)
• Once airborne, accelerate in ground effect (release back
pressure-DON’T PUSH FORWARD).

- Factors affecting take-off distance are identical to those

affecting climb (+ runway surface).

REFER TO POH FOR EXACT PROCEDURE AND DISTANCES!

17 The Circuit
Procedure
• At a controlled airport (MF), you may join the circuit
wherever directed by ATC.
• At an uncontrolled airport, you must join the circuit
overhead the field (1000’) or on down wind.
• You may need to overfly air field at 1500’ AGL, descend
on the “dead” side to join overhead at 1000’ AGL.

1000’ AGL-
600’ AGL-
Level off
Turn Crosswind
Turn downwind
Cruise power

@safe alt-
After Take-off Checks

1/2 - 3/4 NM Pre Landing Checks

Radio Call

25 Abeam Rwy
Power ~1500 RPM
Slow to flap speed

Final
Flaps as Req’d
Apprch Speed

Flaps 20
Turn Base
Maintain speed
18 Landings
Procedure
Normal Landing
• Approach at 60-70 KIAS, Full flap.
• Power idle over the runway.
• At 10' (about height of wind sock) slowly raise nose.
• Attempt to level the aircraft off 2' off the ground by
smoothly applying back pressure. (Never push forward!)
• Maintain runway centerline using ailerons and rudder (side
slip for a crosswind landing).

Soft Field Landing

• Approach with full flaps at 60 KIAS.
• Flare with about 1200 RPM.
• Hold nose off as long as possible.
• Control column fully back on roll out.

Short Field Landing

• Approach at 60 KIAS full flaps.
• Pick touch down point and flare pt (500' before TD).
• Reduce power so you will touch down at TD point.
• On TD, full brakes, flaps up.
• If obstacle present, aim to cross obstacle at constant,
steep decent angle, reduce power over obstacle and
maintain airspeed.

Balked Landing
• Add power (carb heat off).
• Accelerate to safe climb speed.
• Flaps up (in stages). Climb out normally.

BE AWARE OF ILLUSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH RUNWAY

WIDTH & SLOPE, DARKNESS, RISING TERRAIN!
19 First Solo
Background Theory
• Time to build some confidence!
• No passengers

Procedure
Documents Required:
• Student Pilot Permit
• Medical
• Pilot Training Record signed off

SOLO FLIGHT MAY ONLY BE DONE UNDER THE DIRECT

SUPERVISION AND APPROVAL OF YOUR INSTRUCTOR!
20 Illusions Caused by Drift – Low Flying
Background Theory
• Low level flying with wind gives some strange illusions.
• Stay above 500’ AGL or 1000’ AGL over built up areas
(CAR’s requirement).

Headwind/Tailwind
• Flying with a tail wind make it appear you are going faster
than you are.
• The reverse is also true.

Turns
• When making a 180° from a tailwind into a headwind, it will
appear that you are skidding in the turn.
• When making a 180° from a headwind into a tailwind, it will
appear that you are slipping in the turn.

LOW FLYING IS FUN. IT WILL ALSO KILL YOU VERY

FAST. LOOKOUT FOR OBSTACLES! STAY SAFE! STAY
LEGAL!
21 Precautionary Approaches
Background Theory
• Used for a wide
variety of reasons
where the landing site
cannot be confirmed to
be suitable.
• Could be landing on
skis, seldom used
airstrip, bad wx,
mechanical, low fuel,
etc.

Procedure
1) Select Field
- COWLS (Civilization,
Obstacles, Wind, Length, Surface)
2) High Level Inspection (optional)
- over fly field at 1000' AGL to make preliminary
determination if field is good (wind, civilization)
3) Low Level Inspection*
- 500' AGL or as necessary to inspect
- Flaps 10°, 2000 RPM
- look for obstacles, surface
- REMAIN IN LEVEL FLIGHT!
4) Advise ATC if required (current frequency or 121.5)
5) Brief Passengers
* This exercise is basically 2 circuits with the first at low
level and the second one landing. Give yourself plenty of room
in the circuit.

USE YOUR PILOT DECISION MAKING SKILLS. ADJUST

THE PROCEDURE TO FIT THE SITUATION!
22 Forced Approaches
Background Theory
• Can be caused by carb ice, fuel problems (lacking fuel,
contaminated, etc.), mechanical failure (mags, severe
damage), etc.
• It is always better to wreck the aircraft flying under
control into trees, than spinning the aircraft trying to do
super maneuvers to make an airport.

Procedure
1) Fly the aircraft
- carb heat hot, trim for best glide speed
2) Select Field
- COWLS
3) Plan the Approach
- fly direct to field
– circle the field to
land
4) Cause Check
- primer locked,
mags L/R/Both, carb
heat hot, mixture
rich, check fuel
L/R/Both
5) Mayday Call
- current frequency or 121.5
6) Brief Pax
- tighten belts, secure items, location of ELT, etc
7) Secure Engine
- ignition off, mixture idle cut off, fuel off

DON’T GET CAUGHT UP IN THE PROCEDURE AND MISS

THE FIELD! (#1 REASON FOR FLIGHT TEST FAILURE)
23a Pilot Navigation – Pre-Flight Preparation
Background Theory
• Good pre-flight preparation is key to a successful cross-
country flight.
• You really, really, don’t want to get lost.

Procedure
Information
• Get weather and NOTAM’s from www.plan.navcanada.ca or
Flight Service Station 1(866) WX-BRIEF.

Map Preparation
• Select Set Heading Point
- close to departure point
- allows you to “officially” start navigation
• Course line & halfway marking
- start at set heading point
• 10° drift lines and 10NM markings
• Select Checkpoints
- Easy to identify, approx. every 15 minutes apart
• Look for obstacles

Flight Log
• Nav log
• Fuel Management
• Weight and Balance
• Takeoff and Landing Data
• Use one flight log per leg

Flight Plan
• File online plan.navcanada.ca or call FSS 1(866) WX-BRIEF.

DON’T FORGET TO CLOSE FLIGHT PLAN ON LANDING!

23b Pilot Navigation – En-route Navigation
Procedure
Set Heading Point
• Set heading indicator - just prior to set heading point
• Time over set heading point
• Revise ETA (Actual Time Over + ETE)
• Open flight plan (if required)
• Departure angle check (am I approx. going the right way?)
• Cruise check (carb heat, lean mixture, engine gauges)
• Start reading map

Checkpoints
• Time Over – record on flight log
• Time since set heading point
• Determine ground speed using flight computer
- Distance on outer ring opposite time on inner ring
- GS is on outer ring opposite “60” arrow
• Determine ETE (on inner ring opposite dist. remaining)
• Determine RETA (Actual Time Over + ETE = RETA)
• Cruise check (carb heat, lean mixture, engine gauges)
• Position report with FSS (126.7 or RCO freq.)
• In between checkpoints, can mark “breadcrumbs” on map
with known position & time.

Correcting Track errors

• Visual alteration (go to a landmark on your track)
Opening/closing angle (crab into wind sum of opening and
closing angle)
• Double track error method (correct into wind double your
track error)

FAILURE TO LEAN THE MIXTURE WILL SIGNIFICANTLY

INCREASE FUEL CONSUMPTION!
23c Pilot Navigation – Diversions
Background Theory
• Used for a variety of reasons when you need to change a
destination on the fly.
• Examples include weather, mechanical problems, etc.

Procedure
(circle, circle, draw a line, heading, distance, speed, and time)
• Fly to a landmark (start of diversion)
• Fly outbound on a road, etc. or around the landmark
• Draw track line to revised destination
• Estimate Distance, Heading, Time & Fuel
(time = 2 x distance /3 at 90 Kt GS)
Turn Towards Landmark
• Set heading indicator
• Departure angle check (are you going approx. the right
direction?)
• Note time over landmark
• Revise flight plan
• Brief passengers

At half-way point determine how long since the landmark – you

have this long until you’re at the destination (Revised ETA).

USE YOUR PILOT DECISION MAKING SKILLS!

ADJUST THE PROCEDURE TO FIT THE SITUATION!
24a Instrument Flying – Full Panel
Procedure
Use selective radial scan:
- think of a bicycle wheel with spokes
– the Attitude Indicator is the “hub”, other instruments
are the “spokes”

Straight and Level Flight

Secondary Scan: ASI, VSI, TC,
Engine

Climbing/Descending
Secondary Scan: Alt, VSI, TC,
Engine
On levelling: AI--> Alt, HI

Turns
Secondary Scan: HI, VSI, ASI,
TC, Engine
On straightening: AI-->HI

DON'T FLY INTO CLOUDS UNPLANNED!

THE AVERAGE PILOT WITHOUT AN INSTRUMENT
RATING CRASHES WITHIN 3 MINUTES OF
INADVERTANT FLIGHT INTO IMC!
24b Instrument Flying – Partial Panel
Background Theory
• If you're having a really bad day, your vacuum driven
instruments (AI & HI) will fail.
• Keep in mind compass turning errors, so you will need to
time your turns (rate 1 turn = 2 minutes for 360°).

Procedure
Straight and Level Flight
Secondary Scan: ASI,
Compass, VSI, Engine

Climbing/Descending
Secondary Scan: Alt, VSI,
Compass, Engine
On levelling: TC Alt,
Compass

Turns
Secondary Scan: VSI, ASI,
Engine
- time turn  1 minute does
180
- start time on entering,
straighten at time

IT’S A BAD DAY. STAY CALM AND KEEP WINGS LEVEL.

24c Instrument Flying – Unusual Attitudes
Background Theory
• If you’re having a really, really bad day, you will find
yourself in cloud, in an unusual attitude.

Procedure
Nose Up Recovery
• Lower Nose
• Add Power
• Level Wings – use turn coordinator

Nose Down Recovery

• Power Idle
• Level Wings – use turn coordinator
• Ease out of Dive

LET’S BE HONEST – BY NOW IT’S TOO LATE. IF YOU

WEREN’T SMART ENOUGH TO STAY OUT OF THE CLOUDS
AND YOU WEREN’T SKILLED ENOUGH TO KEEP THE
WINGS LEVEL, IT’S VERY UNLIKELY THAT YOU’RE LUCKY
ENOUGH TO RECOVER FROM THE UNUSUAL ATTITUDE
THAT YOU’RE NOW IN. SORRY ABOUT THE TRAGIC
ENDING☹
24d Instrument Flying – Radio Aids
Background Theory
• VOR is VHF, is position sensitive and works on “radials”.
• ADF is LF/MF, is heading sensitive and works on bearings.
• GPS is position sensitive and works off satellite
triangulation.

Procedure
VOR
• Tune and Identify station
• Select Radial to fly
- inbound radial on bottom, TO
flag
- outbound radial on top, FROM
flag
• Turn to intercept radial
• Once CDI is in the middle, follow it

ADF
• Tune and Identify station
• Turn to intercept desired
bearing
• Magnetic Heading + Relative
Bearing = Bearing to Station

GPS
• Enter waypoint under “Direct-To” function
• Fly so your track is the same as the course to station
• Follow CDI

GPS’ ARE TECHNOLOGICAL MARVELS. BECOME VERY

FAMILIAR WITH ALL OF THE FEATURES OF YOUR GPS.
29 Emergency Procedures
Background Theory
• Review all emergency procedures in POH.
• Generally, if something fails or catches fire, turn it off.
- eg. electrical fire – turn off the electrics (master, etc)
- engine fire – turn off the engine (fuel, mixture, etc)

Engine Fire During Start

• Continue cranking
• Full throttle – run at 1700 RPM for a few minutes
• Fuel off
• Mixture idle cut-off
• Fire Extinguisher

Engine Fire in Flight

• Mixture idle cutoff
• Fuel off
• Airspeed 85 KIAS

Electrical Fire/Smoke
• Master switch off
• Electrics off
• Fire extinguisher

Alternator Over Voltage

• Master switch off
• Master switch on
• If over voltage light on, terminate flight

Ammeter Discharge
• Alternator off
• Non-essential electrical equipment off
REGULARILY REVIEW EMERGENCIES IN POH!
30 Radio Communication
Procedure
At Ramp
Pilot: Thunder Bay Ground, this is Cessna 172 GABC with
information ___ (letter used in ATIS)
ATC: GABC this is Thunder Bay Ground
Pilot: ABC at the flying club request taxi clearance for
_______(circuits, Kakabeka Falls, etc)
- ATC will issue instructions, read back hold short instructions

At Runway ready for Take Off

Pilot: Thunder Bay tower ABC ready for Departure
ATC: ABC cleared for take off runway 25, fly runway heading
Pilot: Maintain runway heading ABC

Downwind
Pilot: ABC left downwind runway 25 touch and go

Inbound
Pilot: Thunder Bay Tower, this is Cessna 172 GABC with
information ___ (letter used in ATIS)
ATC: GABC this is Thunder Bay Tower
Pilot: ABC 10 miles to the north, 3500’, inbound for landing,
last departed Dryden
- ATC will provide instructions

DON’T LET RADIO COMMUNICATIONS DISTRACT YOU

FROM FLYING THE AIRPLANE.
AVIATE! NAVIGATE! COMMUNICATE!
“3 Things” Philosophy for a Successful Flight Test

There are a lot of tasks to complete for each exercise.

However, let’s take the flight test exercises and come up with
the 3 most important things that you need to do (other than
flying the airplane). Verbalize these items to your flight test
examiner. Practice by verbalizing to yourself when solo.

Pre-flight: weather/NOTAM’s, weight & balance, pax brief

After Start: ATIS, set altimeter, set HI
Taxi: brake check, instrument check, ailerons into wind
Take-Off: go/no go point, takeoff power, airspeed alive
Circuit: square circuit, downwind checks, radio calls
Landing: note aim point, go around point, maintain centerline
Pre-Flight Navigation: Nav log, weather/NOTAM’s, flight plan
Departure Procedure: Set HI, open flight plan, mixture lean
En-route: revise ETA, position report, carb heat
Steep Turn: HASEL/lookout check, add power, center ball
Slow Flight: HASEL/lookout, carb heat, control yaw
Stall: HASEL/lookout, control yaw, gentle nose down attitude
Spin: HASEL/lookout, aggressive entry, ease out of dive
Spiral Dive: power idle, level wings, ease out of dive
Slip: maintain track, lower nose, lots of rudder
*Note: you MUST do a HASEL check prior to the first upper
air work exercise. After that, maintain a look out and
continuously ask the examiner “clear on your side”.
Forced Approach: mayday call, cause check, passenger brief
Precautionary Approach: large circuit, level on inspection,
notify ATC
Diversion: set HI, ETA, fuel on arrival - “circle-circle draw a
line, heading distance speed and time”
Instrument Flying: scan with attitude indictor as “hub”,
maintain altitude/heading, clear turns with safety pilot
Procedures Cheat Sheet
Slow Flight Pre-Flight Navigation
• Reduce Power ~1500 RPM • Prepare Map
• Control Yaw • Check Weather/NOTAM’s
• Add power to maintain altitude • Flight Log
• Flight Plan
Stall
• Reduce Power Departure Procedure
• Control Yaw • Set Heading Indicator
Upon Stall • Lean Mixture & Cruise Check
• Lower Nose • Open Flight Plan
• Full Power • Departure Angle Check
• Return to Cruise (flaps up) • Record Time
• Revise ETA
Spin
• Power Idle Enroute Procedure
• Neutralize Ailerons • Time Over – mark on flight log
• Opposite Rudder • Determine GS, ETE, RETA
• Ease out of Dive • Set Heading Indicator
• Position Report
Spiral Dive
• Power Idle Diversion
• Level Wings – Ailerons • Select Starting Landmark and
• Ease out of Dive Destination
• Fly Outbound or Around
Precautionary Approach Landmark
• Select Field • Draw Track
• High Level Inspection • Estimate Distance, Heading,
• Low Level Inspection Time & Fuel
• Advise ATC Turn Towards Landmark
• Brief Passengers • Set Heading Indicator
• Departure Angle Check
Forced Approach • Start Time over Landmark,
• Fly aircraft (trim, carb heat) ETA
• Select Field • Advise ATC/Amend Flight Plan
• Plan Approach • Brief Passengers
• Cause Check/Restart • Revise ETA at halfway point
• Mayday call/Squawk 7700 (add time since landmark to
• Passenger Briefing current time)
• Engine Shutdown
Lesson Planning (For the Instructor)
Learning Factors: Readiness, Primacy, Relationship, Exercise, Intensity,
Recency, Effect (incorporate these into all ground and flight lessons)

Demonstration-Performance Method: Explanation, Demonstration, Student

Performance, Instructor Supervision, Evaluation

Preparatory Ground Instruction (req’d prior to new material)

• Intro (Aim, Motivation, Outline, Link)
• Threshold Knowledge Test/Review
• Body of Lesson (Theory, Procedures, Factors, Misc., etc.)
• Safety
• Review/Questions

Pre-Flight Briefing (req’d prior to EVERY flight)

• What is going to be accomplished (what exercises, where)
• How it’s going to be accomplished
• Safety Considerations
• Weather, NOTAM’s, airworthiness (defects/inspections in journey jog)

In-Flight
• Review last lesson
• Demonstrate exercise to be taught
• Student performs exercise with instructor prompting
• Repeat with increasing complexity
o Eg: stall power off, stall with power, stall with flaps, stall
partial power + flaps, stall from balked landing
• Instructor supervises student with no prompting
• Demonstrate next exercises for next lesson

Critiquing (instructor flies, student listens)

• What was done well
• Errors
• How to correct errors
(student repeats exercise if major error)

Post-Flight Debrief (req’d following EVERY flight)

• Student assessment of performance
• Review what was accomplished
• Errors and how to correct (general themes, this is NOT a critique)
• Answer Questions
• Assign Study for Next Flight
A CHECK LIST FOR GOOD INSTRUCTION
(For the Instructor)
1. Tell the students specifically what is required of them during the lesson and
at the end of the lesson (the "what" of the introduction).
2. Identify the main teaching points for the student by using aids
3. Tell the student the purpose of the lesson and stress the advantages of the
new knowledge or skill (the "why" of the introduction).
4. Tell students where the lesson fits into the overall picture.
5. Relate the lesson to past and/or future experiences of the student (the
"where" of the introduction).
6. Confirm that students are at the required level before having them learn new
material.
7. Present the new material in stages (8-12 minutes duration).
8. Introduce each stage of the lesson and provide a link or bridge between
stages.
9. Obtain student feedback throughout the lesson.
10. Respond to feedback.
11. Appear enthusiastic about the subject being taught.
12. Use speech variation in rate, volume and pitch.
13. Have students answer questions related to the objective(s) for the lesson
during the presentation of new material.
14. Use correct questioning techniques.
15. Use a variety of training aids to appeal to as many senses as possible
whenever these aids contribute to achieving of the objective(s) of the lesson.
16. Provide sufficient meaningful practice of the main points of the lesson so
that students confidently achieve the objective.
17. Allot time relative to the importance of the teaching point.
18. Identify and correct errors or mistakes made by the students at the time
they occur or as soon thereafter as practicable.
19. Use clearly worded explanations.
20. Deliver the lesson in a logical sequence.
21. Have students carry out speed and/or ability competitions during latter
stages of practice, if suited to the objective(s).
22. Conduct periodic reviews of critical areas of the lesson.
23. Summarize the main points of each stage.
24. Confirm student learning at the end of each stage.
25. Test students on the main points of the entire lesson towards the end of the
lesson.
26. Provide a final summary that links all stages to the objective(s) of the lesson.
27. Re-motivate students by telling how the new knowledge or skill will benefit
them.