INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts and processes data into information and under the control
of instructions stored in its own memory and output or store the results for future use.
NB: An electronic device is a device that depends on the principles of electronics and uses the
manipulation of electron flow for its operation.
Data
Data are raw, unprocessed and unorganized (unstructured) facts and figures that are relatively
meaningless to the user. E.g. number of hours worked by an employee.
Information
Information is derived from data. This is data that is processed, organized/structured and presented in a
given context so as to make it useful. e.g., multiplying the hours worked by the hourly rate to get each
employee’s gross earning. Information is an important component in decision making.
For example, from a student’s test scores, the following information can be derived:
Class average score
Most improved student
Median Score etc.
USES OF INFORMATION
(a) Decision-making
When managers are ready to make choices (decisions) they need good, accurate and up-to-date
information. If they act without relevant information it could lead to disaster, and failure.
(b) Monitoring and control
Businesses will compare actual performance against its predicted (budgeted) performance. Then they
will act upon it.
Information Communication Technology/Technologies (ICT)
ICT is an umbrella term that covers any software or hardware product that can store, retrieve,
manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form. Examples include personal
computers, digital television, email, robots, radio, cellular phones and networking hardware.
For our study, we are concerned with computer (hardware and software) and telecommunications
technology (data, image, and voice networks).
Information System (IS)
An Information System (IS) is a combination of hardware, software, personnel, data and procedures that
interact to support and improve day-to-day operations in an organization. These elements of an
Information System are also known as the components of an Information System.

Characteristics of High-Quality Data

The Audit Commission has identified six key characteristics of good quality data.
a) Accuracy
Data should be sufficiently accurate for the intended use and should be captured only once, although it
may have multiple uses. Data should be captured at the point of activity.
b) Validity
Data should be recorded and used in compliance with relevant requirements, including the correct
application of any rules or definitions. This will ensure consistency between periods and with similar
organizations, measuring what is intended to be measured.
c) Timeliness
Data should be captured as quickly as possible after the event or activity and must be available for the
intended use within a reasonable time period. Data must be available quickly and frequently enough to
support information needs and to influence service or management decisions.
d) Relevance
Data captured should be relevant to the purposes for which it is to be used. This will require a periodic
review of requirements to reflect changing needs.
e) Completeness
Data requirements should be clearly specified based on the information needs of the organization and
data collection processes matched to these requirements.
f) Uniqueness
In order to add value to an organization, information must be unique and distinctive.

A BRIEF COMPUTER HISTORY

The abacus, which emerged about 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in use today, may be
considered the first computer. This device allows users to make computations using a system of sliding
beads arranged on a rack; it was simply a counting device.
It took long for the next significant advance in computing devices to emerge. In 1642, Blaise Pascal
(1623-1662), the 18-year-old son of a French tax collector, invented what he called a numerical wheel
calculator to help his father with his duties but which used eight movable dials to add sums up. It was
not until the 1940s that the electronic computers emerged.
In the 1820s, Charles Babbage designed the ‗Difference Engine’, a machine which could perform
mathematical calculations. A six-wheeled model was initially constructed and demonstrated to a number
of audiences. He also worked on another invention, the more complex Analytical Engine, a
revolutionary device which was intended to be able to perform any arithmetical calculation using
punched cards that would deliver the instructions, as well as a memory unit to store numbers and many
other fundamental components of today's computers. Lady Ada produced programs to be used by the
analytical machine. She is claimed to be possibly the first programmer.
Five Generations of Modern Computers
Modern computers can be classified into five generations.

First generation: 1946-1959.

First generation of computers started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory
and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric bulbs produced a lot of heat
and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be
afforded only by very large organizations. The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
(ENIAC) was announced in 1946. It cost almost $500,000 (approximately $6,000,000 today). The
computer contained 17,468 vacuum tubes and consumed 150 kW of electricity.
Another example of computers in this generation was the UNIVersal Automatic Computer I
(UNIVAC) which used 5200 vacuum tubes and weighed 13 metric tons. It consumed 125 kW, and could
perform about 1,905 operations per second.
In this generation mainly batch processing of data was done. In this generation Punched cards, Paper
tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used. It is said that this computer weighed 30 tons,
and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which were used for processing. When this computer was turned on for
the first-time lights dimmed in sections of Philadelphia. Computers of this generation could only
perform a single task at a time, and they had no operating system.
NB: Batch processing- Executing a series of non-interactive jobs all at one time.

Second generation: 1959-1965.

Computers in this generation using the transistor were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact
in size, more reliable and faster than the first-generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this
generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as
secondary storage devices.
In this generation assembly languages and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN and
COBOL were used. Examples of computers in this generation include IBM 300 series and the ATLAS.
NB: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical
power.
The difference between a transistor and a vacuum tube is that a transistor uses a sandwich of silicon
instead of tube filled with gas to do the switching. Silicon falls into a family of elements that are neither
conductor nor insulator; they’re called semiconductors. This type of element will be either a conductor
or an insulator depending on some condition. In the case of transistors, an electrical current will cause
the silicon to be a conductor.

Third Generation: 1965-1971.

The third generation of computers is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of
transistors. A single I.C has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and
efficient.
In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming Operating
System were used. High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC,
ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation
NB:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element.
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used
to store energy electrostatically in an electric field.

Fourth Generation: 1971-1980.

The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their associated
circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth
Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise
to personal computer (PC) revolution.
In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were used. All the
High-level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation

Fifth Generation: 1980-todate.

In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration) technology,
resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components or more.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software.
AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers
think like human beings. All the Higher-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this
generation

THE TREND IN THE COMPUTER’S TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION

Continual decrease in computer size
Improved speed and power of processing
Decrease in computer’s power consumption and its related facilities cost
Number of components per circuit (IC) greatly increased.

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

Processing capability/Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of
processing, measured as number of instructions executed per second.
Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they will always give
correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the inaccuracies, which could arise
due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected and their consequences avoided in a way,
which is completely transparent to the user.
Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce exactly the same
answer every time that particular process is repeated.
Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure of one of the
components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.
Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data.
Computer can operate in risky environments e.g. volcanic sites, lethal chemical plants, where it’s risky
for humans to operate.
Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired.
Helps to cut on wage bills by reducing manpower.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS

  Initial cost of installation is high
 Can result to retrenchment of staff
 Computerization projects are not always cost-effective
 In case the computers break down or malfunction, it might be extremely difficult to revert back
to the old manual system. For this reason, stand by procedures are necessary, but expensive.
 Can compromise security of data stored or being transmitted.
 Computerization leads to cyber-crime e.g. hacking and data theft
 They present a health hazard for example eye strain, trigger-finger syndrome and addiction
 Due to the rapid change in the computer technology, the computer and related facilities can
become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss and cost of upgrading.

Functions of ICT in an organization

- It increases operational efficiency
- Enhances employee productivity
- Improves customer service
- Increases customer satisfaction
- Promote effective decision making
- Enables development of competitive products
- Enables Strategic Planning for future expansion

Classification of computers
Computer systems come in various sizes types and for different purposes. Some occupying large space
while some are small fitting. Hence computers can be classified into: purpose, data handling and Size.
Classification by purpose
This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.
Special purpose/ Dedicated computers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in medicine,
engineering, manufacturing. Embedded systems are examples of special purpose computers.
General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks e.g. accounting, word processing
etc.

Classification by way of processing data (Type of data handled)

This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.
Digital computers
Digital computers process data represented in binary format using the numbers 0 and 1. They are used
for both business data processing and scientific purposes since digital computation results in greater
accuracy than analog computers. They also can perform complex computations. They are the most
commonly used type of computers.
Analog computers
These are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled purposes. Outputs are represented in
the form of graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by physical variables and output
physical magnitudes in the form of smooth graphs. These physical changes include changes in electronic
voltages, pressure changes, temperature changes etc. Analog values, unlike digital values, are typically
many values in a range. Examples of analogue devices include car speedometer and the slide rule.
Hybrid computers
Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of digital and analog computers;
hybrid computing offers both speed and precision. They offer an efficient and economical method of
working out special problems in science and various areas of engineering.
Consider the difference between two common types of light switches: a standard light switch and a
dimmer switch. The standard light switch has only two values: on and off. As a rule, at any one time the
switch will be in either one position or the other. This is similar to digital electrical signals, which have
discrete values (like on and off). By way of comparison, the dimmer switch starts at off, but can be
changed gradually to stronger and stronger intensities, up to the full-on setting. At any one instant, a
dimmer switch can have a setting almost anywhere between on and off. This is similar to an analog
electrical signal, which may be on or off or somewhere in between.
NB/ The main feature that distinguishes digital from analog computers is the nature of the signals.
Digital signals have two discrete states, on or off. Analog signals are continuous. An analog signal ‘s
voltage may be constant or vary with time.
Classification by size
Super computers
These are the most powerful, fastest and most expensive computers. Only a few of these
are manufactured each year because only a few organizations need and can afford their
processing capabilities. They have large memories and high processing speeds so fast that
they can process nearly a billion transactions per second and nearly a trillion arithmetic
operations at the same time. They apply parallel processing.
Application
 Worldwide weather forecasting and analysis of weather phenomena
 Produce images that can be incorporated into movies
 Aircraft design
 Mathematical research
Main frames
These are large, general-purpose computers which can serve 100 or more end users.
They are fast with large storage capacities.
Application
 Processing of high-volume batch applications eg in banks
 Management of very large centralized databases
 To control access, interpret queries and retrieve & update records
 Ideal for transaction processing, financial applications, payroll calculations
 airline reservations.
Mini computers
 These are computers which are neither too big nor too small in size
 They are designed to accommodate more than one user
 They are a bit costly than micro computers
 Their processing speed is a bit faster than micro computers
 They have a large storage capacity than microcomputers and lesser than mainframe computer
Micro computers
 These are computers that are small in size
 They are designed for single user
 They have low processing speed
 They are less costly compared to others
 They have small processors
  They have small storage capacity
Desktops
 These are a type of microcomputers also called Personal Computers (PCs).
 They are compact, powerful and versatile machines
 They generally serve a single user
 The desktop type may be one integral unit having monitor and CPU or may be separate (Tower
units)
Laptops
 These are powerful portable computers
 They are designed for single user
 They have low processing speed
 They are less costly compared to others
 They have small processors
 They have small storage capacity
 They use battery when not connected to main electricity
Palm tops/microcontrollers/
Also called hidden, embedded, dedicated computers
They are restricted to perform a restricted number of tasks eg calculators
Examples of computers in this category include:
OTHERS
LAPTOPS
Are among the smallest in modern world and have very large-scale circuit integration. They have low
memory and are portable.
The main difference between the microcomputer and the laptop is the size.
They are portable.
Expandability and the number of devices supported by the laptops are also limited
They run on battery power, but can also be plugged into a wall outlet.
They typically have a built-in LCD display that folds down to protect the display when the computer is
carried around.
They also feature a built-in keyboard and some kind of built-in pointing device (such as a touch pad).

PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANT (PDA)

It is a handheld microcomputer that trades off power for small size and greater portability.
They typically use a touch-sensitive LCD screen for both output and input (the user draws characters and
presses icons on the screen with a stylus).
PDAs communicate with desktop computers and with each other either by cable connection, infrared (IR)
beam, or radio waves.
PDAs are normally used to keep track of appointment calendars, to-do lists, address books, and for
taking notes.

PALMTOP OR HANDHELD PC
It is a very small microcomputer that also sacrifices power for small size and portability. These devices
typically look more like a tiny laptop than a PDA, with a flip-up screen and small keyboard.
They may use Windows CE or similar operating system for handheld devices.
Some PDAs and palmtops contain wireless networking or cell phone devices so that users can check e-mail
or surf the web on the move.

POSITIVE EFFECTS OF ICT IN THE SOCIETY

Industry and commerce
It has made the industry and commerce more efficient, productive and reliable
Leading companies use computer technology as a competitive tool to develop new products and services
They are used in manufacturing to schedule operations and process control

Health care
Used in medical automation in the areas of automatic diagnosis, electro-cardiogram screening and
monitoring
Storage of medical records on patients
Used in inter-country aided surgeon operations

Government Institutions
Used heavily in government ministries such as finance, planning & education to store records and improve
work efficiency
Education and research
Used in education as training aid, and in research institutions. Long distance learning (e-learning) has
replaced the old international correspondence courses offered by postage.
It is used in aviation to train pilots using flight simulators.
Engineers and architects use computers to design, test and re-design.

Communication Industry
In telecommunication industry, it is used in control of exchange switch
Railway corporations rely heavily on computers to co-ordinate the movement of their wagons and goods
Air traffic controllers use it for airspace surveillance using radar equipment

Police and defense

Computers are currently used in fighting crime
Police are capable of keeping database of finger prints which are automatically analyzed by computers
Integration of computer technology and defense has produced modern military

Home and leisure (entertainment)

Computer can be used for home shopping
There are also entertainment information for those looking for leisure as well as a host of games
They have also been used to help handicapped e.g. instant speech are turned into text on the screen to help
deaf, while text are turned into simulated speech for the blind

Employment
Employment in the computer industry worldwide has increased by 20% during 1980s to higher percentages
In South East Asia countries, 60% of employment opportunities are today in the computing industry.

Negative Effects of ICT in the Society

Lack of Social Skills

The use of online social media outlets causes us to meet face-to-face with much less frequency resulting in a
lack of much needed social skills. We lose the ability to read body language and social cues in other people.
Excessive use of ICT poses a health hazard
Technology creates the perfect recipe for depression with the lack of human contact, overeating and lack of
exercise. This will lead to depression, obesity, sleep disorders, eye strain, back pains etc.
Other resultant disorders include Internet addiction disorder (IAD) commonly called problematic internet
use (PIU) or compulsive internet use (CIU). Other overlapping terms include internet overuse, problematic
computer use or pathological computer use – and even disorder. These terms refer to excessive computer
use that interferes with daily life.
Internet addiction includes
Cybersexual addiction: compulsive use of adult websites for cybersex and cyber porn.
Cyber-relationship addiction: Over-involvement in online relationships.
Net compulsions: Obsessive online gambling, shopping or day-trading.
Information overload: Compulsive web surfing or database searches.
Computer addiction: Obsessive computer game playing.
Pollution
E-waste is not always disposed of properly, causing deadly chemicals to leach into the ground. Plants that
manufacture the electronics are emitting toxic fumes into the air.

Higher energy consumption

People don’t turn their devices off; they keep computers on or plugged in, mobile devices charging and
televisions plugged in. Also manufacturing all of these high-tech toys cause an increase in greenhouse gas
emissions.

Lack of Social Boundaries

Much in the same way that people over share on social media sites, there is an increasing tendency to cross
social boundaries. Cyber stalking someone or sending unsolicited nude photos are examples of crossing
social boundaries.

Encourages the culture of violence

After people lose empathy and are accustomed to violence, it becomes the social norm

TOPIC 2
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hardware refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide support for major
functions such as input, processing (computation and control), output, secondary storage (for data and
programs), and communication.

System Unit
The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually, it's a rectangular box placed on or underneath
your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process data. The most important of these
components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your
computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that
the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is
turned off.
Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into
specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not part of the system
unit is sometimes called a peripheral device. Peripheral devices can be external such as a mouse,
keyboard, printer, monitor, external Zip drive or scanner or internal, such as a CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive
or internal modem. Internal peripheral devices are often referred to as integrated peripherals. There are
two types according to shape: tower and desktop.
A motherboard (mainboard, system board, planar board or logic board) is the main printed circuit
board found in computers and other expandable systems. It holds many of the crucial electronic components
of the system, such as the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides connectors for other
peripherals.
The Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is a high-speed connection to the motherboard for video cards. The
AGP port is faster than a PCI card and doesn’t use the system memory.
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
The Central Processing Unit is the main component of a computer hardware system. It is usually referred to
as the CPU. It consists of three parts. The main part of the CPU is the memory or primary storage, where
data being processed and the programs controlling the computer are contained.
Arithmetic Logic Unit forms the second part of the CPU. The ALU performs the calculations and makes
comparisons between units of data. The last component is the Control Unit (CU), the work of which is to
control the operations of the hardware for example by issuing commands to all elements of the computer as
per the dictations of memory. (e.g from the input devices to memory, from memory to output devices, etc).
The Central Processing Unit determines the power of a computer hardware system which is described in
terms of : (i) Size of Memory, which is measured by the number of characters of data it can store (ii) Speed
of the Control and Arithmetic Logic Unit, which is measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
The work of the various input devices such as terminal keyboard, disk storage units and tape storage units is
to send data into the CPU, whereas the work of the output devices such as printers, visual display units, disk
and tape units is to give out the results from the processing operations. The Central Processing Unit also
“houses” Registers. The latter is a small part in the CPU that holds data before processing or probably after.
They store data to be processed and thereafter partial results.
CPU itself has following three components.
 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other units
of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary
storage or Random-Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of
memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.

The Power Supply unit

Power supplies, often referred to as "switching power supplies", use switcher technology to convert the AC
input to lower DC voltages, a form that is usable by the Personal computer. The typical voltages supplied
are:
3.3 volts
5 volts
12 volts
The 3.3- and 5-volts are typically used by digital circuits, while the 12-volt is used to run motors in disk
drives and fans. The main specification of a power supply is in watts.

Uninterruptible Power Supply

An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup
is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically
mains power, fails. The device allows the computer to keep running for at least a short time when the
primary power source is lost. It also provides protection from power surges. A UPS contains a battery that
"kicks in" when the device senses a loss of power from the primary source.

HARDWARE CATEGORIES (Functional Parts)

A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and information.
Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device. There are five main
hardware components in a computer system: Input, Processing, Storage, Output and Communication
devices.

INPUT DEVICES
Most computers cannot accept data in forms customary to human communication such as speech or hand-
written documents. It is necessary, therefore, to present data to the computer in a way that provides easy
conversion into its own electronic pulse-based forms. This is commonly achieved by typing data using the
keyboard or using an electronic mouse or any other input device.

THE KEYBOARD
Keyboard (similar to a typewriter) is the main input device of a computer (refer to figure 2.2). It contains
three types of keys-- alphanumeric keys, special keys and function keys. Alphanumeric keys are used to
type all alphabets, numbers and special symbols like $, %, @, A etc. Special keys such as <Shift>, <Ctrl>,
<Alt>, <Home>, <Scroll Lock> etc. are used for special functions. Function keys such as <Fl>, <F2>,
<F3> etc. are used to give special commands depending upon the software used e.g.F5 reloads a page of an
internet browser. The function of each and every key can be well understood only after working on a PC.
When any key is pressed, an electronic signal is produced. This signal is detected by a keyboard encoder
that sends a binary code corresponding to the key pressed to the CPU. There are many types of keyboards
but 101 keys keyboard is the most popular one.
1)The Function Keys (F1- F12)
These keys are used to perform specific tasks eg F1 to activate help menu in MS-Word
2) Alphabetic keys
These are keys with alphabetical letters used for typing letters and words.
3) Special keys
These are keys used either alone or in combination with others to perform a function. Eg
Control Keys (Ctrl)
Used as a shortcut to activate task when held down while taping another key eg
Ctrl + C = Copy
Ctrl + S = Save
Ctrl + V = paste
Ctrl + A = Select all
Ctrl + P = Print
Ctrl + Z = Undo
Ctrl + Y = Redo
Ctrl + U = Underline
Ctrl + X = cut
Ctrl + B = Bold
Ctrl + I = italic
Ctrl + N = New window
Alternate Keys (Alt)
They are used as a shortcut to activate a menu or task when held down when
typing another key eg
Alt + I = Inset
Alt + F = File
Alt + E = Edit
Alt + V = View
Alt +O = Format
Alt + A = Table
Alt + W = Window
Alt +H = Help
Alt + Y = Yes
Alt + N = No
Alt + F4 = Close window
Shift Keys (Shift)
Used as a shortcut to activate task when held down while typing another key
e.g.
To change case lower to upper or vice versa (Shift + A = a)
To activate a character on upper part of a key eg (Shift + 2 = @, Shift + /=?)
Num lock;
Used to change the numeric keypad to number entry mode or to directional
arrow keys
Page up (pg. up)
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the top of the page
page down (pg. dn)
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the bottom of the page
home
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the beginning of a line
end
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the end of a line
insert keys
It turns on the typeover or insert mode when insert mode is on, existing text is pushed to the right as new
text is being typed, and when typeover mode is on, existing text is over-written as new text is being typed
over it.
delete key (Del)
It is used to erase a character, space, or any code that is to the right of the cursor
It can also erase selected (highlighted) text, file or folder
Back space
It is used to erase a character, space, or any code that is to the left of the cursor
Caps Lock
It is used to change the keyboard mode from upper case to lower case and vice versa.
If this button has been pressed, a light will appear on the right hand side of the keyboard
Space bar
Adds blank spaces between words, letters, figures etc.
Enter key
Also referred to as Return key used to
accept a selection/action
Insert a blank line between paragraphs, lines etc.
Start a new line
End a line
Tab Key
It is used to indent text to the next tab setting
Escape Key
It is used to cancel dialog box or task being performed
4) Navigation Keys (Directional arrow keys)
They are used to move the cursor (insertion point) as per the direction that is on the key ie,
up, down, left, right
5) Numeric keypad
Enter numbers 0-9

THE MOUSE
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although mice come
in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to
the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail and the connector which can either be PS/2 or USB.
Some newer mice are wireless.
A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button. Many
mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you to scroll smoothly through screens of
information.
When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same direction. (The
pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's positioned on your screen.) When you want to
select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and
clicking with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer. There are several types of mice:
Mechanical mouse, optical mouse, optical-mechanical mouse and laser mouse.

Terminologies
Clicking
This is pressing the mouse button once to activate a button.
Double clicking
This is pressing the mouse button twice in rapid succession to open a file or folder.
Dragging and dropping
This is the process of selecting a file, word etc and moving to another location.
Right clicking
This is pressing the right mouse
Left clicking
This is pressing the left mouse
Scrolling
This is the process of moving the open window content either upward or downward
using vertical scroll bar or to the left or right using horizontal scroll bar.

Mouse Types
Opto-Mechanical Type
This type of mouse contains a ground ball that makes contact with two rollers—one for the x-axis (the
horizontal) and one for the y-axis (the vertical). Moving the mouse causes the ball to roll, and because the
ball is in contact with the two rollers, it causes them to turn. These rollers are connected to wheels with
small holes in them. Each wheel rotates between the arms of a U-shaped optical sensor. The holes allow a
light to shine through the wheel onto the optical sensor in flashes as the wheel turns. By the speed and
patterns of the light pulses, the mouse senses the speed and direction it is moving and sends its interpretation
of those
Optical Mouse
An optical mouse looks the same as any other computer mouse, except there is no mouse ―ball.‖ Instead,
the optical mouse uses a special mouse pad and a beam of laser light. The beam of light shines onto the
mouse pad and reflects back to a sensor in the mouse. The mouse pad has small lines crossing it that can
reflect the light into the sensor in different ways. It is in this fashion that the optical mouse detects direction
and speed of movements.

Scanning Devices
Scanning devices, or scanners, can be used to input images and character data directly into a computer. The
scanner digitizes the data into machine-readable form.
A scanner works by shining a beam of light onto the surface of the object that you are scanning. This light is
then reflected back onto a sensor that detects the color of the light. This is then used to build up the digital
image.
The scanning devices used in direct-entry include the following:
Image Scanner – converts images on a page to electronic signals.
Fax Machine – converts light and dark areas of an image into format that can be sent over
telephone lines (analog signals).
Bar-Code Readers – photoelectric scanner that reads vertical striped marks printed on items.
Character and Mark Recognition Devices – scanning devices used to read characters and
marks on documents.
There are three kinds of character and mark recognition devices:

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Magnetic ink character recognition, or MICR, readers are used to read the numbers printed at the
bottom of cheques in special magnetic ink. These numbers are an example of data that is
both machine readable and human readable. The technology allows MICR readers to scan and
read the information directly into a data-collection device. The use of MICR readers increases
the speed and accuracy of processing checks
Optical-Character Recognition (OCR)
It is the electronic conversion of scanned images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text
into machine-encoded text. It is widely used as a form of data entry from original paper
data source such as documents, sales receipts, mail, or any number of printed records. It is a
common method of digitizing printed texts so that they can be electronically searched, stored
more compactly, displayed on-line, and used in machine processes.

Optical-Mark Recognition (OMR)

This is the process of capturing human-marked data from document forms such as surveys
and tests. Optical mark recognition readers are often used for test scoring since they can read
the location of marks on what is sometimes called a mark sense document. This is how, for
instance, standardized tests, such as the KCPE, SAT or GMAT are scored.
NB/ Scanners are generally classified into two: flatbed scanners and handheld scanners. Flatbed
scanners are named after the flat bed of glass that the item to be scanned would lie upon, they
resemble the top half of a photocopier
Voice–input devices
Voice-Input Devices can also be used for direct input into a computer. Speech recognition can
be used for data input when it is necessary to keep your hands free. For example, a doctor may
use voice recognition software to dictate medical notes while examining a patient. Voice
recognition can also be used for security purposes to allow only authorized people into certain
areas or to use certain devices.
Voice-input devices convert speech into a digital code.
The most widely used voice-input device is the microphone.
A microphone, sound card, and software form a voice recognition system.
Magnetic card input
It reads odd-shaped numbers printed with magnetic ink on cheques and is used in the
banks.
TOUCH SCREEN
It responds when the user points to or touches different screen regions. Computers with
touch screen are frequently used in the airport, public libraries and shopping malls.

Output Devices
Output devices are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information produced
after the processing operations.
It can also be defined as any computer hardware that receives data from a computer and then
translates it into another form which may either be audio, visual, textual, or hard copy such as a
printed document.
Output devices can be categorized as
Visual: Monitor, projector
Print: Printer
Sound: Headphones, speakers
Types of output devices

Monitor 

It is the computer’s principal output device, also known as a Visual Display Unit (VDU). It
displays the processed data like text, images, videos, audio, etc. It makes images by arranging
microscopic dots in a rectangular pattern, known as pixels. The sharpness of an image is
determined by the number of pixels. There are two types of monitor viewing screens:
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT): This type of monitor works by generating a beam of
electrons with the help of electron guns to generate data. The CRT monitor holds
millions of phosphorus dotes in three different colors, i.e., red, blue, and green. These
dots glow when the beam struck on them and create an image. The main parts of the
CRT monitor are the electron gun, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, deflection plate
assembly, and base.
Display on a Flat Panel Monitor with a Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT): A flat-panel
display is a type of video display with less volume, weight, and power consumption
than a CRT. They can be put on the wrist or hung on the wall. Examples are
 Calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computers, and graphical displays all use
flat-panel displays.
Plasma Monitor: It is also a flat panel display but it is based on plasma display
technology. In a plasma monitor, a small cell is present in between two glass surfaces
and these cells contain a solution of noble gases and mercury. So, when the electricity
supply on the gas present in the cell converts into plasma and produces UV light that
creates an image. It is much better than an LCD monitor. The resolution of this monitor
is also high up to 1920 x 1920. It has a good contrast ratio, high refresh rate, etc.  

Printers
Printers are information output devices that allow you to print data on paper. Or in other
words, it is an output device that creates a hard copy of the processed data or information.
Printers are divided into two categories: 
Impact Printer: In impact printers, characters are printed on the ribbon, which is then
smashed on the paper. Or we can say that such type of printer uses a print head or
hammer to print the data on the paper. Here to print the paper the hammer or print head
strikes an ink ribbon against the paper and the character starts printing. Types of impact
printers are:
Dot-matrix printer
Daisy wheel printer
Line printer
Chain printer
Characteristics of Impact printers. 
 Extremely low consumable costs.
 Fairly noisy
 It’s perfect for large-scale printing because of its inexpensive cost.
 Physical contact with the paper is required to form an image.

Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers print characters without the use of a ribbon.

These printers are often known as Page Printers because they print a full page at a time.
Some of the types of non-impact printers are:
 Laser printer
 Inkjet printer
characteristics of non-impact printers
 Quicker
 They don’t produce much noise.
 Superior quality
 Supports a wide range of fonts and character sizes
Plotter 
A plotter is a device that prints high-quality graphics in a variety of colour formats. It works
similarly to a printer, although it has more advanced features. It is used to print large maps,
architectural drawings, large-format printing, and create pictures, 3D postcards, advertising
signs, charts, and various designs of the internal structure of building machines, as well as
create pictures, 3D postcards, advertising signs, charts, and various designs of the internal
structure of building machines.
Characteristics of Plotter:
 Large size prints can be taken via plotters
 It is slow & expensive.
Projector 
A projector is a device that allows users to project their output onto a large area, such as a
screen or a wall. It can be used to project the output of a computer and other devices onto a
screen. It magnifies texts, photos, and movies using light and lenses. As a result, it’s an
excellent output device for giving presentations or teaching big groups of people.
Characteristics of Projector:
 They are lightweight, and one person can easily take them out of the box, connect
them, and hang an image on the wall.
 Projectors can be the most cost-effective option for large-screen video in your
home.
 A small projector mounted on a back shelf or bookcase, or mounted on the ceiling,
takes up no area on the floor. It is barely visible when it is not in use.
Speakers 
Speakers are connected to computers to allow sound to be output. For the working of speakers,
sound cards are required. From simple two-speaker output devices to surround-sound multi-
channel sets, speakers come in a variety of shapes and sizes. They take audio input from the
computer’s sound card and output sound waves as audio output.
Characteristics of Speakers:
 Speakers are available in a wide range of qualities and prices.
 Small, plastic computer speakers with low sound quality are often included with
computer systems.
Headphones
To hear the sound, use earbuds with your PC, laptop, or smartphone. It enables you to hear the
sound without causing any inconvenience to others. To translate electronic signals into sounds
without causing inconvenience to others. They can be wired or wireless and can be connected
to computers, laptops, mobile phones, etc. They are connected with the devices via Bluetooth.
Characteristics of Headphones:
 Stereo phones and headsets are other names for them.
 Earphones or earbuds are the names for the in-ear variants.
  The term headset denotes a combination of headphones and a microphone used for
two-way communication, such as using a telephone.
Sound Card
Sound cards are computer output devices that are inserted into the computer. A sound card,
either external or internal, is required to produce sound on any computer (built-in). An external
sound card enables the better overall sound generation and is required for wide and clear sound
recording, as well as sound without noise and interference.
Characteristics of Sound Card:
 To listen to speakers or headphones, to play games, watch movies, listen to music,
or use audio and video conferencing, we use an internal sound card.
 Frequency is a sound card parameter that represents the number of signals the card
processes per unit of time. The frequency is expressed in hertz. The frequency of
most sound cards is 96 or 192 kHz.
 Synthesizers and a variety of electronic musical instruments, such as drums and
keyboards, can be connected to your computer using a sound card with standard
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) connections.
Video Card
An extension card via which a computer can transfer graphical data to a video display device
like a TV, projector, or monitor. It processes photos and video, as well as other functions that
the CPU generally does. As they have a good processing capability and video RAM, Gamers
utilize video cards.
Characteristics of Video Card:
 Heat sinks are required for video cards with high performance as they generate a lot
of heat.
 Also known as graphics card & require software installation in addition to the
hardware.
 When working with huge files, video cards supply a significant quantity of video-
only memory that frees up CPU resources, allowing the system to run more
effectively.
Speech synthesizer
A speech synthesizer is a computerized device that takes in data, interprets it, and generates
audible words. It might be a computer card, a box connected by a cable, or software that works
with the computer’s sound card.
Characteristics of speech synthesizer:
 Any text, predetermined input can be translated into audible speech.
 For people who are unable to talk or have impaired vision, it can provide digital
verbal communication.
 It takes in data, interprets it, and generates sound output.
Storage Media
Primary (Main memory)
The memory unit stores information inform of instruction and data. Computer memory is
contained on memory chips mounted on the motherboard.
There are two types of main memory in use today: Random Access Memory (RAM) and the
Read Only Memory (ROM)
Random Access Memory (RAM)
It is the most common computer memory which can be used by programs to perform
necessary tasks while the computer is on, an integrated circuit memory chip allows
information to be stored or accessed in any order and all storage locations are equally
accessible.
The RAM is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs, and
data in current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the computer’s processor.
RAM is much faster to read from and write to than the other kinds of storage in a computer,
the hard disc, floppy disc, and CD-ROM. However, the data in RAM stays there only as
long as your computer is running. When you turn off your computer, RAM loses its data. When
you turn on your computer again, your operating system and other files are once again
loaded into RAM usually from the hard disc.
There are two technologies used for RAM memories; static and dynamic.
STATIC RAM
It stores a bit of information with a flip-flop i.e. the contents of a static RAM remains stable
forever, as long as power is available.
DYNAMIC RAM
It stores a bit of information as a charge. Due to the way in which the information is stored
here, the packing density is much higher than for static RAM.
other types of RAM include;
EDO RAM –Extended Data Out Random Access Memory
Unlike conventional DRAM which can only access one block of data at a time, EDO RAM can
start fetching the next block of memory at the same time that it sends the previous block to the
CPU.
SDRAM – Synchronous DRAM
This is a type of DRAM that can run at much higher clock speeds than conventional memory.
SDRAM actually synchronizes itself with the CPU's bus and is capable of running at 133
MHz about twice as fast EDO RAM. DDR (Double Data Rate), DDR2 and DDR3 are examples
of SDRAM.
Cache Memory - Cache memory is high-speed memory that a processor can access more
quickly than RAM and more expensive than RAM. Frequently used instructions are stored in
cache since they can be retrieved more quickly, improving the overall performance of the
computer. Most CPUs have an internal cache memory (in-built in the processor) which is
referred to as Level 1 (L1) cache. This can be supplemented by external cache memory fitted on
the motherboard and referred to as Level-2 cache memory or secondary cache.
READ ONLY MEMORY
On the other hand, ROM provides permanent or semi-permanent storage only, its content can
be read but cannot be re-written during normal computer operations (is non-volatile). It stores
some standard processing programs supplied by the manufactures to operate the personal
computer (PC). The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and
initializes various equipment attached to the PC, when the switch is made ON.
One important reason a computer needs ROM is that it must know what to do when the
power is first turned on. Among other things, ROM stores a set of start-up instructions, which
ensures that the rest of memory is functioning properly, checks for hardware devices and
checks for an operating system on the computer hard disc.

Types of Read Only Memory

MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are
small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is
not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use,
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one
byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is
flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −
  Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified

SECONDARY STORAGE
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY STORAGE

a) Internal Storage Media

Internal storage allows the data and applications to be loaded very rapidly into memory, ready
for use. The data can be accessed much faster than data which is stored on an external storage
device. This is because internal storage devices are connected directly to the motherboard
and its data bus whereas external devices are connected through a hardware interface such
as USB, which means they are considerably slower to access.
Internal storage also means that if the computer is moved around, it will still retain its most
frequently used data. The main disadvantage of internal storage is that when the hard disk fails,
all the data and applications may be lost.
This can be avoided to some extent by using more than one hard disk within the machine. Each
hard disk has a copy of all the data, so if one fails the other can carry on. This is called a RAID
array. An alternative is to use external media for backup. An example of internal storage media is
an internal/fixed hard disk.

b) External Storage Media

These media are normally used for data back-ups and are not permanently fixed inside a
computer. To fulfill the large storage requirements of computers, magnetic disks such as
diskettes and external hard disks, optical disks such as CDs and DVDs and flash drives are
generally used. Advantages of external storage include:
Data can be transported easily from one place to another- portable.
It is useful to store software and data that is not needed frequently.
External storage also acts as data back-up.
External storage provides additional storage other than available in the computer.
Magnetic Storage Media
How Magnetic Storage Works
A magnetic disk's medium contains iron oxide particles, which can be polarized given a
magnetic charge in one of two directions.
Each particle's direction represents a 1 (on) or 0 (off), representing each bit of data that the CPU
can recognize.
A disk drive uses read/write heads containing electromagnets to create magnetic charges on the
medium. An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by
electric current.
The primary types of magnetic storage Media are:
Diskettes (floppy disks)
Hard disks
High-capacity floppy disks
Disk cartridges
Magnetic tape
Diskettes/Floppy disks
Diskette drives, also known as floppy disk drives, read and write to diskettes (called floppy disks
or floppies).
Diskettes are used to transfer files between computers, as a means for distributing software, and
as a backup medium.
Diskettes come in two sizes: 5.25-inch and 3.5-inch.

Hard Disks
Hard disks use multiple platters, stacked on a spindle. Each platter has two read/write heads, one
for each side.
Hard disks use higher-quality media and a faster rotational speed than diskettes.
Removable hard disks combine high capacity with the convenience of diskettes
Magnetic tapes offer very slow data access, but provide large capacities and at low cost. They are
vulnerable to dust and interference from magnetic fields.
Advantages of Magnetic Devices
They are very cheap for example floppy disks.
They offer very fast data access speeds, about 1000kb/s
Data can be read directly from any part of the hard disk
Most of the devices store very large amounts of data e.g. hard disks.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Devices
Data can be altered or erased by magnetic fields, dust or mechanical problems
They gradually lose their charge over time and therefore lose data
Hard disks eventually fail (can no longer be magnetized) which stops the computer from working
Regular clashes can damage the surface of the disk, leading to loss of data.

Optical Storage Devices

An optical disk is a high-capacity storage medium. An optical drive uses reflected light to read
data.
To store data, the disk's metal surface is covered with tiny dents (pits) and flat spots (lands),
which cause light to be reflected differently.
When an optical drive shines light into a pit, the light cannot be reflected back. This represents a
bit value of 0 (off). A land reflects light back to its source, representing a bit value of 1 (on).
Laser technology is used to record and read information from a CD ‘s or a DVD ‘s surface.

Types of Optical Storage Devices

CD-ROM
In PCs, the most commonly used optical storage technology is called Compact Disk Read-Only
Memory (CD-ROM). CDs use microscopic indentations (Pits) and flat surfaces (Lands) to store
information. •A standard CD-ROM disk can store up to 650 – 700 MB of data, or about 70
minutes of audio.
Once data is written to a standard CD-ROM disk, the data cannot be altered or overwritten.
CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable)
A CD-R disk is blank when it is supplied. The user can write data to it just once. After data has
been written to the disk it cannot be changed. CD-Rs are often used for making permanent
backups of data and distributing software when only a small number of copies are required.
CD-RW (Compact Disk - Rewriteable)
CD-RW disks can be read from and written to many times
CD-ROM Speeds and Uses
Early CD-ROM drives were called single speed, and read data at a rate of 150 KBps. (Hard disks
transfer data at rates of 5 – 15 MBps).
CD-ROM drives now can transfer data at speeds of up to 7800 KBps. Data transfer speeds are
getting faster.
CD-ROM is typically used to store software programs. CDs can store audio and video data, as
well as text and program instructions.
DVD-ROM
A variation of CD-ROM is called Digital Video Disk Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM), and is
being used in place of CD-ROM in many newer PCs. Its speed is much faster than CD and has a
much higher storage capacity. This is made possible by the reduction of the distance between the
pits.
Standard DVD disks storage capacity is 4.7GB of data—enough to store an entire movie. Dual-
layer DVD disks can store up to 17 GB.
Dual-layer DVD disks can store so much data because both sides of the disk are used, along with
sophisticated data compression technologies.
Advantages of Using Optical Devices over Magnetic Disks
In magnetic devices, data can be altered or erased by magnetic fields, dust or mechanical
problems unlike in optical devices where data cannot be affected by dust, magnetic fields or
fingerprints.
Magnetic devices gradually lose their charge over time and therefore lose data whereas data
written on optical devices is usually permanent.
Hard disks, which are magnetic, eventually fail which stops the computer from working.
Regular clashes of magnetic devices can damage the surface of the disk, leading to loss of data.
Optical disks are more durable and last a long time. There is a greater distance between the
media and the Read/Write element in a CD as compared to magnetic storage and therefore
optical devices can be used repeatedly without wear or data damage.
Optical devices are more portable in that they are small and lightweight.
They are inexpensive i.e. they are cheaper to manufacture than magnetic devices.
Flash/Electronic Memory
Flash memory and pen drives are very common today. Flash memory is also known as a solid-
state storage device because there are no moving parts and therefore less susceptible to
mechanical damage. They are also small in physical size and light in weight therefore portable.
Flash memory also transfers data at a faster rate than optical and magnetic media. They are
useful in devices where frequent updating of data is required. Flash memory is usually found in
digital cameras, digital camcorders and mobile phones.
Examples of flash memory include:
Memory sticks/flash disks
Secure digital (SD Cards)
MultiMedia card (MMC)
Smart cards
Cloud Storage
This refers to saving data to an off-site storage system maintained by a third party i.e. the hosting
company. People and organizations buy or lease storage capacity from the providers to store
user, organizational or application data.
Computer Output Microfilm/Microfiche (COM) – A microfilm is a film on which printed
materials are photographed and stored at greatly reduced size for ease of storage. Companies that
must store significant numbers of paper documents often use computer output microfilm. These
devices transfer data directly from the computer onto the microfilm, thus eliminating the
intermediate step of printing the document on paper. Newspapers and journals typically archive
old issues in this manner, although some are now using optical storage devices. Data written on a
microfilm is read using a microfilm reader.
Storage Capacity Abbreviations
KB - kilobyte - 1000 (thousand bytes)
MB - megabyte - 1,000,000 (million bytes)
GB - gigabyte - 1,000,000,000 (billion)
TB - terabyte - 1,000,000,000,000 (trillion)