Contemporary Educational Psychology 25, 54—67 (2000)

doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and

New Directions

Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci

University of Rochester

and extrinsic types of motivation have been widely studied, and the
Intrinsic
distinction between them has shed important light on both developmental and educa-
tional practices. In this review we revisit the classic definitions of intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation in light of contemporary research and theory. Intrinsic motiva-
tion remains an important construct, reflecting the natural human propensity to learn
and However, extrinsic motivation is argued to vary considerably in its
assimilate.
relativeautonomy and thus can either reflect external control or true self-regulation.
The relations of both classes of motives to basic human needs for autonomy, compe-
tence and relatedness are discussed. 0 2000 Academic Press

To be motivated means to be moved to do something. A person who feels

no impetus or inspiration to act is thus characterized as unmotivated, whereas
someone who is energized or activated toward an end is considered moti-
vated. Most everyone who works or plays with others is, accordingly, con-
cerned with motivation, facing the question of how much motivation those
and practitioners of all types face the peren-
others, or oneself, has for a task,
nial task of fostering more versus less motivation in those around them. Most
theories of motivation reflect these concerns by viewing motivation as a uni-
tary phenomenon, one that varies from very little motivation to act to a great
deal of it.

Yet, even brief reflection suggests that motivation is hardly a unitary phe-
nomenon. People have not only different amounts, but also different kinds
of motivation. That they vary not only in level of motivation (i.e., how
is,

much motivation), but also in the orientation of that motivation (i.e., what
type of motivation). Orientation of motivation concerns the underlying atti-

tudes and goals that give rise to action—that is, it concerns the why of ac-
tions. As an example, a student can be highly motivated to do homework
out of curiosity and interest because he or she wants to
or, alternatively,

procure the approval of a teacher or parent. A student could be motivated

Address correspondence and reprint requests to Richard Ryan, University of Rochester,

Meliora 492, Rochester, NY 14627.

54
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Copyright 0 2000 by Academic Press
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS 55

to learn a new set of skills because he or she understands their potential

utility or value or because learning the skills will yield a good grade and
the privileges a good grade examples the amount of motiva-
affords. In these
tion does not necessarily vary, but the nature and focus of the motivation
being evidenced certainly does.
In Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan,
1985) we distinguish
between different types of motivation based on the different reasons or goals
that give rise to an action. The most basic distinction is between intrinsic
motivation, which refers to doing something because it is inherently interest-
ing or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something
because it leads to a separable outcome. Over three decades of research has
shown that the quality of experience and performance can be very different
when one is behaving for intrinsic versus extrinsic reasons. One purpose of
this review is to revisit this classic distinction between and extrinsic
intrinsic
motivation and to summarize the functional differences of these two general
types of motivation.
Intrinsic motivation has an important phenomena for educa-
emerged as
tors—a natural wellspring of learning and achievement that can be systemati-
cally catalyzed or undermined by parent and teacher practices (Ryan &
Stiller, 1991). Because intrinsic motivation results in high-quality learning

and creativity, it is especially important to detail the factors and forces that
engender versus undermine it.
However, equally important in the current review is the explication of
the very different types of motivation that fall into the category of extrinsic
motivation. In the classic literature, extrinsic motivation has typically been
characterized as a pale and impoverished (even if powerful) form of motiva-
tion that contrasts with intrinsic motivation (e.g., deCharms, 1968). How-
ever, SDT proposes that there are varied types of extrinsic motivation, some
of which do, indeed, represent impoverished forms of motivation and some
of which represent active, agentic states.
Students can perform extrinsically motivated actions with resentment, re-
sistance, and disinterest or, alternatively, with an attitude of willingness that
reflects an inner acceptance of the value or utility of a task. In the former
case—the classic case of extrinsic motivation—one feels externally pro-
pelled into action; in the later case, the extrinsic goal is self-endorsed and
thus adopted with a sense of volition. Understanding these different types
of extrinsic motivation, and what fosters each of them, is an important issue
for educators who cannot always rely on intrinsic motivation to foster learn-
ing. Frankly speaking, because many of the tasks that educators want their
students to perform are not inherently interesting or enjoyable, knowing how
topromote more active and volitional (versus passive and controlling) forms
of extrinsic motivation becomes an essential strategy for successful teaching.
56 RYAN AND DECI

We detail in this article not only the different types of motivational orienta-
tion that exist within the global extrinsic category, but moreover, their differ-
ential antecedents and consequences.
In sum, our aim in this article is to revisit the classic distinction between
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and detail the conditions that fosters each.
Second, we model of differing types of extrinsic motivation. Our
describe a
concern here is with how teachers, parents and other socializers can lead
students to internalize the responsibility and sense of value for extrinsic goals
or, alternatively, how they can foster the more typically depicted alienated' ' ' '

type of extrinsic motivation that is associated with low student persistence,

interest, and involvement.

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent
satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence. When intrinsically
motivated a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed rather
than because of external prods, pressures, or rewards. The phenomenon of
intrinsic motivation was acknowledged within experimental studies of
first

animal behavior, where it was discovered that many organisms engage in

exploratory, playful, and curiosity-driven behaviors even in the absence of
reinforcement or reward (White, 1959). These spontaneous behaviors, al-
though clearly bestowing adaptive benefits on the organism, appear not to be
done for any such instrumental reason, but rather for the positive experiences
associated with exercising and extending ones capacities.
In humans, intrinsic motivation is not the only form of motivation, or even
of volitional activity, but it is a pervasive and important one. From birth
onward, humans, in their healthiest states, are active, inquisitive, curious,

and playful creatures, displaying a ubiquitous readiness to learn and explore,

and they do not require extraneous incentives to do so. This natural motiva-
tional tendency is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical devel-
opment because it is through acting on one's inherent interests that one grows
in knowledge and skills. The inclinations to take interest in novelty, to ac-
tively assimilate, and to creatively apply our skills is not limited to childhood,
but is a significant feature of human nature that affects performance, persis-
tence,and well-being across life's epochs (Ryan & LaGuardia, in press).
Although, in one sense, intrinsic motivation exists within individuals, in
another sense intrinsic motivation exists in the relation between individuals
and activities. People are intrinsically motivated for some activities and not
others,and not everyone is intrinsically motivated for any particular task.
Because intrinsic motivation exists in the nexus between a person and a
task, some authors have defined intrinsic motivation in terms of the task
being interesting while others have defined it in terms of the satisfactions a
person gains from intrinsically motivated task engagement. In part, these
 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS 57

different definitions derive from the fact that the concept of intrinsic motiva-
tionwas proposed as a critical reaction to the two behavioral theories that
were dominant in empirical psychology from the 1940s to the 1960s.
Specifically,because operant theory (Skinner, 1953) maintained that all
behaviors are motivated by rewards (i.e., by separable consequence such as
food or money), intrinsically motivated activities were said to be ones for
which the reward was in the activity itself. Thus, researchers investigated
what task characteristics make an activity interesting. In contrast, because
learning theory (Hull, 1943) asserted that all behaviors are motivated by
physiological drives (and their derivatives), intrinsically motivated activities
were said to be ones that provided satisfaction of innate psychological needs.
Thus, researchers explored what basic needs are satisfied by intrinsically
motivated behaviors.
Our own approach focuses primarily on psychological needs—namely,
the innate needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness—but of we
course recognize that basic need satisfaction accrues in part from engaging
we do sometimes speak of intrinsically inter-
in interesting activities. Thus,
esting activities, but when we do so we are really only talking about tasks
that, on average, many people find to be intrinsically interesting. There is

considerable practical utility in focusing on task properties and their potential

intrinsic interest, as it leads toward improved task design or selection to
enhance motivation.

Operational Definitions
Intrinsic motivation hasbeen operationally defined in various ways, al-
though there have been two measures that have been most often used. Basic
experimental research (e.g., Deci, 1971) has rested primarily on a behavioral
measure of intrinsic motivation called the "free choice" measure. In experi-
ments using measure participants are exposed to a task under varying
this
conditions (e.g., getting a reward or not). Following this period, the experi-
menter tells participants they will not be asked to work with the target task
any further, and they are then left alone in the experimental room with the
target task as well as various distractor activities. They thus have a period
of "free choice" about whether to return to the activity, and it is assumed
that, if there is no extrinsic reason to do the task (e.g., no reward and no

approval), then the more time they spend with the target task, the more intrin-
sically motivated they are for that task. This measure has been the mainstay
through which the dynamics of intrinsic motivation have been experimen-
tally studied.
The other common approach measurement of intrinsic motivation
to the
is the use of self-reports of interest and enjoyment of the activity per se.

Experimental studies typically rely on task-specific measures (e.g. Ryan,

1982; Harackiewicz, 1979). Most field studies have instead used more gen-
58 RYAN AND DECI

eral, "domain" focused measures, such as one's intrinsic motivation for

school (e.g., Harter, 1981).

Facilitating versus Undermining Intrinsic Motivation

Despite the observable evidence that humans are liberally endowed with
intrinsic motivational tendencies, this propensity appears to be expressed
only under specifiable conditions. Research into intrinsic motivation has thus
placed much emphasis on those conditions that elicit, sustain, and enhance
this special type of motivation versus those that subdue or diminish it. Self-
Determination Theory is specificallyframed in terms of social and environ-
mental factors that facilitate versus undermine intrinsic motivation. This lan-
guage reflects the assumption that intrinsic motivation, being an inherent
organismic propensity, is catalyzed (rather than caused) when individuals
are in conditions that conduce toward its expression.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) was presented by Deci and Ryan
(1985) to specify the factors in social contexts that produce variability in
intrinsic motivation. CET, which is considered a subtheory of self-determina-
tion theory, argues that interpersonal events and structures (e.g., rewards,
communications, feedback) that conduce toward feelings of competence dur-
ing action can enhance intrinsic motivation for that action because they allow
satisfaction of the basic psychological need for competence. Accordingly,
for example, optimal challenges, effectance promoting feedback, and free-
dom from demeaning evaluations are all predicted to facilitate intrinsic moti-
vation.
CET further specifies that feelings of competence will not enhance intrin-
sic motivation unless they are accompanied by a sense of autonomy or, in

attributional terms, by an internal perceived locus of causality (IPLOC; de-

Charms, 1968). Thus, people must not only experience perceived compe-
tence (or self-efficacy), they must also experience their behavior to be self-
determined if intrinsic motivation is to be maintained or enhanced. Stated
differently, for a high level of intrinsic motivation people must experience
satisfaction of the needs both for competence and autonomy. Much of the
research has focused on the effects of immediate contextual conditions that
either support or thwart the needs for competence and autonomy, but some
has recognized that the supports can, to some extent, come from individuals'
abiding inner resources that support their ongoing feelings of competence
and autonomy.
The tenets of CET, with their primary focus on the needs for competence
and autonomy, were formulated to integrate a set of results from initial stud-
ies of the effects of rewards, feedback, and other external events on intrinsic
motivation. Subsequently, they have been confirmed in both laboratory ex-
periments and applied field studies, many of which have been done in class-
rooms.
 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS 59

Several early studies showed that positive performance feedback enhanced

intrinsicmotivation (e.g., Deci, 1971; Harackiewicz, 1979), whereas nega-
tive performance feedback diminished it (e.g., Deci &
Cascio, 1972). Others
(e.g., Vallerand & Reid, 1984) showed that perceived competence mediated
these effects, and still others supported the hypothesis that increases in per-
ceived competence must be accompanied by a sense of autonomy in order
for the enhanced feelings of competence to result in increased intrinsic moti-
vation (Ryan, 1982).
In fact, the majority of the research on the effects of environmental events
on intrinsic motivation has focused on the issue of autonomy versus control
rather than that of competence. And this issue has been considerably more
controversial. The research began with the demonstration that extrinsic re-
wards can undermine intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1971; Lepper, Greene, &
Nisbett, 1973), which we interpret in terms of the reward shifting people
from a more internal to external perceived locus of causality. Although the
issue of rewards has been hotly debated, a recent meta-analysis (Deci, Koes-
tner, & Ryan, in press) confirms that virtually every type of expected tangible
reward made contingent on task performance does, in fact, undermine intrin-
sic motivation. Furthermore, not only tangible rewards, but also threats
(Deci & Cascio, 1972), deadlines (Amabile, DeJong, & Lepper, 1976), direc-
tives (Koestner, Ryan, Bernieri, & Holt, 1984), and competition pressure
(Reeve & Deci, 1996) diminish intrinsic motivation because, according to
CET, people experience them as controllers of their behavior. On the other
hand, choice and the opportunity for self-direction (e.g., Zuckerman, Porac,
Lathin, Smith, & Deci, 1978) appear to enhance intrinsic motivation, as they
afford a greater sense of autonomy.
The significance of autonomy versus control for the maintenance of intrin-
sic motivation has been clearly observed in studies of classroom learning.
For example, several studies have shown that autonomy-supportive (in con-
trast to controlling) teachers catalyze in their students greater intrinsic moti-
vation, curiosity, and the desire for challenge (e.g., Deci, Nezlek, & Shein-
man, 1981; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986). Students who are overly controlled not
only lose initiative but also learn less well, especially when learning is com-
plex or requires conceptual, creative processing (Benware & Deci, 1984;
Grolnick &
Ryan, 1987). Similarly, studies show children of parents who
are more autonomy supportive to be more mastery oriented—more likely to
spontaneously explore and extend themselves—than children of parents who
are more controlling (Grolnick, Deci, & Ryan, 1997).
To summarize, the CET aspect of SDT suggests that classroom and home
environments can facilitate or forestall intrinsic motivation by supporting
versus thwarting the needs for autonomy and competence. However, it is
critical to remember that intrinsic motivation will occur only for activities
that hold intrinsic interest for an individual—those that have the appeal of
60 RYAN AND DECI

novelty, challenge, or aesthetic value for that individual. For activities that
do not hold such appeal, the principles of CET do not apply. To understand
the motivation for activities that are not experienced as inherently interesting,
we need to look more deeply into the nature and dynamics of extrinsic moti-
vation.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Although intrinsic motivation is clearly an important type of motivation,
most of the activities people do are not, strictly speaking, intrinsically moti-
vated. This is especially the case after early childhood, as the freedom to be
intrinsically motivated becomes increasingly curtailed by social demands
and roles that require individuals to assume responsibility for nonintrinsically
interesting tasks. In schools, for example, it appears that intrinsic motivation
becomes weaker with each advancing grade.
Extrinsic motivation is a construct that pertains whenever an activity is

done in order to attain some separable outcome. Extrinsic motivation thus

contrasts with intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing an activity simply
for theenjoyment of the activity itself, rather than its instrumental value.
However, unlike some perspectives that view extrinsically motivated behav-
ior as invariantly nonautonomous, SDT
proposes that extrinsic motivation
can vary greatly in the degree to which it is autonomous. For example, a
student who does his homework only because he fears parental sanctions for
not doing it is extrinsically motivated because he is doing the work in order
to attain the separable outcome of avoiding sanctions. Similarly, a student
who does the work because she personally believes it is valuable for her
chosen career is also extrinsically motivated because she too is doing it for its
instrumental value rather than because she finds it interesting. Both examples
involve instrumentalities, yet the latter case entails personal endorsement
and a feeling of choice, whereas the former involves mere compliance with
an external control. Both represent intentional behavior, but the two types
of extrinsic motivation vary in their relative autonomy.
Given that many of the educational activities prescribed in schools are not
designed to be intrinsically interesting, a central question concerns how to
motivate students to value and self-regulate such activities, and without ex-
ternal pressure, to carry them out on their own. This problem is described
within SDT in terms of fostering the internalization and integration of values
and behavioral regulations (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Internalization is the pro-
cess of taking in a value or regulation, and integration is the process by
which individuals more fully transform the regulation into their own so that
it will emanate from their sense of self. Thought of as a continuum, the

concept of internalization describes how one's motivation for behavior can

range from amotivation or unwillingness, to passive compliance, to active
personal commitment. With increasing internalization (and its associated
 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS 61

Exü-insic motivation

REGULATORY Amotivation Intrinsic

STYLES Motivation

External
regulation Introjection Identification Integration

ASSOCIATED Perceived non- Saliance of Ego involvement Conscious valuing Hierarchical Interest/
PROCESSES contingency extrinsic Focus on of activity synthesis of Enjoyment
Low perceived rewards or approval from Self-endorsement goals Inherent
competence pubishments self or others of goals Congruence satisfaction
Nonrelevance Compliance/
Nonintentionality Reactance

PERCEIVED Impersonal External Somewhat Somewhat Internal Internal

LOCUS OF External Internal
CAUSALITY

FIG. 1. A taxonomy of human motivation.

sense of personal commitment) come greater persistence, more positive self-

perceptions, and better quality of engagement.
Within SDT a second subtheory, referred to as Organismic Integration
Theory (01 T), was introduced to detail the different forms of extrinsic moti-
vation and the contextual factors that either promote or hinder internalization
and integration of the regulation for these behaviors (Deci & Ryan, 1985).
Figure I illustrates the OIT taxonomy of types of motivation, arranged from
left to right in terms of the extent to which the motivation for one's behavior

emanates from one's self.

At the far left is amotivation, which is the state of lacking an intention to
act. When amotivated, a person's behavior lacks intentionality and a sense

of personal causation. Amotivation results from not valuing an activity

(Ryan, 1995), not feeling competent to do it (Deci, 1975), or not believing
it will yield a desired outcome (Seligman, 1975). Theorists who have treated

motivation as a unitary concept (e.g., Bandura, 1986) have been concerned

only with the distinction between what we call amotivation and motivation.
However, one can see from Fig. I that to the right of amotivation are various
types of motivation that we have organized to reflect their differing degrees
of autonomy or self-determination.
Just to the right of amotivation, is a category that represents the least au-
tonomous forms of extrinsic motivation, a category we label external regula-
tion. Such behaviors are performed to satisfy an external demand or obtain

an externally imposed reward contingency. Individuals typically experience

externally regulated behavior as controlled or alienated, and their actions
62 RYAN AND DECI

have an external perceived locus of causality (EPLOC; deCharms, 1968).

External regulation is the only kind of motivation recognized by operant
theorists (e.g., Skinner, 1953), and it is this type of extrinsic motivation that
was typically contrasted with intrinsic motivation in early lab studies and
discussions.
A
second type of extrinsic motivation is introjected regulation. Introjec-
tion describes a type of internal regulation that is still quite controlling be-
cause people perform such actions with the feeling of pressure in order to
avoid guilt or anxiety or to attain ego-enhancements or pride. Put differently,
introjection represents regulation by contingent form
self-esteem. A classic
of introjection is ego involvement (Nicholls, 1984; Ryan, 1982), in which a
person performs an act in order to enhance or maintain self-esteem and the
feeling of worth. Although the regulation is internal to the person, introjected
behaviors are not experienced as fully part of the self and thus still have an
EPLOC.
A more autonomous, or self-determined, form of extrinsic motivation is

regulation through identification. Here, the person has identified with the
personal importance of a behavior and has thus accepted its regulation as
his or her own. A boy who memorizes spelling lists because he sees it as
relevant to writing, which he values as a life goal, has identified with the
value of this learning activity.
Finally, the most autonomous form of extrinsic motivation is integrated
regulation. Integration occurs when have been fully
identified regulations
assimilated to the self. This occurs through self-examination and bringing
new regulations into congruence with one's other values and needs. The
more one internalizes the reasons for an action and assimilates them to the
self, the more one's extrinsically motivated actions become self-determined.

Integrated forms of motivation share many qualities with intrinsic motiva-

tion, being both autonomous and unconflicted. However, they are still extrin-

sicbecause behavior motivated by integrated regulation is done for its pre-

sumed instrumental value with respect to some outcome that is separate from
the behavior, even though it is volitional and valued by the self.

At the far right hand end of the figure is intrinsic motivation. This place-
ment emphasizes that intrinsic motivation is a prototype of self-determined
activity. Yet, as implied above, this does not mean that as extrinsic regula-
tions become more internalized they are transformed into intrinsic motiva-
tion.

The process of internalization is developmentally important, as social val-

ues and regulations are continually being internalized over the life span. Still,

we do not suggest that the continuum underlying types of extrinsic motiva-

tion is a developmental continuum, per se. One does not have to progress
through each stage of internalization with respect to a particular regulation;
indeed, one can initially adopt a new behavioral regulation at any point along
 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS 63

this continuum depending upon prior experiences and situational factors

(Ryan, 1995). Some behaviors could begin as introjects, others as identifica-
tions. A
person might originally get exposed to an activity because of an
external regulation (e.g., a reward), and (if the reward is not perceived as
too controlling) such exposure might allow the person to experience the ac-
an orientation shift.
tivity's intrinsically interesting properties, resulting in
Or a person who has identified with the value of an activity might lose that
sense of value under a controlling mentor and move "backward" into an
external regulatory mode. Thus, while there are predictable reasons for
movement between orientations, there is no necessary "sequence." Devel-
opmental issues are, however, evident in two ways: (l) the types of behaviors
and values that can be assimilated to the self increase with growing cognitive
and ego capacities and (2) appears that people's general regulatory style
it

does, on average, tend to become more "internal" over time (e.g., Chan-
dler & Connell, 1987), in accord with the general organismic tendencies
toward autonomy and self-regulation (Ryan, 1995).
Ryan and Connell (1989) tested the formulation that these different types
of motivation do indeed lie along a continuum of relative autonomy. They
investigated achievement behaviors (e.g., doing homework) among elemen-
tary school children, assessing external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic
reasons for engaging in these behaviors. They found that the four types of
regulation were intercorrelated according to a quasi-simplex (ordered corre-
lation) pattern, thus providing evidence for an underlying continuum of au-
tonomy. Differences in attitudes and adjustment were also associated with
the different types of extrinsic motivation. For example, the more students
were externally regulated the less they showed interest, value, or effort, and
the more they indicated a tendency to blame others, such as the teacher, for
negative outcomes. Introjected regulation was positively related to ex-
pending effort, but was also related to more anxiety and to poorer coping
with failures. Identified regulation was associated with greater enjoyment of
school and more positive coping styles. And intrinsic motivation was corre-
lated with interest, enjoyment, felt competence, and positive coping.
Subsequent studies have extended these findings concerning types of ex-
trinsic motivation, showing for example that more autonomous extrinsic mo-

tivation is associated with greater engagement (Connell & Wellborn, 1990),

better performance (Miserandino, 1996), less dropping out (Vallerand & Bis-
sonnette, 1992), higher quality learning (Grolnick & Ryan, 1987), and
greater psychological well-being (Sheldon & Kasser, 1995), among other
outcomes. Additionally, there appears to be cross-cultural generalizability to
the model as presented in Fig. 1 (e.g., Hayamizu, 1997).
Greater internalization appears, then, to yield manifold adaptive advan-
tages (Ryan, Kuhl, & Deci, 1997), including more behavioral effectiveness
(due to lessened conflict and greater access to personal resources) and greater
64 RYAN AND DECI

experienced well-being. Given the clear significance of internalization for

both personal experience and behavioral and performance outcomes, the crit-

ical applied issue concerns how to promote the autonomous regulation of

extrinsically motivated behaviors.
Because extrinsically motivated behaviors are not inherently interesting
and thus must initially be externally prompted, the primary reason people
are likely to be willing to do the behaviors is that they are valued by signifi-
cant others to whom they feel (or would like to feel) connected, whether
that be a family, a peer group, or a society. This suggests that the groundwork
for facilitating internalization is providing a sense of belongingness and con-
nectedness to the persons, group, or culture disseminating a goal, or what
in SDT we call a sense of relatedness. In classrooms this means that students '

feeling respected and cared for by the teacher is essential for their willingness
to accept the proffered classroom values. In support of this, Ryan, Stiller,

and Lynch (1994) found that relatedness to teachers (and parents) was associ-
ated with greater internalization of school-related behavioral regulations.
A second issue concerns perceived competence. Adopting as one's own
an extrinsic goal requires that one feel efficacious with respect to it. Students
will more likely adopt and internalize a goal if they understand it and have
the relevant skills to succeed at it. Thus, we theorize that supports for compe-
tence (e.g., offering optimal challenges and effectance-relevant feedback)
facilitate internalization.

According to the SDT approach, a regulation that has been internalized

may be only introjected, and that type of regulation could well leave people
feeling satisfaction of their needs for competence and relatedness. However,
to only introject a regulation and thus to be controlled by it will not leave
the people feeling self-determined. We therefore suggest that autonomy sup-
port also facilitates internalization; in fact, it is the critical element for a
regulation being integrated rather than just introjected. Controlling contexts
may yield introjected regulation if they support competence and relatedness,
but only autonomy supportive contexts will yield integrated self-regulation.
To fully internalize a regulation, and thus to become autonomous with re-
spect to it, people must inwardly grasp its meaning and worth. It is these
meanings that become and integrated in environments that pro-
internalized
vide supports for the needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy.
Again, research has supported this reasoning. Deci, Eghrari, Patrick, and
Leone (1994) experimentally demonstrated that providing a meaningful ra-
tionale for an uninteresting behavior, along with supports for autonomy and
relatedness, promoted internalization and integration. Controlling contexts
yielded less overall internalization, but even more interesting, the internaliza-
tion that did occur in controlling contexts tended to be only introjected. In
a study involving parent interviews, Grolnick and Ryan (1989) found higher
levels of internalization and integration of school-related values among chil-
 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS 65

dren whose parents were more supportive of autonomy and relatedness. Wil-
liams and Deci (1996) used a longitudinal design to show greater internaliza-
tion among medical students whose instructors were more autonomy and
competence supportive. These are a few of the findings in this area that sug-
gesthow supports for relatedness and competence facilitate internalization
and how support for autonomy additionally facilitates the integration of be-
havioral regulations. When competent and
that occurs, people not only feel
related, but also self-determined, as they carry out extrinsically valued activi-
ties.

CONCLUSIONS
We have briefly presented self-determination theory in order to make the
between behaviors that are volitional and accompanied
critical distinction

by the experience of freedom and autonomy—those that emanate from one's

sense of self—and those that are accompanied by the experience of pressure
and control and are not representative of one's self. Intrinsically motivated
behaviors, which are performed out of interest and satisfy the innate psycho-
logical needs for competence and autonomy are the prototype of self-deter-
mined behavior. Extrinsically motivated behaviors—those that are executed
because they are instrumental to some separable consequence—can vary in
the extent to which they represent self-determination. Internalization and in-
tegration are the processes through which extrinsically motivated behaviors
become more self-determined.
Wereviewed studies that have specified the social contextual conditions
that support intrinsic motivation and facilitate internalization and integration
of extrinsically motivated tasks. The studies have been interpreted in terms
of the basic psychological needs. That is, we saw that social contextual con-
ditions that support one's feelings of competence, autonomy, and relatedness
are the basis for one maintaining intrinsic motivation and becoming more
self-determined with respect to extrinsic motivation. We pointed out that in
schools, the facilitation of more self-determined learning requires classroom
conditions that allow satisfaction of these three basic human needs—that is

that support the innate needs to feel connected, effective, and agentic as one
is exposed to new ideas and exercises new skills.

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