CHAPTER 5

PRESSURE VESSELS
1. Introduction
The cylindrical pressure vessels
vess are divided into two groups - thin and thick cylinders.
A cylinder is considered
onsidered thin when the ratio of its inner diameter to the wall thickness is
more than 15. Boiler shells, pipes, tubes, and storage tanks are treated as thin
cylinders.
When the ratio of the inner diameter of the cylinder to the wall thickness is less than 15,
the cylinder is called a thick-walled
walled cylinder or simply thick cylinder. Hydraulic cylinders,
high pressure
ressure pipes and gun barrels are examples of thick cylinders.
The difference between the analysis of stresses in thin and thick cylinders is as follows:

(i) In thin cylinders, it is assumed that the tangential stress (σ ( t) is uniformly distributed
over the
he cylinder wall thickness. In thick cylinders, the tangential stress ((σt) has highest
magnitude at the inner surface of the cylinder and gradually decreases towards the
outer surface.
(ii) The radial stress (σr) is neglected in thin cylinders, while it is of significant magnitude
in case of thick cylinders.

2. Thin cylindrical vessel subjected to internal pressure

Fig. 1 shows a thin cylindrical vessel in which a fluid under pressure is stored.

Fig. 1

1
On account of the internal pressure p, the cylindrical vessel may fail by splitting up in
any one of the
he two ways as shown in Fig. 2 (a) and 2 (b).
The forces, due to pressure of the fluid acting vertically upwards and downwards on the
thin cylinder, tend to burst the
he cylinder as shown in Fig. 2 (a).
The forces, due to pressure of the fluid, acting at the ends of the thin cylinder, tend to
burst the thin
in cylinder as shown in Fig. 2 (b).
Let d = Internal diameter of the thin cylinder
t = Thickness of the wall of the cylinder
p = Internal pressure of the fluid
L = Length of the cylinder.

Fig. 2

3. Stresses in a thin cylindrical vessel subjected to internal pressure

When a thin cylindrical vessel is subjected to internal fluid pressure, the stresses in the
wall of the cylinder on the cross-section
cross section along the axis and on the cross cross-section
perpendicular to the axis are set up. These stresses are tensile and are known as
1. Circumferential stress (or hoop stress) and
2. Longitudinal stress.
The name of the stress, is given according to the direction in which the stress is acting.
The stress acting along the circumference of the cylinder is called circumferential stress
whereas the stress acting along the length of the cylinder (i.e., in the longitudinal

2
direction) is known as longitudinal stress. The circumferential stress is also known as
hoop stress.s. The stress set up in Fig. 2 (a) is circumferential stress whereas tthe stress
set up in Fig. 2 (b)) is longitudinal stress.

4. Expression
n for circumferential stress (or hoop stress)
Consider a thin cylindrical vessel subjected to an internal fluid pressure. The
circumferential stress will be set up in the material of the cylinder, if the bursting of the
cylinder takes place as shown in Fig. 3 (a).
The expression for hoop stress or circumferential stress is obtained as given below.
Let p = Internal pressure of fluid
d = Internal diameter of the cylinder
t = Thickness of the wall of the cylinder
σt = Circumferential or hoop stress in the material.

Fig. 3

The bursting will take place if the force due to fluid pressure is more than the resisting
force due to circumferential stress set up in the material. In the limiting case, the two
forces should be equal.
Force due to fluid pressure = p x Area on which p is acting
= p x (d x L) (i)
(p is acting on projected area d x L)
Force due to circumferential stress
= σt x Area
Ar on which σt is acting
= σt x (L x t + L x t)
= σt x 2Lt = 2σt x L x t (ii)
Equating (i) and (ii), we get
p x d x L = 2σt x L x t
σt = pd/2t (cancelling L) ...(1)
This stress is tensile as shown in Fig. 3 (b).

3
5. Expression for longitudinal stress
Consider a thin cylindrical vessel subjected to internal fluid pressure. The longitudinal
stress will be set up in the material of the cylinder, if the bursting of the cylinder takes
place along the section AB of Fig. 4 (a).

Let p = Internal pressure of fluid stored in thin cylinder

d = Internal diameter of cylinder
t = Thickness of the cylinder
σL= Longitudinal stress in the material.

The bursting will take place if the force due to fluid pressure acting on the ends of the
cylinder is more than the resisting force due to longitudinal stress σL developed in tthe
material as shown in Fig. 4 (b). In the limiting case, both the forces should be equal.
Force due to fluid pressure = p x Area on which p is acting

= p d2
4

Fig. 4

Resisting force = σLX Area on which σL is acting

= σL X πd x t

:. Hence in the limiting case

Force due to fluid pressure = Resisting force

p d 2   L  d  t
4

d2
p (2)
4 pd
 L  
d  t 4t
The stress σL is also tensile. Equation (2)
( can be written as

4
 pd 1  pd 
L    t   t  
2  2t 2  2t 

or Longitudinal stress = Half of circumferential stress.

This also means that circumferential stress is two times the longitudinal stress (σL).
Hence in the material of the cylinder the permissible stress should be less than the
circumferential stress. Or in other words, the circumferential stress should not be
greater than the permissible stress.

Maximum shear stress: At any point in the material of the cylindrical shell, there are
pd
two principal stresses, namely a circumferential stress of magnitude σt = acting
2t
pd
circumferentially and a longitudinal stress of magnitude σL= acting parallel to the axis
4t
of the shell. These two stresses are tensile and perpendicular to each other.

pd pd

t  L 2 t 4t  pd
 Maximum shear stress  max   (2A)
2 2 8t

Note. (i) If the thickness of the thin cylinder is to be determined then equation (1) should be
used.
(ii) If maximum permissible stress in the material is given. This stress should be taken
circumnateferential stress (σt).
(iii) While using equations (1) and (2), the units of p, σ1 and σ2 should be same. They should be
expressed either in N/mm2 or N/m2. Also the units of d and t should be same. They may be in
metre (m) or millimetre (mm).

Examples
1. A cylindrical pipe of diameter 1.5 m and thickness 1.5 cm is subjected to an internal
fluid pressure of 1.2 N/mm2. Determine:
(i) Longitudinal stress developed in the pipe, and
(ii) Circumferential stress developed in the pipe.

Solution: Given: Diameter of pipe, d = 1.5 m, Thickness, t = 1.5 cm = 1.5 x 10-2 m

Internal fluid pressure, p = 1.2 N/mm2
As the ratio

t 1.5  10 2 1
  , which is less than 1/15, hence this is a case of thin cylinder.
d 1.5 100

5
 Here unit pressure (p) is in N/ mm2. Hence the unit of σt and σL will also be in N/mm2.

(1) The longitudinal stress (σL) is given by equation (2) as,

(ii) The circumferential stress(σ

(σt) is given by equation (1) as

2. A cylinder of internal diameter 2.5 m and of thickness 5 cm contains a gas. If the

tensile stress in the material is not to exceed 80 N/mm2, determine the internal pressure
of the gas.

Solution: Given: Internal dia. of cylinder, d = 2.5 m,

m Thickness of cylinder, t = 5 cm
= 5 x 10 m, Maximum permissible stress = 80 N/mm2,
-2

As maximum permissible stress is given. Hence this should be equal to ccircumferential

stress(σt).
We know that the circumferential stress should not be greater than the maximum
permissible stress. Hence take circumferential stress equal to maximum permissible
stress,
σt = 80 N/mm2
Let p = Internal pressure of the gas
Using equation (1),

or

3. A cylinder of internal diameter 0.50 m contains air at a pressure of 7N/mm2 (gauge). If

the maximum permissible stress induced in the material in 80 N/mm2, find the thickness
of the cylinder.
Solution: Given: Internal dia. of cylinder, d = 0.50 m,, Internal pressure of air, p = 7
N/mm2.
6
Maximum permissible stress in the material means the circumferential stress (σt).
As stated earlier that the circumferential stress should not be greater than the maximum
permissible stress. Hence take circumferential stress equal to maximum permissible
stress.
Circumferential stress, σt = 80 N/mm2
Let t = Thickness of the cylinder
Using equation (1),

If the value of t is taken 2.1875 cm, the stress induced will be 80 N/mm2. If the value of
is less than 2.1875 cm, the stress induced will be more than 80 N/mm2. But the stress
induced should not be more than 80 N/mm2. If the value of t is taken more than 2.1875
cm (say t = 2.188 cm), the stress induced will be less than 80 N/mm2.
Hence take t = 2.188 cm or say 2.2 cm. Ans.

4. A thin cylinder of internal diameter 1.25 m contains a fluid at an internal pressure of 2

N/mm2. Determine the maximum thickness of the cylinder if:
(i) The longitudinal stress is not to exceed 30 N/mm2.
(ii) The circumferential stress is not to exceed 45 N/mm2.
Solution: Given: Internal dia. of cylinder, d = 1.25 m,m Internal pressure of fluid,
p = 2 N/mm2, Longitudinal stress, σL = 30 N/mm2, Circumferential stress, σt = 45 N/mm2
Using equation (1),

Using equation (2),

7
The longitudinal or circumferential stresses induced in the material are inversely
proportional to the thickness (t) of the cylinder. Hence the stress induced will be less if
the value of ‘t’ is more. Hence take the maximum value of ‘t’ calculated in equations
(i) and (ii).
From the equations (i) and (ii) it is clear that t should not be less than 2.77 cm.
Take t = 2.80 cm. Ans.

5. A water main 80cm diameter contains water at a pressure head

he of l00
00m. If the weight
3
density of water is 9810 N/m , find the thickness of the metal required for the water
main. Given the permissible stress as 20 N/mm2.

Solution: Given: Dia. of main, d = 80 cm,

cm Pressure head of water, h = 100 m
Weight density of water, w =  x g = 1,000 x 9.81 = 9810 N/m3, Permissible stress = 20
N/mm2, Permissible stress is equal to circumferential stress (σ
( t), or σt = 20 N/mm2
Pressure of water inside the water main,
P =  x g x h = wh = 9810 x 100N/m2
Here σt is in N/mm2, hence pressure (p) should also be N/mm2. The value of p in N/mm2
is given as

Let t = Thickness of the metal required.

Using equation (1),

8
6. Efficiency of a joint

The cylindrical shells such as boilers are having two types of joints namely longitudinal
joint and circumferential joint. In case of a joint, holes are made in the material of the
shell for the rivets. Due to the holes, the area offering resistance decreases. Due to the
decrease in area, the stress (which is equal to the force divided by the area) developed
in the material of the shell will be more.
Hence in case of riveted shell the circumferential and longitudinal stresses are greater
than what are given by equations (1) and (2). If the efficiency of a longitudinal joint and
circumferential joint are given then the circumferential and longitudinal stresses are
obtained as:
Let ηt = Efficiency of a longitudinal joint, and
ηc = Efficiency of the circumferential joint.

Then the circumferential stress (бt) is given as

pd
t  (3)
2t   l
and the longitudinal stress (бL) is given as

pd
L 
4t   c (4)

Note. ( i) In longitudinal joint, the circumferential stress is developed whereas in

circumferential joint, the longitudinal stress is developed.
(ii) Efficiency of a joint means the efficiency of a longitudinal joint.
(iii) If efficiencies of a joint are given, the thickness of the thin shell is determined
from equation (3).

Examples
6. A boiler is subjected to an internal steam pressure of 2 N/mm2. The thickness of
boiler plate is 2.6 cm and permissible tensile stress is 120 N/mm2. Find out the
maximum diameter, when efficiency of longitudinal joint is 90% and that of
circumferential joint is 40%.

Solution. Given: Internal steam pressure, p = 2 N/mm2, Thickness of boiler plates,

t = 2.0 cm, Permissible tensile stress = 120 N/mm2;
In case of joints, the permissible stress may be circumferential stress or longitudinal
stress.
Efficiency of longitudinal joint, ηt = 90% = 0.90
Efficiency of circumferential joint, ηc = 40% = 0.40.
Max. diameter for circumferential stress is given by equation (3).
Using equation (3
pd
t  9
2  l  t
where бt = Given permissible stress = 120 N/mm2

Max. diameter for longitudinal stress is given by equation (4).

Using equation (4),
pd
L 
4  c  t

where бL = Given permissible stress

= 120 N/mm2.

The longitudinal or circumferential stresses induced in the material are directly

proportional to diameter (d). Hence the stress induced will be less if the value of ’d’ is
less. Hence take the minimum value of ‘d’ calculated from equations (i) and (ii).

Maximum diameter of the boiler is equal to the minimum value of diameter given by
equation (i) and (ii).
Hence maximum diameter, d = 192 cm. Ans.

(Please
Please note that if d is taken as equal to 216.0
216.0 cm, the longitudinal stress (бL) will be
more than the given permissible value as shown below:

pd 2  216
L    135 N / m 2 )
4   c  t 4  0 .4  2 .0
7. A boiler shell is to be made of 15mm thick plate having a limiting tensile stress of 120
N/mm2. If the efficiencies of the longitudinal and circumferential joints are 70% and 30%
respectively determine

10
(i) The maximum permissible diameter of the shell for an internal pressure of 2 N/mm2,
and
(ii) Permissible intensity of internal pressure when the shell diameter is 1.5 m.
Solution: Given:
Thickness of boiler shell, t = 15 mm
Limiting tensile stress = 120 N/mm2
Limiting tensile stress may be circumferential stress or longitudinal stress.
Efficiency of longitudinal joint, ηL = 70% = 0.70
Efficiency of circumferential joint, ηt = 30% = 0.30.
(i) Maximum Permissible diameter for an internal pressure,
p = 2 N/mm2.
The boiler shell should be designed for the limiting tensile stress of 120 N/mm2. First
consider the limiting tensile stress as circumferential stress and then as longitudinal
stress. The minimum diameter of the two case will satisfy the condition.
(a) Taking limiting tensile stress = Circumferential stress = бt =120 N/mm2.
But бt is also given by equation (3) as

pd 2 d
t   120  Here t is in mm hence ' d ' will be in mm
2  t  t 2  0.7 15
120  2  0.7  15
d   1260 mm i 
2
(b) Taking limiting tensile stress = Longitudinal stress
бL= 120 N/mm2.

Using equation (4),

pd 2 d
L   120 
4  c  t 4  0.30  15

120  4  0.3  15
 d  1080 mm ii 
2

Thus the maximum diameter of the shell, in order both the conditions may be satisfied
= 1080 mm. Ans.
(ii) Permissible intensity of internal pressure when the shell diameter is 1.5 m.
or d =1.5 m = 1500 mm.
(a) Taking limiting tensile stress = Circumferential stress (бt)
= 120 N/mm2
Using equation (3),
pd
t 
2 t  t

11
(b) Taking limiting tensile stress = Longitudinal stress (бl) = 120 N/mm2
Using equation (4),
pd
L 
4  c  t

Hence in order both the conditions may be satisfied the maximum permissible internal
pressure
ressure is equal to the minimum value of pressure given by (i) and (ii).

Maximum permissible internal pressure = 1.44 N/mm2

If p is taken equal to 1.68 N/mm2, then longitudinal stress бL will be,

pd 1.68  1500

L    140 N / mm 2
4   c  t 4  0.30  15
This value is more than the given limiting tensile stress.

Lame’s equation: Assuming that the longitudinal fibres of the cylindrical shell are
equally strained, Lame has shown that the tangential stress at any radius x is,

and radial stress at any radius x,

12
Since we are concerned with the internal pressure ( pi = p)) only, therefore substituting
the value of external pressure, po = 0.
Tangential stress at any radius x,

and radial stress at any radius x,

In designing a thick cylindrical shell of brittle material (e.g.

( . cast iron, hard steel and cast
aluminium) with closed or open ends and in accordance with the maximum normal
stress theory failure, the tangential stress induced in the cylinder wall,

Since ro = ri + t,, therefore substituting this value of ro in the above expression, we get

13
The value of shear stress (  ) is usually taken as one-half
one half the tensile stress (σt).
Therefore the above expression may be written as

14
Birnie’s equation: In case of open-end
open end cylinders (such as pump cylinders, rams,
gun barrels etc.) made of ductile material (i.e.
( . low carbon steel, brass, bronze, and
aluminium alloys), the allowable stresses cannot be determined by means of maximum
maximum-
stress theory of failure. In such cases, the maximum-strain
maximum strain theory is used. According to
this theory, the failure occurs when the strain
strain reaches a limiting value and Birnie’s
equation for the wall thickness of a cylinder is

The value of σt may be taken as 0.8 times the yield point stress (σy).

Clavarino’s equation: This equation is also based on the maximum

maximum-strain theory
of failure, but it is applied to closed-end
closed cylinders heads) made of ductile material.
According to this equation, the thickness of a cylinder,

In this case also, the value of σt may be taken as 0.8 σy.

Barlow’s equation : This equation is generally used for high pressure oil and gas
pipes. According to this equation, the thickness of a cylinder,

For ductile materials, σt = 0.8 σy and for brittle materials σt = 0.125 σu, where σu is the
ultimate stress.

Examples
8. A cast iron cylinder of internal diameter 200 mm and thickness 50 mm is subjected to
a pressure of 5 N/mm2. Calculate the tangential and radial stresses at the inner, middle
(radius = 125 mm) and outer surfaces.
surfaces

Solution. Given : di = 200 mm or ri = 100 mm ; t = 50 mm ; p = 5 N/mm2

We know that outer radius of the cylinder,
ro = ri + t = 100 + 50 = 150 mm

15
Tangential stresses at the inner, middle and outer surfaces
We know that the tangential stress at any radius x,



Tangential stress at the inner surface (i.e.
( when x = ri = 100 mm),

Tangential stress at the middle surface (i.e.

( when x = 125 mm),

and tangential stress at the outer surface (i.e.

( when x = ro = 150 mm),

Radial stresses at the inner, middle and outer surfaces

We know that the radial stress at any radius x,

Radial stress at the inner surface (i.e.

( when x = ri = 100 mm),

Radial stress at the middle surface (i.e.

( when x = 125 mm)

and radial stress at the outer surface (i.e.

( when x = ro = 150 mm),

16
9. A hydraulic press has a maximum capacity of 1000 kN. The piston diameter is 250
mm. Calculate the wall thickness if the cylinder is made of material for which the
permissible strength may be taken as 80 MPa. This material may be assumed as a
brittle material.

Solution. Given : W = 1000 kN = 1000 × 103 N ; d = 250 mm ; σt = 80 MPa = 80 N/mm2

First of all, let us find the pressure inside the cylinder (p). We know that load on the
hydraulic press (W),

We know that wall thickness of the cylinder

10. A closed-ended
ended cast iron cylinder of 200 mm inside diameter is to carry an internal
pressure of 10 N/mm2 with a permissible stress of 18 MPa. Determine the wall thickness
by means of Lame’s s and the maximum shear stress equations. What result would you
use? Give reason for your conclusion.
conclusion

Solution. Given : di = 200 mm or ri = 100 mm ; p = 10 N/mm2 ; σt = 18 MPa = 18 N/mm2

According to Lame’s equation, wall thickness of a cylinder,

According to maximum shear stress equation, wall thickness of a cylinder,

We know that the shear stress (τ) is usually taken one-half

one the tensile stress (σt). In the
2
present case, τ = σt / 2 = 18/2 = 9 N/mm . Since τ is less than the internal pressure ( p =
10 N/mm2), therefore the expression under the square root will be negative. Thus no
thickness can prevent failure of the cylinder. Hence it is impossible to design a cylinder
to withstand fluid pressure greater than the the allowable working stress for the given
material. This difficulty is overcome by using compound cylinders.
cylinders
Thus, we shall use a cylinder of wall thickness, t = 87 mm Ans.

17
11. The cylinder of a portable hydraulic riveter is 220 mm in diameter. The pressure of
the fluid is 14 N/mm2 by gauge. Determine suitable thickness of the cylinder wall
assuming that the maximum permissible tensile stress is not to exceed 105 MPa
MPa.

Solution. Given : di = 220 mm or ri = 110 mm ; p = 14 N/mm2 ; σt = 105 MPa = 105

N/mm2
Since the pressure of the fluid is high, therefore thick cylinder equation is used.
Assuming the material of the cylinder as steel, the thickness of the cylinder wall ((t) may
be obtained by using Birnie’s equation. We know that

...(Taking Poisson’s ratio for steel, μ = 0.3)

Exercise

1. A pressure vessel has an internal diameter of 1 m and is to be subjected to an

internal pressure of 2.75 N/mm2 above the atmospheric pressure. Considering it as a
thin cylinder and assuming the efficiency of its riveted joint to be 79%, calculate the
plate thickness if the tensile stress in the material is not to exceed 88 MPa.

2. A steam boiler, 1.2 metre in diameter,

diameter, generates steam at a gauge pressure of 0.7
2
N/mm . Assuming the efficiency of the riveted joints as 75% , find the thickness of the
shell. Given that ultimate tensile stress = 385 MPa and factor of safety = 5.

3. The maximum force exerted by a small hydraulic press is 500 kN. The working
pressure of the fluid is 20 N/mm2. Determine the diameter of the plunger, operating the
table. Also suggest the suitable thickness for the cast steel cylinder in which the plunger
operates, if the permissible stress for cast steel is 100 MPa.

4. Find the thickness of the flat end cover plates for a 1 N/mm2 boiler that has a
diameter of 600 mm. The limiting tensile stress in the boiler shell is 40 MPa.

5. The hydraulic cylinder 400 mm bore operates at a maximum pressure of 5 N/mm2.

The piston rod is connected to the load and the cylinder to the frame through hinged
joints. Design: 1. cylinder, 2. piston rod, 3. hinge pin, and 4. flat end cover
cover.
The allowable tensile stress for cast
cast steel cylinder and end cover is 80 MPa and for
piston rod is 60 MPa.
Draw the hydraulic cylinder with piston, piston rod, end cover and O-ring.
O ring.

18
19