IT Application Tools in Business

CHAPTER 1

Computer comes from the root word compute meaning to calculate. Computer began as a
mere calculating tool. It all started from the abacus and up to the 1900s computing devices can
perform the four (4) basic operations of adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing number.
During the late 20th century showed an expansion of the computers function but not departing from
its original purpose.

History of Computers

Computer comes from the root word compute, meaning to calculate. The earliest recorded
computer is the abacus. The abacus consists of a frame with rods and beads, which are moved along
the rods. There is no account as to who invented the abacus but it was used by different countries but
is still being used by the Chinese and Japanese.

Computers in the early days are used primarily for mathematical computations or calculations.
Now, companies have extended the use of computers for word processing, graphical presentations,
games, communications, etc. Computers come in different shapes and sizes from your personal
computer to laptop computer to cellular phones and personal digital assistant (PDA).

Computer is defined as a machine for manipulating data according to a

sequence of instructions.

In 1617 the Napier’s Bones was invented by John Napier (1550-1617). The calculator can
perform multiplication and division calculations. The Napier’s Bones is based on Arab mathematics
and lattice multiplication.

Wilhelm Schickard (1592-1635) invented the first known mechanical calculator that can
perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, but remained unknown for 300 years.

Image 2 A replica of Wilhelm Schickard’s Calculator built in 1623

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) made his version of the mechanical calculator in 1642. It was
designed to help his father with his work as a tax collector. The gear driven calculator can only perform
addition and subtraction.

Image 3 Blaise Pascal’s Mechanical Calculator also known as “Pascaline” made in 1642

In 1671 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) created a mechanical calculator called the
“stepped reckoner” can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It is made of
brass and steel enclosed in an oak case. It has an eight (8) digit input portion in front accumulator at
the back of the machine that displays the result up to sixteen (16) decimal digits. Parts lack precise
construction, which sometimes resulted in inaccurate calculations. This was due to the stringent
design of the calculating machine that no one at that time could construct.

Image 4 Replica of the mechanical calculator found in the Deusches Museum called stepped
reckoner made in 1671 by Gottfried Leibniz

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 Charles Babbage (1791-1871) developed the first programmable machine called the
“analytical engine” in 1822. The design uses punched cards to store programs and run the machine. It was
intended to reduce if not eliminate errors in computing. The machine was never completed. Limited
technology in producing the parts for the machine became an obstacle for Babbage as well as the machine
being large in size. The bulk of the machine would have been around 30 meters in length and 10 meters
in width.

Herman Hollerith (1860–1929) developed a mechanical tabulator in 1890 for the United
States Census Bureau in 1890. The mechanical tabulator was based on punched cards to tabulate large
volume of statistical data. The machine used electricity to power the machine. The machine has cards
passing through needles that read the holes in the cards. This triggers a counter to record and
compute the data.

Hollerith founder of the Tabulating Machine Company and merged with two other companies
in 1911 to form Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (CTR) and in 1924 changed the
name to International Business Machines (IBM).

In the 1936, Alan Turing created a theoretical computing machine known as the “Turing
Machine”. The machine is consisting of a Tape that contains cells, a Head to read and write symbols
on the tape, a Table is the sequence of instructions that the machine follows and the State Register
stores the position or status of the Turing Machine.

John William Mauchly and John Presper Eckert of the University of Pennsylvania developed the
first general-purpose electronic digital computer called ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer) in 1946. ENIAC was designed and built for use by the military. The machine was used to
compute the artillery firing tables for the U.S. Army. Computation was slow as it could only perform
hundreds of computations per minute.

The ENIAC contains 17,468 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 1,500 relays,
6,000 manual switches and 5 million soldered joints. It covered 167 square meters of floor space,
weighed 30 tons and consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power.

EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) a stored-program computer was built
by Sir Maurice Wilks and his team at University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in 1949.
Though, it was Jon von Neumann of the Institute for Advance Study who introduced the concept of
stored- program computers.

John William Mauchly and John Presper Eckert after creating the ENIAC left Moore School and
formed their own company Electronic Control Company. The company was renamed Eckert-Mauchly
Computer Corporation in 1946. They sold their company to Remington Rand in 1950. Remington Rand
merged with Sperry Corporation and became known as Sperry Rand then sold in the mid-1950s to
International Business Machines (IBM).

Mauchly and Eckert created UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) under Remington
Rand in 1951. Moving away from the punched tape the UNIVAC uses magnetic tape instead to for
alphabetical and numerical data. UNIVAC was produced commercially and 48 machines were sold. In
1953 IBM ships its first electronic computer called 701.

In 1958, Jack Kilby creates the first integrated circuit at Texas Instruments to prove that
resistors and capacitors can exist on the same piece of semiconductor material.

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 Minicomputers emerged in the 1960s. This is a significant improvement from previous
computer designs by creating smaller, more powerful and cheaper machines. Although, one may not be
convinced that it deserves the “mini” connotation as it still occupies a lot of space.

Image 10 A minicomputer from the 1960s

Integrated Circuit (IC) is a small electronic circuit and was used in minicomputers during
the 1960s. The reason for the large size of the ENIAC is that it uses of 18,000 vacuum tubes and with
the vacuum tubes size makes it heavy and expensive to produce as well. The use of ICs in computers
significantly reduced the size of computers.

Very-Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) is the process placing thousands of electronic circuit

components into a chip. The microprocessor is an example of a VLSI device.

Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak in 1976 produced by hand the Apple I computer. But it wasn’t
until 1977 when they produced the Apple II computer, which eventually became a benchmark for
Personal Computers (PC).

The Apple II is more technologically advanced than the Apple I thus making Apple II a
commercial success that other manufacturers began coming up with their own version of the PC.
More than five (5) million Apple II personal computers were produced up to the 1990s.

In 1980 Seagate Technology creates the first hard disk drive called the ST-506. In August
1981, IBM launched their version of the PC and was to compete with Apple II. This will eventually be
copied or “cloned” by numerous manufacturers. IBM “compatible” computers will eventually flood the
market as branded computer parts become readily available and are easy to assemble - The IBM 5150
model.

In 1981 Philips and Sony introduced the CD-DA (Compact Disc Digital Audio) drive

Steve Chen designed the supercomputer Cray X-MP under Cray Research, Inc. Produced in
1982 and became the world’s fastest computer from 1983-1985. The computer uses multiple processors
to speed up processing of data. In 2000, Tera Computer Company bought Cray Research, Inc. and formed
Cray, Inc. The movie The Last Starfighter used the super computer for its graphical effects. The cost
ranges from $7million to $17million during the time it was introduced.

There seem to be a debate until now as to who produced the first laptop computer. The question
is what computer qualifies to be called a laptop computer? Though historians consider the Gavilan SC of
Manuel Fernandez founder of Gavilan Computer as the starting point of laptop computers. The
computer was produced in 1983.

The Gavilan SC uses an Intel 8088 processor, has a floppy disk drive, LCD screen and used an
MS- DOS operating system.

In 1984, Apple Computer launches the Macintosh, the first successful mouse-driven computer
with a Graphic User Interface (GUI).

In 1984, the first personal digital assistant (PDA) also known as pocket computer,
handheld computer, palm or palmtop computer was the Psion Organiser. The Psion Organiser uses a
keypad to enter text.

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 1985 Philips introduces the first CD-ROM drive.

1990 The World Wide Web (WWW) is born when Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN-the
high energy physics laboratory in Geneva-develops Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).

1993 saw the release of Apple Computers’ PDA called Newton in the market. The Newton
became the first popular brand of PDA. The Newton uses a light pen to enter text but has its
shortcomings as it has problems recognizing poor handwriting.

Looking at the progress made in computers, both form and function showed significant
especially in the last 25 years. Computers have become smaller and more powerful that more
individuals and organizations depend on it in their daily activities. And in the future, there is no doubt
that continuous development will be made in computers to create smaller, faster and increase
capability.

Four (4) generations of computers:

1. The First Generation (1951-1959). The first generation of computers started with the
UNIVAC I (see Image 9). Computers during this generation used vacuum tubes. First generation
computers were programmed using binary number system (0s and 1s). In 1952, Dr. Grace Hopper from
the University of Pennsylvania developed on of the first program translators.

2. The Second Generation (1959-1965). The second generation saw the development of
high level programming languages such as FORTRAN (Formula Translator) in 1957 and COBOL
(Common Business Oriented Language) in 1961. Operating systems and compilers were
developed. Second generation computers used transistors. Computers during this generation
started using magnetic tape and disk for data storage.

3. The Third Generation (1965-1970). This generation started with the introduction of the IBM
360. This marked the start in the use of integrated circuits which reduced the size of computers.
Significant improvements in computer development marked this generation in terms of processing
speed, accuracy, integration of hardware and software, processing performance and data
communications.

4. The Fourth Generation (1970-Present). The fourth generation started with the use of
large scale integration (LSI) and the development of microprocessors and microcomputers. The
cost of purchasing a computer unit dropped significantly. Software development vastly improved as
more-and- more high level languages was introduced. Notable improvements in data
communications, operating systems, compilers and utility programs which expanded the use of
computers.

Types of Computers

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is
considerable overlap (www.cs.cmu.edu):

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1. Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. It can
be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an
entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing,
accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database
management applications.
2. Laptop: A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap.
Laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers.
3. Netbook: A netbook typically has a small display, ranging from 7 to 10 inches. It weighs
under 3 pounds, and support a keyboard that is reduced in size from 75 to 80 percent
when compared to a standard keyboard. Netbooks have built-in Wi-Fi, Ethernet, USB ports
and slots for flash memory cards (www.webopedia.com). It is relatively smaller and less
powerful than a laptop.
4. Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer,
but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor. It is a
type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount
of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations
generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM,
built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for
workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are
single-user computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-
area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.
N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area
network. It could be a workstation or a personal computer.
5. Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe was a term originally referring to the
cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age
batch machine. After the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early
1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and
eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and expensive
computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer
channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a
mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways,
mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more
simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a
mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague,
depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.
6. Servers: Servers are networked computers that provide data and services to other
computers (clients) on the network. Servers are often dedicated computers, although
a server can be a standard client computer on the network that is also capable of
providing one or more services for other client PCs (www.webopedia.com).

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 7. Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second. Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest
computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed
for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations
(number crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other
uses of supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data
(e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer
manufacturer is Cray Research.
8. Hand-held computer: A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one’s
hand. Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced
notebook computers because of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular
hand-held computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal
information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some
manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the keyboard
with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on handwriting
recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Examples of hand-held
computers are:
a.) Smartphone. Smartphones are a handheld device that integrates mobile phone
capabilities with the more common features of a handheld computer or PDA.
Smartphones allow users to store information, e-mail, install programs, along with
using a mobile phone in one device. For example, a Smartphone could be a mobile
phone with some PDA functions integrated into the device, or vice versa
(www.webopedia.com).
b.) Tablet. A tablet is a type of notebook computer that has an LCD screen on which the
user can write using finger and swipe actions or by using a special-purpose pen,
or stylus. All user input is directly via the LCD screen and not a keyboard or
mouse. On a tablet computer, handwriting is digitized and can be converted to
standard text through handwriting recognition, or it can remain as handwritten
text (www.webopedia.com).

The progress made in computers saw the expansion of the function of computers. The
following are the

uses of computers:

1. Perform Calculations. Calculations are not limited to performing calculator functions (i.e.
four basic operation and scientific functions) but can perform more complex statistical computations
and linear programming computations to name a few. Computer software’s are now available for more
complex computations.

2. Word Processing. Computers have replaced the typewriter and for word processing
become the primary purpose for using computers.

3. Storing Information. A purpose of the computer that helps in the reduction of files
(papers) in offices. In place of papers files are stored in the hard disk drives of the computer and/or
optical disk also known as compact disk.

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 4. Communications. This makes the world look smaller. Through the web people can
communicate with each other real time or send e-mail (electronic mail). Communications through
the use of a computer make letter sending obsolete.

5. Entertainment. Computers are capable of playing audio CDs, MP3s, movies in VCD or DVD
format. One the popular forms of entertainment in computers are games. Games are played
individually or with a small group and even a large group for web-based games.

6. Simulation. Simulation represents real life situations. Some companies run simulations as a
more cost effective measure before producing the actual product or in making a decision. Airplane
pilots train using flight simulation programs.

7. Computer Programming. Computers are used to develop programs for all types of industries.

8. Production Process. In a manufacturing company computers are used to make sure

quality is consistent throughout production. Computers are also used to operate the machine.

9. Processing of Transaction. In non-manufacturing companies, computers are used to process

transactions. An example is the banking system.

10. Audio-Visual Presentations. Being a multi-purpose device, users can create home
movies from photographs that they have taken, create greeting cards, voice recordings, edit
pictures, etc.

11. Robotics. Computers have been used to program robots to function according to the
purpose in which they were built. Various companies have started developing robots and
continuous research is being made regarding this field.

12. Artificial Intelligence. Making computers perform like humans. For example, robots
have been programmed to walk, communicate, etc.

here are four types of computers:

1. Analog. Analog computers are used for measuring like electric current or voltage levels
and hydraulic pressure for example. Analog computers are fast but not accurate since variable are
changing as they can only give estimates of the result.

2. Digital. Digital computers perform calculations and provide an accurate result.

3. Hybrid. Hybrid is a mix of analog and digital computer.

4. Special Purpose. Designed to perform a specific job or function.

The computer environment which will be discussed in detail in the next chapters is composed
of three (3) parts:

1. Hardware. This refers to the physical aspect of the computer. There are four (4)
categories of computer hardware:
a. Input Devices. This is what the user will use to instruct the computer of activity it is
to perform.

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  Keyboard
 Mouse 
 Light Pen
 Scanner
a. Processing Device. This is where instructions are processed.
 System Unit
b. Output Devices. This where the result of processing of instructions proceeds to.
 Monitor
 Printer
 Projector
 Speakers, earphones and headset
c. Storage Units. It is where computer programs and files are stored.
 Hard Disk Drive 
 Compact Disc and Digital Video Disc.
 Flash Memory
 Random Access Memory
2. Software. These are the computer programs installed in the computer. The software
performs a variety of functions like file maintenance, word processing, entertainment,
etc.
3. Peopleware. They are the users of the computer.

CHAPTER 2

Computer Hardware

Computers are becoming increasingly powerful, as shown by the vast improvement of the
computer hardware. Users are able to bring the computers with them and are able to do more than
just computing or word processing. Equipment can be attached to the computer that makes people do
more. The basic hardware of the computer includes the following:

1. Monitor or Display Unit. The monitor is a display unit used for viewing the activity
being done. There are two types of monitors:

2.

a. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). A CRT employs a similar concept of video display to that of
a television set. Where the image is projected from the cathode as seen from the diagram in
image 19. The number of pixels determines the quality of the image projected.

b. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD). The liquid crystal is located between two (2) electrode
coated glass panels (as seen on image 22). The glass panels have grooves that align the molecules of
the top portion of the liquid crystal. The bottom glass panel will rotate 90o to align the bottom portion
to the top portion of the liquid crystal.

The glass panels are being covered by a pair of polarizer. The polarizers allow the passage of
light at one end while the entire light is placed on the mirror. In the absence of electric current to be
supplied

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to the electrodes, the light passes through the top polarizer. The twisted liquid crystal rotates the glass
panel for light to pass through the bottom polarizer, to the mirror which reflects the liquid crystal to
view the images. In the presence of electric current, the result is no light can pass through the bottom
polarizer and no image is reflected off the mirror.

3. Keyboard. An input device primarily used for typing. Composed of the letters of the
alphabet, numbers and function keys, keypad, locking keys and special purpose keys.

a. Function Keys. F1, F2 to F12 are the function keys. Various functions can be
assigned to these keys. F1 is usually reserved as the help key.

b. Numeric Keypad. The keypad is similar to the arrangement of digits to that of

the calculator. This is used in entering numbers or figures as the arrangement of numbers
allow faster input.

c. Locking Keys. These are marked caps lock, num lock and scroll lock.
 Caps Lock. It is used for typing capital letters. No need to press the
shift key in this case.
 Num Lock. In the keypad under the numbers is the special purpose
function of the keys. Num Lock is activated if the Num Lock light is on and the
numbers can now be
used.
 Scroll Lock. This is used for spreadsheets. This prevents the cell
locator in spreadsheets from moving away from the selected cell.

d. Special Purpose Keys. Included are the following keys:

 Up, Down, Left and Right Arrow Keys. Changes the location of the
cursor by row or by character.
 Pg Up (Page Up), Pg Dn (Page Down). In word processing,
spreadsheet or slide presentation this moves the screen literally by page.
 Home and End. Home moves the cursor to the beginning of the
line in word processing, spreadsheet or slide presentation. End moves the cursor to
the end of the
line.
 Insert and Delete. In word processing once insert is activated
forgotten words or letters in be inserted in between words or letters otherwise if the
cursor is located between or at the beginning of the word overwrite will occur.
 Pause. This stops or suspends the program then continues on when
another key is pressed.
 Esc (Escape). This terminates the activity without leaving the program.
e. Combination Keys. Ctrl (Control), Shift and Alt are the keys that are used in
combination with other keys to access other functions and can function as shortcut keys as well.

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 4. System Unit. Houses the different computer components. Inside it are the following computer
parts:

a. Central Processing Unit (CPU). It is also known as microprocessor. This is the brain
of the computer. It is the device that processes instructions given by the user. A variety of
microprocessors are built for different computing devices such as calculators, mainframe
computers, personal computers, New dual core and quad core also called multi core
processors are basically a single chip that employs with multiple processors. The cores
interface with each other to improve response speed as compared to single core processors
and many others by different manufacturers such as Intel, Advance Micro Devices (AMD), Zilog,
IBM, Motorola, Toshiba, Siemens, NEC, Fujitsu and Texas Instruments (TI) to name a few.

b. Motherboard. Also known as main board or system board. The microprocessor is

attached to this equipment. This is where computer components and accessories or
peripherals are being attached. This component has slots or sockets for the monitor, mouse,
keyboard, optical drives, speakers and other component that can be connected via Universal
Serial Bus (USB).

The function of some parts of the motherboard is the following:

 Socket Connector. This where the microprocessor is attached to.

 RAM Memory Slots. Is where the random access memory is inserted.
 Northbridge and Southbridge Chipsets. Provide interface between the microprocessor, random
access memory and peripheral bus.
 PCI Slots. Also known as expansion slots. For expansion cards such as video card, sound
card and other expansion cards.
 Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) Connectors. These are slots for hard disk drive and
optical drives.
 Back Panel Connector. Monitor, mouse, keyboard, speakers, headsets, printers, projectors,
etc. can be connected. Other peripherals can be connected at the back panel via universal
serial bus
(USB). There is a slot at the back panel for connection to the local area network (LAN).
 AGP Slot. This is the slot for accelerator graphics port (AGP) video cards.

c. Video Card. The video card is needed to be able to view images clearly. This can either be
integrated to the motherboard or can be bought separately. Without this component pictures or
images and videos cannot be viewed clearly. An integrated video card shares memory with the
random access memory as compared to a separately installed video card which has its own
memory.

Video cards provide 3D or 3-dimensional graphics. They also provide connection to television,
DVD players and video recorders. Powerful video cards generate a lot of heat and consume power
in the process. Therefore, a cooling fan is necessary to reduce heat generated by the video card.

d. Sound Card. The sound card can be an integrated component in the motherboard this can
also be a separate component attached to the motherboard. An integrated sound card provides
high quality sound and a separate sound card provides more options for music composition and
better listening experience.

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 e. Hard Disk Drive (HDD). It is the permanent storage unit of the computer. Also known as
hard drive and magnetic disk. Data is recorded by magnetizing the spinning platter by the
read/write head. The distance of the read/write head from the platter is minimal almost
touching the surface. But when the hard disk is not moving the read/write head rests on the
platter. An unscheduled “shut down” of the computer (i.e. power interruption) can cause the
read/write head to scratch the surface of the platter as it moves to the outer portion and can
result in loss of data.

Data is read by recognizing the magnetized of the portion on the platter. Files are stored in
blocks with each block containing 4 to 16 kb per block. HDD drives spins at a maximum speed of
7,200rpm (revolutions per minute) on some HDDs. HDD of minicomputers ranges from 80GB
(gigabytes) to 300GB.

f. Random Access Memory (RAM). It is the temporary storage unit of the computer. Also
known as primary memory. Once the computer is turned on the operating system is copied in the
RAM. For other files and programs that are accessed (at random) by the user they to are copied
onto the RAM from the HDD. Isolation of the files and programs to the RAM can result in faster
processing time since the commands or files are not being searched from the HDD but from the
RAM.

g. Optical Disk Drives (ODD). Different optical media can be read and written on via laser.
When recording data, with the disc spinning at a constant speed the laser emitted heats the disc’s
(thus the term “burn”) magnetic property. When programs and files are read the disc spins at a
constant speed and the laser recognizing the “burned” property of the disc.

5. Mouse. The mouse’s shape is like a real mouse if viewed from the side. It moves the pointer
around the screen and the user can select the desired programs or commands by clicking or
double- clicking an icon.

The equipment or devices that can be attached to the computer are the following:

1. Printer. It is an output device that produces documents, photographs, certificates and

many others. Some printers that are “multi-purpose” printers. For example, some printers
available in the market can be connected to a telephone line to act as a facsimile machine, can
photocopy, scan documents, photographs, certificates, shirts, etc. There are printers that are
large in size that produce printed documents, blueprints, tarpaulin, etc. Three (3) common
printer types being used at home or at the office are the following:

a. Dot Matrix. It is a type of printer where the printer head strikes a ribbon (made of cloth)
immersed in ink. As the name suggests it produces small dots that makes up each character.
The small dots are turned out by a small metal pin pushed forward by an electromagnet or
solenoid which hits the ribbon then the paper.

b. Inkjet. Ink is dropped through tiny chambers located at the bottom of the cartridge via
electric charges on to the paper or other printing materials. Similar to a dot matrix printer,
thousands of dots comprise the printing of these characters or images. The unit of measurement
that determines the quality of print or resolution is the “dots per inch (dpi)”. It follows the
principle of higher resolution or dots per inch means better or finer printing results. Capable of
printing images some

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 printer manufacturers were able to extend the capabilities of inkjet printers by including other
features such as scanner and photocopier.

c. Laser. Laser printers are used for high quality printing. The printer emits a laser beam on
the mirror to illustrate an image of the document on an imaging drum. The image on the imaging
drum is then transformed to an electrostatic charge that magnetizes the toner (a black powder
substance) on to an electrostatic charged paper. The paper is heated to keep the toner on the
paper.

2. LCD Projector. Images are projected onto the projector screen. For personal computers,
the socket can be connected to the monitor slot. For laptop computers, a slot is provided at the
side for connection.

3. Digital Camera and Video Camera. With the proper software the computer can manage
the photographs and videos from the camera. Cameras in general come with software to allow
users to edit photographs and videos.

4. Cellular Phone. This can be used to connect to the internet. This also holds files
especially those with memory card.

5. Speakers, Headsets and Earphones. These can be attached to computers to listen to

music, videos, communicate, etc.

6. Web Camera. For some laptop computers this is standard equipment, for some laptop
and personal computers this is a device that can be attached to the computer. Used in
communicating this gives the person at the other end a chance to see the person he/she is
communicating with.

Units of Memory of Storage Devices

1. Bit. Short for binary digit it is the smallest unit of measurement.

2. Byte. One (1) byte is equivalent to 8 bits. A single byte corresponds to a single letter,
number or punctuation mark.

3. Kilobyte (KB). One (1) kilobyte is equivalent to 1,024 bytes.

4. Megabyte (MB). One (1) megabyte is equivalent to 1,048,576 bytes or roughly 1 million bytes.

5. Gigabyte (GB). One (1) gigabyte is equivalent to 1,024 megabytes.

6. Terabytes (TB) , 1,024 Gigabyte

Three Types of Storage Units:

1. Primary Storage or Main Memory. Temporary memory, which the computer has direct
access to like the Random Access Memory (RAM). It is the fastest to access data and information
from but it is volatile. It can lose data and innformation in case of power interruption.

2. Secondary Storage. Permanent memory like the magnetic disk, hard drive or hard disk
and flash memory. Slower access to data and information as compared to primary storage.

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 3. Tertiary Storage. Slowest in terms of access time. Examples of tertiary storage are
magnetic tape and optical storage.

Physical Storage Media

1. Registers. Are storage units the can hold data and instructions undergoing processing by
the control unit and the arithmetic-logic unit. There are two types of registers:

a. General Purpose Registers. A register that is used in different ways.

b. Special Purpose Registers. It is used to perform a specific activity.

 Accumulator Register. Stores the result of an arithmetic operation.

 Instruction Register. It is where instructions are stored while waiting to be processed.
 Address Register. The address or location of the instruction is stored.

2. Cache. It is a memory located in the random access memory that stores data, instructions
and results of the CPU. It holds information from recently accessed files. It the file is needed again
the time needed to display the file is reduced as compared to if it the file is to be retrieved from
the hard disk drive. Without cache access to files will take longer and the CPU will have to wait
until results and instructions from the CPU are loaded back into the RAM.

3. Flash Memory. A type of secondary memory where data can be written and can be
erased. Used in embedded devices such as digital cameras, cellular phones and video cameras
to name a few.

4. Hard Disk Drive (HDD). High capacity storage unit ranging from 80GB to 320GB. Consists
of platters inside a metal case with a read/write head that (it is almost touching the platter)
reads and writes data.

5. Optical Storage. Data is read from a spinning disk utilizing a laser. A compact disc (CD)
holds a capacity of 640MB to 702MB. A digital video disc (DVD) holds a capacity of 4.7GB to
17GB.

6. Magnetic Tape. Magnetic tapes were available since the 1950s. It is composed of the same
material as that of the cassette or audio tapes. Magnetic tapes are primarily used to backup data.
An advantage of using a magnetic tape is it can hold large amount of data. A notable disadvantage
is slow data access.

CHAPTER 3

Computer Software

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 Computer software is divided into two. The System Software is the program that runs and
manages the computer, also known as Operating System (OS). The Application Software is composed
of different computer programs that allow users to perform different tasks like the following:

For single user purposes:

1. Word Processors. It is mainly used for typing documents. The documents can be edited,
printed and formatted depending on the user’s specifications. Formal papers, letters and newsletters
can be done using this software.

2. Spreadsheets. This type of application software is used primarily in creating financial

reports and other accounting functions. It can also be used in analyzing data through the use of
graphs.

3. Presentations. This software can create colorful slides to be used in delivering a

message in front of an audience.

4. Photo Editors and Movie Makers. Photographs can be edited before printing and it is
sometimes used to create a movie presentation. Different videos can be connected and converted
to create a movie.

5. Web Browsers. Web browsers are used to access the web or internet. Access to websites
can be done either one at a time or simultaneous. Information, programs and files can be
downloaded or uploaded to the internet.

6. Database. Database is a software that can be used to store and retrieve different kinds of
data.

For network purposes:

1. Database. Database files in organizations are often confidential. To maintain

confidentiality of the data, limited access can be granted to a user data. These are usually data that
will be needed to perform a job.

2. Printing Services. In organizations, printers are usually shared by users. The users
must be given access to the computer holding the printer to be able to avail of the printing
services.

3. E-mail Services. Large organizations usually have their attached to the e-mail address
with some organizations having internal and external e-mails. For organizations having internal and
external e-mails most users if not all are given internal emails. For users with contacts outside of the
organization they are given an additional external e-mail.

Operating System

Operating System (OS) is defined as “a program that acts as an intermediary between a

user of a computer and the computer hardware.” (Shilberschatz, Galvin and Gagne). The OS
manages and controls the hardware devices such as memory, CPU and other devices. There are
numerous operating

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systems available for different types of computer environment. Some of the popular operating
systems are the following:

1.IBM System i. Formerly AS/400 this is an operating system from International

Business Machines designed to manage servers.

2. Linux. It is an open source OS designed for personal computers.

3. Mac OS 9. Mac OS 9 is from Apple Computer, Inc. primarily designed for personal computers.

4. Mac OS X Server. Developed by Apple Computer, Inc. it is an OS for servers. The latest
release of this OS is the Mac OS X Server 10.5 Leopard.

5. Solaris. A Unix based operating system from Sun Microsystems and have released OS
for servers and personal computers.

6. Windows Server 2008. The latest version of server OS line of Microsoft. Last server OS
version of Microsoft was released last 2003.

7. Windows Vista. Windows Vista is the latest OS from Microsoft replacing Windows XP

From the Operating Systems Concepts of Shilberschatz, Galvin and Gagne the OS performs the
following functions:

1. Process Scheduling. This prioritizes which process will be executed to next or given priority.

2. CPU Scheduling. Selects from among the processes in the memory and assigns the CPU
to the process selected. The operating system has different ways of determining which of the process
will be given priority. One is the OS is assigned to the process with the highest priority. Another is each
process is given a minimal amount of time. After each process have been given processing time the
CPU will go back to the first process until all processes have been given processing time.

3. Process Synchronization. Ensure data integrity by removing interruptions especially on critical

processes.

4. Deadlock Handling. OS tries to minimize or prevent the failure in execution of the

processes. When deadlock occurs, the execution of the processes is halted.

5. Main Memory Management. Manages “swapping” of processes from the main memory
to a storage unit by order of priority and load into the main memory for execution.

6. Virtual Memory. It is an extension of the main memory that uses part of the hard disk
drive. The main memory is limited in size and sometimes need an additional memory for the
processes being executed.

7. File System Interface. The operating system is used for managing the files in the
computer. Searching, creating, deleting and renaming are some of the functions performed by the
OS.

8. File System Implementation. The number of blocks assigned to a file. This is to reduce
the waste of disk space in the secondary memory (hard disk).

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 9. Management of the Mass Storage Structure. The hard disk is managed by the OS to
reduce waiting time to access files or programs.

10. Input/Output Device Management. Provides the link between the input devices to the
programs and to the output devices.

11. Protection. It is in the OS that the administrator (also a user and in-charge of the
computer system) sets or configures the settings as to what other users can perform on the
computer. The administrator can limit the access to certain files, programs and hardware.

12. Security. User authentication can be set in the OS as well as passwords to prevent attacks
on the computer system or access to confidential files accidental or with malicious intent. Setting up
of firewall to prevent attacks coming from the Internet or from within the local area network (LAN).

13. Managing the Network Connection. Managing the LAN for file access, remote access, etc.

Some operating systems include games, word processing and other programs these are added
features for the user to be able to perform tasks on the computer.

Programming Language

A program is a coded a sequence of instructions to be carried out by the computer. The

programming language however is the software used in developing computer programs. There are two
(2) types of programming languages:

1. Low-level Language. Programs are written in a language easy for the machine to understand.

a. Machine Language. Programs are coded in binary (0s and 1s).

b. Assembly Language. It is a symbolic coded sequence of instructions.

2. High-level Language. These are programming languages that are easy to understand
and to write since they use word from the English language. The following are examples of high-
level programming languages:

CHAPTER 4

Data Communications

Data communications come in different forms depending on the network setup. For example,
users of the computer in a large organization can send information to other users of the same
department. If necessary, a user can also send information to another user belonging to another
department within the same company. This is an example of a network.

There are three (3) types of networks mainly:

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 1. Local Area Network (LAN). A group of computers located in a small area connected by
a communications link to be able to interact within the group. The first LAN called ETHERNET
connected mainframes and computers in the entire building. In this setup people in the
organization can send information to different people in different parts of the organization.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN). The network is now extended outside of the building to
different locations but within the country.

3. Global Area Network (GAN). The network is extended to different countries.

4. Wireless Network. A wireless network uses frequency emitted by the router to connect to
the network.

Networks are usually connected to mainframes and/or servers in. Mainframe computers,
sometimes called supercomputers perform various computations. Servers on the other hand provide
information to users.

There is also some equipment needed to be able to connect to networks:

1. Network Interface Card (NIC). An NIC is usually inserted in a slot in the motherboard.
This is to allow the unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) connection to the computer for connection to
the network.

2. Routers. Are used to connect computers to the same network or another network.

3. Modem. This equipment convert digital signal transmitted by the sender produced by a
computer to analog signal and will be converted back to digital signal by the modem on the
receiver’s end.

Internet

The internet connects different individuals and organizations throughout the world for the
exchange of information. In the 1969, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the United
States Department of Defense entered into a contract with Bolt, Baraulk and Newman (BBN) to
develop a packet-switched network and used internet protocol (IP). The Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network (ARPANET) was to connect to University of California (UCLA), Stanford Research
Institute and the University of Utah for research development. In 1972, the ARPANET was connected
to 37 different locations.

In 1974, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn developed the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
to increase the use of ARPANET and became Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) in 1976. In 1975, the ARPANET later on had a controlling department called the Defense
Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA), which put a limit to the access to ARPANET. In
1983, TCP/IP was adopted as the standard network protocol.

In 1984, the domain name service was developed to convert numerical addresses into text. In
1990, the European Center for Nuclear Research (CERN) started the concept of web pages and
the

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World Wide Web (WWW). The Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) was developed in 1992 to
create web pages.

The following are the uses of the internet:

2. Electronic Mail (E-mail). This can send and receive mail type communication. Files can
also be attached as part of the mail.

3. Research. Various sources are available for different topics being searched in the internet.

4. Entertainment. Entertainment comes in different forms. From watching videos, listening

to music and games.

5. File Download and Upload. When a file is being uploaded or downloaded the file
transfer protocol (FTP) is used.

6. Electronic Commerce (E-commerce). Business transactions can now be made by using

the internet. Transaction inquiry, purchasing and ordering can now be done using e-commerce
systems.

7. Chat. Communication via text or voice can be used.

Internet connections are provided by internet service providers (ISP). The ISPs assign
internet address to users. Internet address are usually typed in text form then converted to
numeric form. For example, the internet address typed by the user is http://www.school.edu.ph.
The internet address in text form is converted to numeric form like 192.175.34.213. Internet
addresses are known as universal resource locators (URL).

The following are the different parts that comprise the internet address:

2. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http). This controls the access to different web sites.

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 3. World Wide Web (www). A form of communication to gain access to information, do
business transactions and to communicate with other individuals when connecting through the
internet.

4. Domain Name. In the example above school is the domain name. It is the name assigned
to the web site owner (individual or organization).

5. Domain Top. This determines the type of organization that owns the website. There
are different types of domain top mainly:

a. .com. For commercial sites

b. .gov. For government sites.

c. .org. For organizations.

d. .edu. For education like schools, colleges and universities.

6. Internet Country Code. Country code are sometimes specifying as to distinguish the web
site from others.

Network Security

` Network security tries to prevent damage, destruction or theft of data in the computer
system from different threats coming from the internet or within the network. The following are the
threats to security of data:

1. Hackers. Hacking is done by peopled called hackers that are able to penetrate or gain
access to computer systems (IT Business Edge, 2012; TechTarget, 2012). However past definition was
the opposite according to Eric Raymond (in Palmer, 2001) “A person who enjoys learning the details
of computer systems and how to stretch their capabilities—as opposed to most users of computers,
who prefer to learn only the minimum amount necessary” and “one who programs enthusiastically
or who enjoys programming rather than just theorizing about programming.” Hacking before has a
positive connotation it was even considered ethical or as something good as compared to today’s
definition where it is associated with criminal activities.

During the time when creating computer programs was growing significantly programs
developers were creating more and more complex programs that became expensive. People wanted
to get a copy of the software so they started getting or stealing passwords, backdoors, intrusions, etc.
Eventually this activity was pushed further and thereby doing damage to computer systems. As the
number of intrusions grew this became a concern and the media picked up on the story and coined
the term hackers.

2. Viruses. Viruses attaches itself to a file or program, once the file is activated it will be
loaded into the main memory. When another file or program is called the virus will attach itself again.
This cycle happens over and over until the hard disk drive is flooded and this files or programs may
become damaged or corrupted.

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 3. Trojans. These are computer programs that were downloaded and installed in the
computer. They appear to be performing a useful function but in reality it is actually doing damage to
the computer system, i.e. stealing data.

4. Worms. Worms often reside in the memory when activated it spreads throughout
the computer system.

Passwords

A password is a string of characters used to verify the identity of a user during the
authentication process. Passwords are typically used in conjuncture with a username; they are
designed to be known only to the user and allow that user to gain access to a device, application or
website.
Passwords can vary in length and can contain letters, numbers and special characters. Other terms
that can be used interchangeably are passphrase for when the password uses more than one word,
and passcode and passkey for when the password uses only numbers instead of a mix of characters,
such as a personal identification number. (Madeline Bacon)

The problem why users get hacked is because they use passwords that have some sort
of meaning to them such as birthday, name of relatives and love ones and even pets. There are
also common passwords that people use (CNN Business, 2019):

1. 123456

2. 123456789

3. qwerty

4. password

5. 111111

6. 12345678

7. abc123

8. 1234567

9. password1

10. 12345

To strengthen passwords it is advised that the user:

1. Have at least 1 capital letter

2. Have at least 1 number; and

3. A special character (i.e. punctuation marks or symbols found above the numbers of
the keyboard)

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 3. Tertiary Storage. Slowest in terms of access time. Examples of tertiary storage are magnetic
tape and optical storage.

Physical Storage Media

1. Registers. Are storage units the can hold data and instructions undergoing processing by
the control unit and the arithmetic-logic unit. There are two types of registers:

a. General Purpose Registers. A register that is used in different ways.

b. Special Purpose Registers. It is used to perform a specific activity.

 Accumulator Register. Stores the result of an arithmetic operation.

 Instruction Register. It is where instructions are stored while waiting to be processed.
 Address Register. The address or location of the instruction is stored.

2. Cache. It is a memory located in the random access memory that stores data,
instructions and results of the CPU. It holds information from recently accessed files. It the file
is needed again the time needed to display the file is reduced as compared to if it the file is to
be retrieved from the hard disk drive. Without cache access to files will take longer and the
CPU will have to wait until results and instructions from the CPU a0re load0ed back into the
RAM.
Flash Memory. A type of secondary memory where data can be written and can be erased. Used in
embedded devices such as digital cameras, cellular phones and video cameras to name a