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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 328
A Handbook on
Civil Engineering
Strength of Materials
1. Properties of Metals, Stress and Strain 8
2. Shear Force and Bending Moment 19
3, Principal Siress/Principal Strain 24
4. Theory of Failure Cn 2s
5. Dellection of Bean 28
6. Pressure Vessels F 30
7. Torsion of Shaft 34
8. Shear Centre ict AD
9. Columns at
10. Springs 43
«a> Properties of Metals,
Stress and Strain
Important Mechanical Proper!
+ Elasticity
itis the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load
Is enabledto return to its original dimension when the load is removed.
If body regains completely its original shape then itis called
“D pertectiyeasic body
smite’ Elastic limit marks the partial break down of elasticity beyond
which removal of load result in a degree of permanent |
deformation. |
Steel, Aluminium, Copper, may be considered to be perfectly
elastic within certain limit J
+ Plasticity
The characteristics of the material by which it undergoes inelastic strain
beyond those at the elastic limit is known as plasticity.
This property is particularly useful in operation of pressingand |
forging.
‘mente When large deformation occurs in a ductile material loaded in
plastic region, the material is said to undergo plastic flow.
© Ductility
Itis the property which permits a material to be drawn out longitudinally
‘02 reduced section, under the action of tensile force.
‘A ductile material must posses a high degree of piasticity
and strength.
Ductile material must have ow degree of elasticity.
This is useful in wire drawing.
+ Brittleness
Itis lack of ductility. Brittleness implies that it can not be drawn out by
tension to smaller section
2. Inbrittle material failure take place under load withoutsignificant
deformation,
MADEEASY Strength of M
Ordinary Glass is nearly ideal brittle materi
Cast iron, concrete and ceramic material at
* Malleability
itis the property of a material which permits tr
in all direction without r-pture.
[3 x 3G___ Amalieable material posses a high ¢
Z notnecessarly great strength.
. Toughness
Itis the property of material which enabies it
fracture.
haded area
Modulus of toughness U;
desirable in meteral | °
which is subjected to
cyclic or shock | 6,|
loading. |
Itis represented by area under
stress-strain curve of meterial
upto fracture,
Bend test used for common
‘comparative test of toughness,
pester
+ Hardness
Itis the ability of a material to resist indenta
VX- __Brinnell hardness test is used to che:
¢
Remember
Brinnell hardness number
where, P = Standardload
D = Diameter of stee! ball (m
4 = Diameter of indent (mn
+ Strength
This property enables material to resist fract andbook on CivilEngineering ‘i MADE EASY
portant property from design point of view.
ed to cause fracture, divided by area of test |
is termed as ultimate strength.
ent deformation which is recorded with passage of
ading, Itis plastic deformation (permanent and non-
ure,
falure at which creep is uncontrolable is called
perature.
erse cyclic loading fracture failure may occur if total,
energy exceeds the toughness. Faligue causes rough
en in ductile metals.
c strain energy which can be stored in the given
d can be released after unloading.
nder load deflection curve within elastic limit.
EEC enr
offered by the body to deformation
= Engineering sess) = eS
ress = —__toad_
"088 = Changed (Actual) Area
it length in the direction of deformation is known as
ess quantity.
MADEEASY & Strength of Materials
- a,
Engineering Stress-Strain curve of mild steel for tension under
static-loading
OA - Straight line
(proportional region,
Hiooke's law fe valid)
f DB - Elastic region
Nr 3C - Elasto plastic region
5D - Perfectly plastic region
DE - Strainhardening
EF - Necking region
"1 Sirain(%) A= Limit of proportionality
B - Elastic limit
C’- Upper yield point © = Lower yield point
D - Strain hardening starts F - Fracture point
E - Ultimate point or maximum stress point
* Limit of Proportionality
{tis the stress at which the stress-strain curve ceases to be a straight
tine
°Q!— Hooke’s law is valid upto proportional limit
© Elastic Limi -
Itis the point on the stress-strain curve upto which the materials remains
elastic
Upto this point there is no permanent deformation after removal)
7S ofload, J
* Plastic Range
{tis the region of the stress-strain curve between the elastic limit and
point of rupture.
© Yield Point
This point is just beyond the elastic limit, at which the specimen
undergoes an appreciable increase in length without further increase.
in the load.
+ Rupture Strength
Itis the stress corresponding to the failure point F' of the stress-strain
cure.
© Proof Stress
It is the stress necessary to cause a permanent extension equal to
defined percentage of gauge length. Atlandbookon Chil Engineering
m_MADEEASY
2 eee MADEEASY Strength of
Slope of OA = Modulus of elasticity | si ir
{tress-Strain Diagram for Various type «
(Young's Modulus) Z bas
itis constant of proportionality which is defined as the intensity et otto?)
* of stress that causes unit strain ee
Plastic strain is 10 to 15 times elastic strain. é
Fracture strain (<,) depends on percentage carbon in steel.
‘When carbon percentage increases then fracture strain decreases and
yield stress increases,
Type of Tension failure in Metal
‘A. Ductile metal (Shear failure)
Failure plane is at 45°
a
Cup-cone fracture
‘Shear strength < Tensile strength = Compressive str
B. Brittle metal
Failure plane at 90°with longitudinal direction
Necking is not formed and failure is due to tension failure.
Tensile strength < Shear strength < Compressive strength
Type of failure in compression
A. Ductile material B. Brittle material
P Ir
5
| Faiiure due to
bulzing
Shear failure
Plane at 45°
vt
Sigh yield staat
—
a
All grades of steel have same young’s modu
Ductile material
If post elastic strain is greater than 5%, Iti
Itundergoes large permanent strains befor
Large reduction in area before fracture
¢.g. lead, mild steel, copper
Brittle Material
If post elastic strain is less than 5%. It is ©
<4. Itails with only litle elongation afte
exceeded.
Very less reduction in area befor
ance
Rubber, Glass
Behaviour of Various Material
w
Elasto
plastic
testo plastic a
with strain
hardening roa
Wher
[mia steers more elastic than ‘Rubber
Stress. ¢ = Strain ndbook on Civil Engineering MADE EASY
haves elastically and exhibits a linear relationship
strain, itis called linearly elastic, For such materials
proportional to strain (e).
Z] —whete.c= Stross
€ = Strai
‘Young modulus of elasticity
1
En
Ensominium
of prismatic bar due to external load
sre, P = Loadapplied a
L= Length of bar y
A= Area of bar ae]
E = Young modulus I
AE/L = Axial stifiness of bar
AE = Axial rigidity P
EV/L = Flexural stiffness
El = Flexural rigidity
due to self-weight
ad
3
oxen
Stress diagram
olf weight
flection of prismatic bar of same length
scific weight ;
rath of bar i
Ing’s modulus 4
MADEEASY i Strength of Materials
Deflection (A) of Tapered Bar
‘A. Circular tapering bar
D, and D, are Diameter as shown infig.
B. Rectangular tapering bar
where, t= thickness
oad applied
E = Young modulus
lt
BO
Equivalent Young's Modulus of Parallel Composite Bar
: Rie P AgEe
equivalent = AV AS p
where, A, = Areal first bar
A, = Area of second bar
E, = Young's modulus of first bar
E, = Young's modulus of second bar
EEmicenseu
Elastic constants are those factor which determine the deformation
produced by a given stress system acting on material,
Modulus of elasticity (E) = Lonaltudinal stress.
Longitudinal strain
Shear stiess
Shear strain
Direct stress _
Volumetric strain
IModulus of rigidity (G) =
[Bulk modulus (K) = 16. ___AHandbookon Civil Engineering _
Poisson's Ratio (y)
[ (Lateral strain)
{= Tongitudinal Strain
Under uniaxial loading
Os psos
b= Ofor cork
4 = 0.5 For perfectly plastic body (Rubber)
0.25 to 0.42 for elastic metals
B= 0.1t00.2for concrete
it = 0.286 mild steel
is greater for ductile metals than for brittle metals.
MADE EASY
_ [lateral strain[
_ Longitudinal strain
H
Volumetric Strain under Tri-Axial Loading
where, = Stress in xdirection
g,, = Stress in y-direction
6, = Stress in z-direction
€, = Volumetric strain
=e, +6, +e,
Seay
Here, ¢,, ¢, and, are strain in x, y and z directions respectively.
Al, Ab and Ad are change in length, width and depth respectively.
4, b and d are original length, width and depth respectively.
MADEEASY Strength ¢
Triaxial loading on Rectangular Paralle
[ev = Longitudinal Strain + @ x1
Volumetric Strain of Sphere
x Diamettic st
&
Matrix Representation of Stress and St
3D stress matrix 3D
Su ty te ¢
Ta Ow Te
Tea ty Fz on
° 2
Relation between E, G,K,
+ [E=xKC-2)] .
9KG
» Ea :
Here, E = Young's modulus, G = shear
K = Bulk modulus, p= Poisson __AHandbook on Civil Engineering
aan ‘| Number of independent
“ elastic constant
ogeneous & Isairop)
otropic (Wood) _— |
apie I
™ MADE EASY
¥ of material to absorb energy when itis strained
Trp] Hee?
2txe| 8 = Elongation due to applied load
=e T =Applied torque
6 = Angle of twist due to applied torque
‘bility of a material to absorb energy in the elastic region
ined.
AroainderP-scune= toss
nce: Maximum energy absorbing capacity of a material
region's called proof resilience.
Arca underP cur 3A ie
Load at elastic limit
Elongation upto elastic limit
Poot Restones—o.]
Vola
us of Resilience
2
2
Strain at elastic limit
Viodulus of elasticity
and Strain
7] where, ~ Thermal atreas
Coe'ficient of thermal expansion
Temperature change
Change in length
orase > copper > Oieo!|
ar is free to expand then there will be no thermal }
16 to change in temperature.
Types of Beam
+ Simply Supported Beam
Ifthe ends of a beam are made to rest freely on supports itis call
simply (Ireely) supported beam,
=k
* Fixed Beam
Ifa beam is fixed at both ends it s called fixed beam its another n:
is encastre or built-in beam,
* Cantilever Beam
fa beamis fixed at one end whileother end is free, itis called cant
beam.
* Continuous Beam
Ifmore than two supports are provided to beam, itis called continu
beam
ee
Shear Force
Itis the internal resistance developed at any section to maintain 1
body equilibrium of either left or right part of the section.
© Sign Convention
‘Shear force having an upward direction to the left Nel
hand side of sectionor omrwardsrectontotne {| ©
Tight hand side of section will be taken positive
and vice-versa.
[ak-_ltmay be horizontal or vertical
AGS Shear force at any section s algebraic sum of all transvers
amante forces either from left or right of that section. 20 ‘A Handbook on Civil Eng
Bending Moment
Bending moment at any section is the intemal reaction due to all the
transverse force either from lett side or from right side of that section.
itis equal to algebraic sum of moments a} that section either
from left or from right side of that section
Bending moment is different from twisting moment
‘* Sign convention of Bending moment
(=)
A bending moment causing concavity upward will be ‘L_& _\
taken as positive and called sagging bending moment. Sagging
co
A bending moment causing convexity upwardwill be (\_@ /)
taken as negative and willbe called a hoggingbending * \oa5n0
moment.
Relationship Between Bending Moment (M), Shear Force (S) and
Loading Rate (w)
* Rate of change of shear force is equal to load
w
dx
Load per unit length
& _ Negative slope represents downward loading,
~~)
J)
‘Rate of change of bending moment along the length of beam is
equal to shear force.
a
dx. *
Athinge, bending moment will be zero.
Bending moment is maximum or minimum when shear force
is zero or changes sign at a section.
Hf degree of loading curve =n then
degree of shear force curve = n+ 1
and degree of bending moment curve = n + 2
Point of contra-flexture/inflexion is that point where bending moment
changes its sign.
Principal Stress/
Principal Strain
Principal Stress
Principal stress are maximum or mini
developed on a loaded body.
(G_ The plane of principal sons
Sign Conventions
* Tensile stress is considered
positive and compressive
stress is negative.
* Angle ‘@’ is considered
positive if it is in anti- ¢
clockwise direction.
© Shear stress acting on a positi
positive if itis acts in positive
axes and negative if acts in t
Similarly on a negative face 0
negative direction of the axes :
direction.
Normally the reference plane t
we verticalplane.
Analytical Method of Analysis
() If, and 6, are given principals
and shear stress on plane a-a
major princival plane (6, > 02)
6, = 6; C08? 0 +6 sin?O
= Sit 8 , (91-82) cog
-#384(853)
Site | cos
7 = 2 :
nen=-(2 22 sinz0 \dbook on Civil Engineering i MADEEASY | MADEEASY Strength of Materials
©, +9, = constant
15° or 135° then,
&
constant
0, = 0, 4G,
then Gn = H+ Oy
Go. +c,-,+6,= constant
(nomen ts
Graphical Method of Analysis/Mohr’s Circ
Mohr circle is the locus of points represent ng magnitude of normal and
shear stress at various plane in a given stress'element.
I + ly’ = constant
normal stress on
orizontal plane
id this plane is
/ shear stress 1,
sand shear stress
shi inclined at an
eof ,.
toy, oo )P =
orfos= Es (5 } so? [a= 52
Radius of Mohr's circle
G.+0, (0%
2
J inao+ ny coszo
S a position such that %_q) becomes zero, then
sis called principal plane and, nde, become |
ess.
© Radius of Mohr circle represent the value of maximum,
shear stress.
‘+ Normal stress on the plane of maximum shear stress is_|
represented by coordinate of centre of Mohr circle. |
Angle of principal plane
2 give Remember
eee eee oe na eee | + Mohr circle reduce to a point in case of hydrostatic
loading and zero shear. In case of pure shear, centre will fall at
)e { origin.
‘* If'shear stress causes clockwise couple at the centre of element
then it will be plotted above o,,,,,(+ve) and vise-versa,
ss on plane a~a
28
nae
28 28 AHandbook on CivilEngineering __il_ MADE EASY
Analysis of Strain 7 Th f Fall
Jair principal strain = St —yS2 f | eory of Failure
a oe = Maximum principal stress theory (Rank
orn gaple teal = glee sed rosa when te velucofmaximun prepa
x int
Symbo! has usual meanings. point stress as found in a simple tensile test.
For design criterion, the maximum principal str
© Total strain it vol
Mal Med working stress 's,’ for the material
toe at
U= Jor.+ Zor, Giz 5 6, | Fornota
i
u el +03 +03 ~2u(0,6, +6,¢, +6,0,)] for 3D case r 3,
2 For des
oe z FOS
ELF + 93 ~ 2h, ]for2b case
Note: For no shear failure t< 0.570,
f Graphical representation
y ©: + Plane stress does not lead to plain strains.
tedbun © For strain analysis formulas, put 22 is place of x, every spe. For britle material, which do
-@- 9 fail by yielding but fail by
biidieleieliacheaeieliieens brittle fracture, this theory __
gives satisfactory result.
| The graph is always square even for
different values of 6, and «,
1
2 (difference of principal stress)
+ Max shear stress
Max shear strain = difference of principal strains
* For shear: Radius of Mohr circle
For strain: Radius of Mobr circle ce Maximum principal strain theory (ST.V
7 According to this theory, a ductile material begir
principal strain reaches the strain at which yiel
Sy
€42.$ “=| Forno failure in uni-axial toad
G&S.
ETE eS S| Forno failure in|
6) —102 — 105 <( 22) |For design. H
5; —Uo2 ws <(24]| : ndbookon Civil Engineering | _MADEEASY MADEEASY # Strengthof Materials 7
tation (- , 7 ee 7
This theory does not apply to brittle material
for which elastic limit stress in tension and in Elipse
‘over estimate the
ength of ductile
ssstheory
2ory)
{allure of a specimen subjected to any combination
num shearing stress at any point reaches the failure
opad at the yielding in an axial tensile or compressive
al
tation oe
}—~ 4; Hexagon)
oy |
FOS | | For design. _|
num and minimum principal stresses respectively,
um shear stress.
ssible stress
ustified for ductile materials,
ergy theory (Haigh’s theory)
y. a body under complex stress fails when the total
ody is equal to the strain energy at elastic limit in
ntation
33 — 2u (402 + 705 + 645;) for no failure.
G
Sy
(402 + 5203 +030)} (25 )
for design. |
compression are quite different.
Maximum shear strain energy/Distortion energy theory/
Mises-Henky theory
Itstates that inelastic action at any point in 2 body, under any combination
of stress begins, when the strain energy of distortio
3m per unit volume:
absorbed at the point is equal to the strain energy of distortion absorbed
per unit volume at any point in a bar stressed to the elastic limit under the
state of uniaxial stress as occurs in a simple tension/compression test.
gL (oi~ 92)" + (62 -08)° +(3 ~01)" 505 |
Fi
Ehipse
Alora.) + (02-02) + (05 ~ on] (25
For no failure
.
| sg. Itcan not be applied for material under hydrostatic pressure
[2+ alltheories will give same results if loading is uniaxial, Deflection of Beams oh Be boom
For design purpose, @ beam should be designed in such a way that ithas ee
adequate stiffness so that the deflections are within permissible limits.
Stiffness of beam is inversely proportional to deflection.
Methods of Determining Deflection of Beam Simply supported beam
+ Double integration method, w
* Moment area method not
* Strain energy method De
* Conjugate beam method he
Deflection of Beam Under Different Loading/Support Condition
+ Notation used
08 = Slope at Bw.rt A
af = Deflection at B wrt A
Me
Deflection (ag) =
eotion(A8) = Ej * Fixed Beam
Slope (ef) = MA a nennadeanaacs 8
ei i———+
AY we
Deflection(ag) = 22 Deflection(A,) = Ajax =
slope (eg) = WE w
2El a _ .
t —H
wit — 1 —se— 10
Deflection (a) aa
Deflestion(A,
we
‘Sk f —
lope (8) = 25;
Deflection (48) ™
7 SOEI
Siope (of) = WA
24E essels
ssels
ainly of two type:
he wall of the shell is less than 1/10 to 1/15 of its
is called thin shelis.
DD
t<2ito2
Lio al
itis assumed that the normal stresses, which
rtensile or compressive are uniformly distributed
hickness of wall,
e wall of the shell is greater than 1/10 to 1/15 of its
is called thick shells.
esa
[Brot ton 5
nin cylindrical shell subjected to internal
imferential stress will be tensile in nature,
s/axial stress will be tensile in nature,
be compressive in nature.
essive stress varies from a value at the inner
to pressure ‘p' to the atmospheric pressure at
rtace.
essure in thin cylinders is low, the radial stress:
with axial stress and hoop stress. This radial
MADEEASY
Analysis of thin cylinder
Strength of Materials
31
Hoop Stress | Sn = 5¢
Longitudinal Strain
ate
Hoop Strain
Here, p= Pressure of fluid, t
d = Inside diameter, u = Poisson's ratio
Ratio of Hoop Strain to Longitudinal Stain | == 7_ ay
Howe en (0
O
hickness of cylinder
2=u
—
= pd
Volumetric Strain (e,) of Cylinder | &y= yr ¢ (5 ~ 4H)
Max shear stress in the plane of metal (xy plane) or
6y-6, plane
Trax
max DB
—P5]
Bt * Absolute max shear stress | «© Lame’s equations
G6,
Femme =p
(0 Hoop stress: 6, = = +A(tensile)
~ _ Ifluidis compressible, volumetric strain will be
pd
(i) Radial stress: P, = E-A(compress
(4942 k= Buk modulus of tia
P = Pressure of fluid
Minimum thickness of cylinder required for a given pressure '
diameter is 12 BS
ate
Where, B and A are Lame's constant
‘+ Subjected to internal pressure
(ii)
Analysis of thin sphere
* Subjected to external pressure
id —
+ Hoop stress/longitudinal stress |. = on = Fr , [-, RE
@Atx=R, |On = oe Gil) At;
: Ri
pd i
* Hoop strain/longitudinal strain | €.=¢n = gre (1-H)
Inner radius ‘
Outlet radius
P+ (Opin |
Spa
* Volumetric strain of sphere |&= gre (14)
Thickness ratio for cylindrical shell (1,) and sphere (1), for
same strain in both side
te | 2-u
PE
Thickness ratio for cylindrical shell ({,) and sphere (t,), for same
maximum stress in both side.
te
pez
Analysis of Thick spheres
+ Lame’s equation:
Analysis of Thick Cylinders/Lame’s Theorem _
+ Lame’s Assumption
() Material of shell ishomogeneous, isotropic and linear elastic
(i) Plane section of cylinder, perpendicular to longitudinal axis remains
plane under pressure.
Auto frittage is used for prestressing the cylinder. |
Wire winding is done for strenghting thin shell. Compounding is
done for thick shell cylinders. MADEEASY Strength of Materials 35
Shaft 1 sign Convention
# Sign convention of torque can be explained by right hand thumb rule. A
Positive torque is that in which there is tightening effect of nut on the
bolt. From either side of the cross-section. If torque is applied in the
direction of ight hana fingers than right hand thumibs direction represents
movement of the nut,
1g of a structural
led by couple that
t longitudinal axis.
se rotation of all he fibre about fongitudina/polar
‘he Toraue
red for torsion is normalto longitudinalaxis having
entricity from centroid, |
and no bending moment is present in structural
be a case of pure torsion.
paft is prismatic.
non-circular section then warping will occur.
sfore twisting remains plane after twisting.
Torque
TMD stands for Torsion moment diagram.
f T= Torque
Shear eece ~- Momentoof Inertia About Polar Axis
jietibution
stress
nce from centre of shaft
\etor of shaft
1e (i) For Solid Circular Section
moment of inertia veouss
modulus J
2 of twist
th of shaft
+z Bat
64 z aa?
the
: * Polar section modulus/torsional strength (Z,)
jould be maximum at extreme fibre of shaft
is maximum at the free end of shatt Be AHandbook on Civil Engineering M_MADEEASY § MADEEASY Strength o
Compound Shaft
+ Series Connection
%
8a
(i) For Hollow Circular Section
+]
| zeatow po
D = Outside diameter = Total angular deformation of free €
d= Inside diameter s febage, 2hC willbe equal to sum of angula
+ Polar section modulusrtorsional strenatt (Z,) (Cumtndtt and angular detormation of secone
7 =
ae go ak) Zp =.a-K4)| [k
a |¢
+ Parallel Connection
©, = Angular deflection of first shaft
6, = Angular deflection of second shaft
T, = Torque on first shaft
T= Torque on second shaft
TL
[ay Gas
How to find out tension (failure) plane
Strain energy (U) stored in shaft due to
4 1,921 Tt
“ris wk be the Uatr.g-L TL. thm
tensionfaire plane e2t ®=2a-57 4G *Y
Here, @ = Shear modulus
T = Torque
___J = Moment ef inertia about pola
+ In ductile metals in pure torsion failure is duo to shear stressin the
direction Of tray Which is at 90° with the longitudinal axis and Ratio of strain energy for solid and |
failure plane is smooth plane. < same torque if outside diameter oft
+ Brittle mette fails in tension so in britle mettle failure plane will be :
a D' 34] i
Inside
a rough helical plane at 45° from longitudinal axis, af
Veots andbookon CivilEngineering _l_MADEEASY | MADEEASY Strength of Materials 29
que in case of hollow and solid shaft subjected to 2. Hollow Circular Section
imum shear stress,
Thotiow. -a*
Toots
ingonshaft as)
= Principal stress <7
Diameter of shaft
Bending moment a
different from pure torsion,
on on Shaft
Maximum shear stress
Torque Y
Diameter of shatt
bending andtorsion (ene)
6h. = 4. Thin Tubular Section: In view of smal thickness shear stress
TF
De [Me Wes] "ex assumed to be uniform.
co Power Transmitted in the Shaft
16 Ne 2
=z VME + T 2nNT 2nNT 2nN}
ee P= Watt P= kW =
“Dt awa] [P= atoot| [o=
“4 = N= No. of revolution per minute Le., rpm, T= Torque in Nm
ag moment = 3] M+ vat +7 | t= Angular oped in vadooe
Pant
—_
pution
ction Shear Centre
* Shear centre is a point from which a concentrated load passes then
there will be only bending and no twisting. It is also called centre of
flexure. It is that point through which the resultant of shear passes.
© Shear centre ae lies on ne axis of symmetry if exists.
$= shear centre, G = Centre of gravity
Distance of shear centre for important sections
1. Channel Section
bt
2. Semi
nt
[41 |
t= thickness
SE
2
f=] if slit is closed then shear centre will coincide will CG
GR)
eR)
OS
Columns
STRUT
Structural member subjected to axial com;
© Column: Vertical structural member fixed
to axial compressive load is called colum
Buckling Failure : Euler's Theory
* Assumptions in Euler's Theory
(i) Axis of column is perfectly straight
(ii) Load passes thrcugh axis
(ii) Stress in structure are within elastic
(iv) Flexural rigidity is constant
(v) Material is isotropic, homogeneous a
(vi)_ Column is long and prismatic and it
Limitation of Euler's Formula
() There is always crookednessin the col
exactly axial
(ii) This formula does not take into acco.
buckling load given by this formula m
actual buckling load,
— Fa] OP.
Buckling load
in. Moment o
Hrectivelongs
itis applicable for long column. Effect of
‘Column
7 [_ Short column C
2.[ Long column E
[8. [Intermediate column | Combined Cr
Euler’s load for different column with dit
lexi ‘condition | 22 end [One end fixed [Bo
| hinged | otherree | _f
| Effective fo pea
Fength(,) I
‘Slenderness Ratio (A)
Slenderness ratio of a compression member i
effective length to least radius of gyration. landbook on Civil Engineering & MADE EASY
L, = Effective length sprin es
‘pn = Least radius of gyration,
Buckling oe ()=B=5s
: Spring are used to absorb energy and restore it slowly or rapidly.
ars theory .
[1 Neae ‘Type of spring on the basis of helixangle
SOT Md Seal © © Ithelix angle is less than or equalto 10° ‘xe of epring
sorrmigses] | | then ts called closed col spring.
ssible stress © = Sate long column * If helix angle is greater than 10° then it
elongcolumn B= Intermediate safe colurnn is called open coil spring Tas adic angie)
hort column E = Unsafe short column + The best form of spring absorbs greatest | “SS plan area
al sienderness ratio amount of energy for a given stress.
+ Spring stores energy in the form of resilience.
oo Series and parallel arrangement of springs/Equivalent spring
EA constant (k,4)
aofcoumn + InSeries:
Rankirie’s constant
plicable to any column. —— )
ishing and buckling is considered in this formula.
-centricloadings
Kermjcore
\ © In parallel: Keg = Ky + kg +---Ky
Stiffness of spring is inversely proportional to number of
coils in the spring. Therefore when a spring is cut into two
Améate —_partsits stiffness become double for every individual part.
“1 Springs are added just like as capacitors in electronics.Both
umn Circular Column
rectangular and |-section is Rhombus and for square does the same work i.e., absorbs energy.
square for circular section shape is circular. ae internet aa __@ MADE EASY
Closed coil helical spring under axial pull A Handboo
Civil Engine
(i) Strain energy stored in spring
TL _ 32P°R'n
2Gi, Gd"
(ii) Axial deflection under load P
[a0 , S4PRPa |
(iv) Coefficient of stiffness of spring (k)
ELSE] [ed Structural Ar
A 64Rn
Spring index (C)
a
Wan''s factor is considered to consider the effect of direct
a P _contenr:
Strain energy stored in spring (U)
1. Determi 1d Indetert
ap ee terminacy and Indeterminacy
2 @ = _angular deflection 2. Influence Line Diagram and Rolling Load
Waht's correction factor (k,,)/Stress concentration factor (k,)
4C=1 | 0.615
Kw" ac-a*~o | [Ke
Here, C= Spring index
d Kinematic MADEEASY mM StucuralAnaysis a7
jinacy | “i For2D
? Bp. For 3D
where, 1, = total external reactions
ate Structures * Internal static indeterminacy:
Itrefers to the geometric stability of the structure. If after knowing
the external reactions it is not possible to determine all internal
forces/internal reactions using static equilibrium equations alone
then the structure is said to be inteinally indeterminate.
For geometric stability sufficient number of members are required
to preserve the shape of rigid body without excessive deformation
librium are sufficient to analyse the structure. Bending
ear force is independent of the cross-sectional area of
s and flexural rigidity of the members. No stresses are
temperature change. No stresses are caused due to
orential settlement.
rminate Structures
(wy) (Bg=3C= For 2D
vatibilty conditions are required. Bending moment and
ends upon the cross-sectional area and flexural rigidity Dy = 6C— For 3D
s. Stresses are caused due to temperature variation. 5
where, C = number of closed Icops
used due to lack of fit or differential settlement. a
and {, = feleased reaction.
Indoterminacy (wy [=z = 9] For2D
t ma
static kinematic p= Sem, —D For 3D
where m, = number of member connecting with J’ number of
ral ttormal fais
and J! = number of hybrid jo nt
oe (v) [D,=m+r - 2) For 2D truss
2n not be analyzed for external and internal reactions
librium conditions alone then such a structure is called m= (2/-3)]
rructure. 7
(wi) For 3D truss
indeterminacy =Gi=8)
External static indetermina:
er a (vil) 2D Rigid frame.
Internal static indeterminacy
atic indeterminacy: (vii) [Dez em4n 8-0 2D rigid frame
with the support system of the structure and it is equal
f external reaction components in addition to number of
brium equations.
(i) [D.=( — 6) + (6C=5) 3D rigid frame 4g A Handbook on Civil Engineering jm _MADE EASY
Kinematic indeterminacy
{fthe number of unknown displacement components are greater than
the number of compatibility equations, for these structures additional
equations based on equilibrium must be written in order to obtain
sufficient number of equations for the determination of all the unknown
displacement components. The number of these additional equations
necessary is known as degree of kinomatic indeterminacy or degree of
freedom of the structure.
A fixed beam is kinematically determinate and a simply supported
beam is kinematically indeterminate.
(Each joint of piane pin jointed frame has 2 degree of freedom,
(i). Each joint of space pin jointed frame has 3 degree of freedom.
(lil) -Each joint of plane rigid jointed frame has 3 degree of freedom
(iv) Each joint of space rigid jointed frame has 6 degree of freedom.
Degree of kinematic indeterminacy is given by:
@) [Ox =3i-te
For 20 Rigid frame when all members are
axially extensible,
For 2D Rigi frame ifm’ members are
axially rigidfinextensible
(i)
3+ i)-
qi) Be men For 2D Rigid frame when
J’ = Number of Hybrid joints is available,
iv) 60+i)-——msr, For 3D Rigid frame.
© D204 =e mre For 2D Pin jointed tuss,
“) D=sGN-n ome, For 3D Pin jointed truss.
Influence Line Diag
and Rolling Loads
Influence Line Diagram represents vari
stress function such as reactions, SF, BM
etc., when a unit concentrated load move
span.
Simply Supported Beam
‘The ordinate of influence line at any secti
of that stress function when unit concent
(i
TLD for Rg
(iv
ILD for shear force at C ndbook on ivilngineering iH MADE EASY MADEEASY Structural Analysis
‘S
ca
ce
2 WA OHSS
L Position of load for maximum positive SF at C
ed
a Poston of oad for maximum SF at ©
Maximum positive SF at C= wAy
Maximum negative SF at C = wA,
Simply Supported Beam with Overhang
° A 2
.
ee,
<—a—
2a for maximum postive SF at ©
Pak
at
LD tor Ry,
load for maximum negative SF at ©
1+-ve SF at C P(2)+Pe
(
(
—ve SF atC -(2)-Ps
ele bale bo o |
IUD for BM at sections A Handbook on Civil Engineering
me / mMADEERSY | MADEEASY seve
Simply Supported Beam Carrying Internal Hinge 1. The maximum negative shear force at :
the load i ut tothe lot of eoction an
—
maximum negative shear force at C
2. Maximum positive shear force at C (
the right ofc
“ss
ir
ILD for BM at 8 3. Maximum BM at C will occur when
* The ordinate of ILD for reaction and shear force is
dimensionless. Whereas ordinate of BM in ILD has dimension
of length
* ILD for reaction, shear force and BM is finear for determinate
structures and will be curved for indeterminate structures.
Effect of rolling loads
To find maximum SF and BM at section C when a UDL passes over the
Girder from let to right having length less then length of girder.
a
Jan
ILD for SF atc
®
LD for BM aC
Lenath of load is r (
Vax =) Simply supported beam moment ie., moment
caused by vertical reactions.
= Hemoment
D, = Degree of static indeterminacy
BM, = Bending Moment at C.
(i) Three Hinged Semicircular Arch of Radius R carrying a UDL over
the whole span
vaewal
[sin@ - sin? 0)
MADEEASY i
[Pointof contratiexure
Structu
0
(ii) Three Hinged Parabolic Arch Having
(@) When itis subjected to UDL ov
(b) When itis subjected to concen
(ii) Three Hinged Semicircular Arch Car
Crown \ Handbook on ¢ MADE EASY
MADE EASY
Structural Analysis 59:
ct on Three!
4h? Jer
ah Ht
re
= free rise in crown height
length of arch
| = rise of arch
coefficient of thermal expansion
= rise in temperature in °C
where, H
and oh
horizontal thrust
rise of arch.
3@ in horizontal thrust
he
or
Two hinged arch of any shape
y supported Beam moment caused by vertical forces.
semicircular arch of radius R carrying a concentrated
2 crown.
n= >t
2
Two hinged eireular
(i) Two hinged semicircular arch of radius R carrying a load w at a
section, the radius vector corresponding to which makes an angle
‘atwith the horizontal
Ne
Two hinged circular arch
Hinreehingedsemicioular arch > Hiwohinged semicircular arch
«i
(iv)
w)
A two hinged semiciroular arch of radius R carrying a UDL w per
unit length over the whole span.
[:
‘A two hinged semicircular arch of radius R carrying a distributed
load uniformly varying from zero at the left end to w per unit run at
the right end.
4 wR
3x ul}
Vaewat Ne
‘wo hinged semichoular arch
Two hinged semicircular arch
A two hinged parabolic arch carriss a UDL of w per unit run on
entire span. If the span of the arch is L and its rise is h A Handbook on Civil Engineering m MADE EASY MADEEASY Structu
w (vil) A two hinged parabolic.
arch of span and ise
| hearries a concenrated
load w at the crown
Pom
veewal : Tvpewa A
ee Temperature Effect on Two Hinged Arc
Horizontal thrust for two hinged parabolic arch is equal to
horizontal thrust for three hinged parabolic arch carrying UDL
rotator Over entire span Ho ler
: aera a “yy2ds
(vi) When half of the parabolic arch is loaded by UDL, then the horizontal eae
reaction at support is given by me
() [TWETe] where = Horizont
Catent semicirc
I oy
b (i) He TS Elgar |where |, = Moment:
i 8h H = Horizon
ke — parabol
at he temperat
ae eee Reaction Locus for aTwo Hinged Arch
pa BilT al Ttoeterel (a) Two Hinged Semicircular Arch
(vil) When two hinged parabolic arch carries varying UDL, from zero to Reaction locus is straight line parallel
w the horizontal thrust is given by and height at 2
ad w
I
ac Lo »
os a h
Two hinged parabolic arch andbookonCiltngneering mw maoeeasy | Methods of
Parabolic Arch Structural Analysis
Methods of Structural Analysis
peo, ee | oo
Force Method/Fiexbity Displacement Method
Method/Compatibity stifness Method/Equiosam
Method Method
Examples: Examples:
(Virus! work/Unitoad method (0) Sope deflection method
(i) Method ofconsistent deformation {)_omentdstibuton method
{il Three moment theorem (i) Minimum potential energy method
{)Goluran analogy method
(Elastic centre method
(i) Castgtiano's theorem of minimum
strain energy
(vin. Maxwell Mohr equation
Difference between Force Method and Displacement Method
Forse Method DISpIaSement Method
[7-Unknowns are taken 7
4.Unknowns ac
redundants forces/reactions. nin a een
[2.To find unknown forces
or redundants compatibility
- BM at any section equations are written
distance between given arch and linear arch ‘3.The number of compatibility | 3. The number of equilibrium conditions
equations needed is equal to | needed is equal to degree of
degree of static indeterminacy. | kinematic indeterminacy.
2.To find unknown displacement joint
equilibrium conditions are written.
oo
STRAIN ENERGY METHOD
© Strain energy stored due to axial load
Pedx] Where, P= Axalload
dx = Elemental iength
AE = Axial rigidity
© Strain energy stored due to bending
where, M, = Bending moment at section x-x
ds = Elemental length
= EI = Flexural rigidity
z
u=s% AHandbook ont
Engineering mm MADE EASY
or E = Modulus of elasticity
Moment of inertia
Strain energy stored due to shear
where, q = Shear stress
av Ge Ness of ity
Elemental volume
Strain energy stored due to cae force
5, where, A, = Areaof shear
Sts :
-j=8 = Sheartorce
ee G = Modulus of rigidity
ds = Elemental length.
Strain energy stored due to torsion
[—"q2qq] where, T = Torque acting on circular bar.
[urls | dx = Elemental length
G = Modulus of rigidity
|p = Polar moment of inertia
Strain energy stored in terms of maximum shear stress,
“GE, | Where, tg = Maximum shear stress at the
surface of rod under twisting
G = Modulus of rigiity
V = Volume
Strain energy stored in hollow circular shaft is,
lu= jee 7 era) — where, D=External dia of hollow
= Tax
4G
Ju= tag DF circular shafts
d=Internal dia of hollow
circular shaft
“max=Maxirnum shear stress
Castigliano’ss first theorem
where, U- Total strain eneray
A=Displacement in the
direction of force P.
(@=Rotation in the direction
‘of moment M.
‘MADE EASY
‘Structure
‘* Castiglianos Second Theorem
——
au.)
lan). law=8]
« Bettis Law
in = oho ox
Where, Py, = Load applied inthe dre
P,, = Load applied in the dire
8,,, = Deflection in the direotic
the direction 'n
8,, = Deflection in the direct
the direction ‘m’
Maxwells Reciprocal Theorem
Of
deflection in the directio
the direction ©,
Defiection in the directio
the direction @
Total real external work done
lw, = tps]
[wen 2Ps)
= Deflection caused by «
direction of P.
| * Total external virtual work done,
[ree
| where,
P.8*
[war
| oe
8 = Detlection caused by any Handbook on yeering | MADEEASY | mapgeAsy m Structural Analysis 7
ases of Deflection | (iv) Aportal frame as shown in figure carries a load P at A
, portal frame shown in the figure below horizontal .
ion at D due to load P, assuming all members have es f
jexural rigidity is given by
A lo, 5,2 PH] [o —Pat(a+an)] %
2E1 aoe
| I
? (2h + 3b) ' | ba}
ne(an+ 8b) | where, 8, & 8, is horizontal & vertical detioction at ond A.
mas A : respectively
2 (¥) Figure shows two identical wires OA and OB each of area A
oS and inclined at 45° from horizontal. A load Pis supported at O
8 = Deflection of D in the direction of load P.
cular arch whose one end is hinged and other supported
* carried a load P as shown in the figure.
PL
[ne
where, 8, = Vertical deflection at ‘O"
ribution method (Hardy Cross method)
* Stiffness: Itis the force/moment required to be applied ata joint so.
as to produce unit deflection/rotation at that joint.
[oF oy Ml] where. k = Stitness
|k=2% F = Torce requirsd lo produce deflection a
M = Moment required to produce rotation 0.
8 = Deflection at B in the direction of load P. mona
rantal ring AB of radius r support a concentrated load
own
2
a
2
|
© Stiffness of beam
(Stiffness of member BA when farther end A is fixed.
peice
e
8
8, = Vertical deflection (deflection in the direction of
load P) at end A 7 ,
§, = Horizontal deflection of end A, ———4
Sl eceeeueee where, _K = Stiffness of BA at joint 8. When farther end is fixed.
El = Flexural rigidity
L = Length of the beam
M = Moment at B. 68
A Handbook on Civil Engineering MADE EASY
(ji) _ Stiffness of member BA when farther end A is hinged
we
8
[oS] RS ere
E ; =
Ltt -—— —1
where, K = .ess of BA at joint B. When farther end is hinged
Carry over factor:
. tactor 2 Catt © moment
Carry over factor = CaMY over moment
‘Applied moment
COF may greater than, equal to or less than 1
Standard Cases:
MADEEASY
where M,, M, My and M, are moment i
OC and OD respectively.
© Relative Stiffness:
() When farther end is fixed.
(i) When farther endis hinged:
where,
Relative stifiness for member
Relative stifiness for member:
| = MOland L = Length of
rr
r 7] ee . 8
—2 _——————
s
@ 1
Ss
(iy
+ Fixed End Moments
Distribution Factor (D.F):
SN ae Sign Convention
iiness ofa member
eee —— 4ve 3 Sagging
ss of all members at thal
hess of all members -ve > Hoaging
and All clockwise moment -» +ve
~ Relative stifiness of a member _| and All Anti clockwise mement ->—ve
Sum of felative siifiness of all member at that joint| cane
(3%, Summation of DF for all member at a joint is one 4 Wh
“, Mas.
8 ~we 2 Poe
7 z Z
ED Gitig
uk ¢ 2 Mao Tix
“}) Dad i ie ZS. im
BD, f
mw, [Ms aj .
ii
M(DF of OA) M(DF of 8)
MIDFofOC) — M, = M(DF of OD) Handbookon¢ivilEngineering il. MADE EASY Structural Analysis me:
we we
12 12 Sela
° e
wi?
2
- GEA +A,) | 6EIA, +4.)
e i
pB | ge | kee
7 ig tie wat
ar 12
(6 816.2 +32%)| — (41~3a)
Slope deflection Method (G.A. Maney Method)
96 96 In this method, joints are considered rigid. It means joints rotate as a
whole and the angles between the tangents to the elastic curve meeting
~ at that joint do not change due to rotation. The basic unknowns are joint
displacements (@ and 4).
EY . To find 8 and A, joints equilibrium conditions and shear equations are
B D Mob(Sa-/) Moa(go—2) established. The forces (moments) are found using force displacement
Mea v v relations. Which are called slope deflection equations.
1
* Slope Deflection Equation
() The slope deflection equation at the end A for member AB
can be written as:
Mo, Me
4 4 (F3__fosavon ot member
(x
~6EIA MH LMADE EASY
i
A Handbook on Civil Engine
The slope deflection equation at the end B for member BA
can be written as:
2E! 3A
wa + (205 +e-)|
Maa =
length of beam, El
s at A & B respectively.
(i)
lexural Rigidity
whore, L
Mg & Ny are fixed end momen
Mug & Mga are final moments at A & B respectively
0, and 0, are rotation of joint A & 8 respectively
‘A = Settlement of support.
Sign Convention
+ M- Clockwise
= M- Ant-olookwise
+0 Cloclonise
8 anticlockwise
{A vei ltproduces clockwise rotation tothe member
& vice-versa,
“The numberof joint equilibrium conditions wile equal to number ot'8"
components & number of shear equations will be equal to number of ‘A’
components.
Trusses
Degree of Static Indeterminacy
o B
m= Number of members,
= Total number of joints
m+.
(0) 0] = Truss is determinate
where, D,=Degree
Total:
Fi] [Das>
1 Dae
then
(i) [D550
Truss Member Carrying Zero forces
(MyM, My mest ata joint
M, & M, are collinear.
= M, carries zero force.
where My, M,, Ms
represents member.
M, &M, are non collinear
and [Fox
= M, &M, carries zero force.
“i
Indeterminate Truss
()_ Final force in the truss member
and |
S=P+RK
|= Truss is indeterminate or re
—
sign convn -+ +ve for tension, — ve
where, S
= Final force in the tru
K = Force in the membe
inthe redundant me Handbook on Civil Engineering @_MADEEASY
L = Length of the member
A = Areaof the member
E = Modulus of elasticity
P = Force in the member when truss become
determinate after removing one of the member.
P= Zero for redundant member.
+1 then reaction is taken as redundant |
+1 then member is taken as redundant.
russ
A
DAE
ce Induce in the member due to that member which is ‘a
short or ‘A’ too long is pulled by force "x
] wher. =
[russ
FLT) where, y,=Detlecton oftuss dueto effec
Lat+ al
of loading & temp. both.
AE
of temperature is neglected then
‘@ = Coefficient of thermal expansion
T = Change in temperature
hod for Truss
— Bal
[(Agx — Aax) COO + (Apy — 4xy)8in0) |
ef, Aga = Axial deflection of member AB
Pag = Force in member AB (Axial force)
|
|
Matrix Method of
Structural Analysis
Flexibility
The flexibility of a structure is defined as the displacement caused
aunit force.
3 6]
f=5 | M| where, = Flexibility, 8 = Displacement
P = Force, @= Rotation, M = Moms
Stiffness
The stiffness is defined as the force required to produce a u
displacement
P M
k= 5]or|k= | where, k= stiiness
} From Mexwot
Reciprocal Theorem
Deflection in direction x due
tounit force in direction y.
4 Direction of unit force.
y= Force in direction x due to unit
IL displacement in direction y,
Direction of unit displacement.
Direction of displacement
ke
Results
Type of Displacement Diagram Flexibility Stifines
L AE
Axial =f
i AE v
(li) Transverse Displacement
Le 1261
(a) with far end fixed 12E1 Y v
76: AHandbook on Civil Engineering __s_ MADE EASY
eset A Handbc
(©) with far end hinged “pee gO
v Civil Engit
i) Flexural Displacement
(@) with far end end fixed
(b) with far end hinged
RCC
Prestressed
—
=
(iv) Torsional Displacement
Introduction
2. Working Stress Method
Limit State Method
Sx will be homogeneous
£4, Shear
i 5. Bond, Anchorage & Development Lé
5 6 Torsion
7. Beams and Slabs
8. Columns
9. Footing
10. Prestress Concrete
40} Introduction
Concrete
1. Modulus of elasticity of concrete
E, = 5000,/fa,.
where i, = characteristic strength of concrete
2. Tensile strength of concrete in flexure
fx = O07 ox
Characteristic strength of concrete is the value of strength c
concrete below which not more than 5% of test results are
3. Permissible value of strength in concrete
Grace] veel ionste|_ Compression [eondstress (ud
seo ad Bree] BEET yu | st
mis 2 ats [oe]
mao] 28 eel | ete)
mes| 32 6 | as | o9 |-14
moo] 36 8 | wo | 10 | 15
was] 40 a fous |u| az
mao] 44 wo | 130 | 12 | 19
© ta given in table is only for plain mild stee! bar in ten:
‘© tg value should be increased by 60% for deformed bars both in
LSM and WSM,
* For bars in compression the value should be increased by 25%.
Steel
1. Young's modulus of all type of steel is 2 10° Nimm?,
* Type of stee!
1. Mild steel! + Fe 250
Here, 250 is the characteristic strength of mild steel bars.
Also, f, = 250 Nimm?
MADEEASY # ___
RCC A Prestressed Co
2, HYSD bars
Feats
Fe 500
Permissible stresses in steel
Permissible Stresses in Steel Rei
Type of Sess in Stee! Permissible st
Reinforcement
° Mi stoo! bars
(e250)
®
Tension (6, OF 6)
1 Upto and including “0
20m
{o) Over 20 mm 190
Compression In column 130
Te calculated compres
conerete muttipied by 1
‘ge whichever is lower
Compression in bars in
‘beam or slab when the
compressive resistance
1 he concrete is taken
into account
‘Compression in bars in a
beam oF slab where the
‘compressive resistance
ofthe concrete is not
taken into account:
(@) Up to and including 140
2omm
(6) Over 20 mm 130
For high yield strength deformed b
permissible stress in direct tensi
shall be 0.55 f,. The permissible
compression reinforcement shall t
2. Forwelded wire fabric, the permissible va
Nimmé.
3. For the purpose of this standard, the yi
which there is no clearly defined yield p
be 0.2 percent proof stress. tress Method
here, m =Modular ratio
lldepth
tive depth
Modulus of elasticity of steel
Modulus of elasticity of concrete
2ermissible stress in concrete
ermissible stress in steel
=D RECTANGULAR SECTION
utral axis (X,)
J stress method actual depth of neutral axis is
by equating moment of Area on both side of Neutral
Special case:
@ when
RCC & Prestressed Concrete Bi
for balanced section,
(iy) when [Xa > Xe] for over reinforced section.
(i) when [Xz 2X ] for under reinforced section
Moment of resistance (M,)
(i) For balanced section (x,
—b—s
Tensile foros
Swessdagram
Xe
M=ou-Aa(a-"3)|
Stross diagram
wr[M=o0:Au( 3) 7
‘A Handbook on Civil Engineering
(iii). For over-reinforced section (xX, > X,)
Doubly reinforced section section
DOUBLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTION
Critical depth of Neutral axis, (X.)
Actual depth of Neutral axis, (X,)
(1.5m ~1 Ase a
2
de) = MAge(d— Xa)
,
Moment of resistance (M,)
i
m MADE EASY
Stross diagram
MADEEASY m= RCC & Prestressed C
(iv)
[i-(-
© Special case:
() Balanced section
(ii) Under reinforced section
XX. | Over reinforced section |C. = Gna lta <6.
Xa < Xe
Aa(o-
When Neutral axis is in web area
q
—
ce
ba
rt
wT
Stress diagram
Section
(). For actual depth of neutral axis
ii)
Bid (x.
) =mAa(d-X) | eynegiecting web area
1) + bw Xe By considering
oo 2 MAa(d-X, web area
ee eee Limit State Method
Design stress strain curve at ultimate state
tess 4
|
0.48 to
@002 6.0035
Strain
* Design value of strength
For concrete
design value of strength
Partial factor of safety for concrete = 1.5
For steel
fy
oor
ingly Reinforced Beam
06 te
ba 00035 wie,
ee
(222 -con)
Section ‘train Diagram,
oon,
2
oar,
Stress Diagram
f
f
MADE EASY
and tensile force.
RCC &Prestresse
1. Limiting depth of neutral axis (x, .,
700
Kaien = O87, + 110
Steal
Fe 250
for [Fe ais
Fe 500
Xl
053d
048d
046d
Hered = effective depth of beam
2. Actual depth of neutral axis (X,)
DB7EAa]
C=T= Por casi O36 |
3. Lever arm = d-0.42X,
4. Ultimate moment of resistance
[M= 058K [EOA2K,)] or [M
In LSM, actual depth of NA is found by
Some special cases
4. When X, < Xen
Itis an under-eintorced section
[M.= 036.0%, (6=028%,)]
[M, = 0.87 VAs, (d= 0.42x,) |
and [M,
2. WHENX, = Xin
Itis balanced section
[M,= 0.366 bX aim(d
[M.= 0.875, (d
8. When X,> Xutin
I is over reinforced section. In this c
and moment of resistance of the sect
moment of resistance, (Mn) Jandbook on Civil Engineering mm MADE EASY
{Section
Te O8TiAg
) Strain Diagram: Stress Diagram
h of neutral axis
700
‘alin 0.874, + 1100
oth of neutral axis (X,)
C=T]>[G+G,=T
J
CL
lent of resistance
Ky (d—0.42X,) + (fe
= stress in compression steel and itis calculated by
strain at the location of compression steel (t,.)
h of flange
Discussed in WSM
) of neutral axis
700
Xuim = Ta7K + 1100
1 T-Beam
\ is in flange area
d
MADEEASY =
RCC & Prestressed Concrete
(@) forx,
X= O87 Aa op,
36 txt
(b) Ultimate moment of resistance
My = 0.36145 %, (6 0.42%,)] or [M, = 0.876,Ax (40-42%)
Case-2: When NA\is in web area (X, > D,)
sible (087t,
Te O8Tt A
z+ 0002
Section Strain Diagram Stross Diagram
Case (a) when x, > Dyand D, < $x,
i.e., depth of flange Is less than the depth of rectangular portion of
stress diagram.
1. For actual depth of neutral ais
0.36f:yXy + 0-45%,4 (b; —By Dy = 0.87 5A
2. Ultimate moment of resistance i
A Handbook on Civil Engineering ml MADEEASY | MADEEASY RCC & Prestresse
or [0-36 fbwXy + 0-45 (by — Dw Vi
ede) ie
Cc
she,
45 ty PE
c
oe
T= 087 A Tem 087 tay
Section Stress Diagram Section -—_—Sress Diagram
D, EE Tm 087 Hy,
My = 0.36 xb Xz (d 0.42 Xy) + 0.45 fy (by By yo, “2 ) Section Stes Diagram Sect
Dy .—
=0.87f,Ag, (d- 0. .B7fyAg, | I— 2)
M, = 0.87f,Ag, (d- 0.42X,) + 0.874 ce ( 2 My = 0.36 fyb, .X, (d- 0.42X,) + 0.45
Tagg = Osea (= By Jr SPE UUEEEEEeeae
» [Ame 0.87%, M, =0.874,Ag, (d= 0.42X,) + 0.
+ Special Case (2): When X, > D, and D,> 3X, A, 2 OSB
i O.B7i, | and /
i.e. depth of flange Is more than depth of rectangular portion of stress
diagram,
(-b,)
=f Rectangular portion
araborc portion
As per IS 456: 2000
(b,-b,)D, portion of flange is converted into (b,-b,)y, Section for which
stress is taken constant throughout the section is 0.45 {4
As per IS 456: 2000
Yr = O.15K, + 0.650, ot nar span
(@)_ When one end fixed other end |
continuous.
bots
(6) When one end continuous and othe
fo + w/2
144 Minimum.
7 (ere \Handbook on CivilEngineering _sml_ MADEEASY
(6)
©
@
©)
0
i
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
{the most important check for limit state of serviceabilly,
al deflection due to all loads including the effect of
ature, creep and shrinkage and measured from as cast
MADEEASY
RCC & Prestressed Concrete
For simply supported
For continuous.
101!
>20
26
(span?
10xA
where ‘A’ is span to effective depth ratio for span upto 10 m.
Depending upon the tension reinforcement the value ‘A’ can
be modify by multiplying a factor called modification factor
(Me,)
effective dept
/f, = 0.584, x Ate of steel required
Depending upon area of compression reinforcement, value
(A) can be further modified using a modification factor (MF,)
For span > 10 m effective depth
= Span
eee AXME,
where
=
| effective depth Span
AXMF, x MF
For flanged beam: A reduction factor is used,
Detiection check fortwo way sles
"the Seppe of fae, ols an eer Woz |
as should notrormally exceed S222. | ee *
sflection including the offect of temperature, creep and | oe «0 we
1ge oceurting ater erection of partion arkd application _ oO
Slenderness limit
nes should not normally exceed ported length 3
ould be designed for a minimum eccentricity of
word)
7 = roman | =
20mm
MADEEASY
| limit state method
1
RCC & Prestressed Concrete
2, Eccentricity
j=! , Bord.
= maximum} 506 * 30
bi }30 mm
0.05 D | then it is a short axially loaded column,
where, P, = axial load on the column
3. Short axially loaded column with helical reinforcement
|
|
|
| [Pstosoay
| 4. Some others IS code Recommendations
| @ Slenderness timit
(Unsupported length between end restrains % 60 times least
lateral dimension,
(i) in any given plane one end of column is unrestrained than
itsunsupporeatenain » 108%
(0) Allcolumn should be designed for a minimum eccentricity of
7
min = nes
20mm
Concentrically Loaded Columns
where e = 0,6, the column is truly axially loaded
SOAs, AS FOE
This formula is also used for member subjected to combined axial load
and bi-axial bending and also used when e > 0.05D. Footings
Isolated Footings
Footings are structural elements that transfer loads coming from the
superstructure to the earth. I these loads are to be properly transmitted,
foundations must provide adequate safety against sliding and
overturning.
Theoretically speaking, Isolated footings must be designed for both
axial load and moment but practically isolated footings are designed
only for axial loads.
Foundations may be broadly classified under two hi
foundation and deep foundation
‘According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or
less than it width. In the case of deep foundation, the depth is greater
than the width. Apart fram deep strip. rectangular or square foundations,
other common forms of deep foundations are; pier foundations, pile
foundation and well foundation. The shallow foundations are of the
following types: Spread footing, strap footing, combined footing and
mat or ratt footing,
‘Spread footings: A spread footing or simple footing, is a type of shallow
foundation used to transmit the load of an isolated column, or that of a
wall, on the subsoil. In the case of wall, the footing is continuous while
in the case of column, its isolated
Combined footings: A spread footing which supports two or more
columns is termed as a combined footing. Such a footing is provided
when the individual footings are either very near to each other, or overlap.
Combined footings may either be rectangular or trapezoidal.
4s: shallow
Strap or Cantilever footings: A strap footing consists of spread footings
of two columns connected by a strap beam. The strap beam does not
remain in contact with soil, and thus does not transfer any pressure to
the soil
Mat or Raft foundation: A mat or raft is a combined footing that covers
the entire area beneath a structure and supports all the walls and
columns. When the available soil pressure is low or the building loads
MADEEASY
are heavy, the use of spread footings woulc
the area and it may prove more economical
RCC & Prestressed
Pile foundation: Pile foundation is a deep
top soil is relatively weak, Piles transfer th
greater bearing capacity, by way of end be
soil though skin friction This is more comm
generally used for buildings where a groug
the super-structure to the sub-soil
Design of Isolated Footing
Rectangular footing
Given values
1. Load =P or P, 2. Bearin
3. Size of column 4. Grade
Design Steps
(). Size of foundation
Load from column = P
‘Add weight of foundation (P,) = 0.1P
+ Total load P,=.1.1P (even for limit state m
for calculation of area)
Area of footing
Choose L and B such that A= Lx B
Net soil pressure,
‘P _ Load from column withou!
A ___ Area provided
Net soil pressure over foundation
ate
ForLSM
Poh _P
A GL /andbook on Civil Engineering
Jing moment
\for bending moment is at the face of the column
strip of foundation
Lex,
ll _MADE EASY
ending moment’ ~
wiB—b)*
8
mame
5 w for Limit State Method.
1 [a= Mee
=
Where, b = 1000 mm
Je shear (one-way shear)
» for one-way shear is at distance ‘d' from the face of
MADE EA:
™),
Punching shear stress | = 5
RCC & Prestressed Concrete aa
Similarly Shear force at y-y
Overhang,
Find out maximum of V, and Vy
Nominal shear stress
where, t, is permissible
design shear strength of
concrete in Nimm? as given
in IS 456 : 2000,
Footing should be always
safe in shear, No shear
reinforcement is provided
Check for
(Punching Shear).
Critical section for punching
shear also called two-way shear is at distance ‘d/2" from face of the
column all around,
Net punching force
P, wat db +d)
two-way
Net punching
cross-section area of resisting
section
Punching shear stress developed =
Cross-section area = perimeter x depth
Now perimeter = 2{(a+ d) + (0+ d)) Depth=d
Paw (a+d)(b+ d)
‘a+d)+(b+d)]xd
Above developed stress should be less than the permissible
punching shear stress
Permissible punching shear stress
ta =k, x06 | Tak, x 025s,
(working stress method) (Limit state method)
k, = (0.5 + B,) but not greater than 1, 8 being the ratio of short side
{5 long side of the column ina
Avfandbookon¢hilEngineering mt MADEEASY
(vi) Area of ste! for longer span
(vii)
Area of steel calculated above is for 1 m, width, Calculate this
area for width 8 and distribute unifarmly over entire width !
The area of steel A,, of long bars parallel to direction L is calculated
asunder
For M, moment
Mw ee My
oud [As * 087i, (d-042x,)
(Working stress method) (Limit state method)
This reinforcement is equally distributed over entire width B.
For total width B of footing, total area of steel = B x Ay,
Area of siee! for shorter span |
‘The area of steel A,,of short bars parallel to direction B is calculated
as under
A.-M OM
Sajid 0.876, (d- 0.42x,) | for tm
For total length L of footing, total area of stee!
This area is provided in two distinct band widths
‘The central band B of width B, and
The end bands A, each of wicth 2(L~8)
2
‘The reinforcement in central band width = 5 X tolaeinforcement
in short direction.
Where, B = ratio sneer
of long side to the
short side of the hort bars
footing band B ane
fond bands A
The remainder of
reinforcement
shall be uniformly
distributed in
outer portions of
the footing
|
|
Prestress Concrete
Prestress Concrete is one in which there h
stresses of such magnitude and distributio
given external loading is counter balanced t
Og Incase of prestress concrete very hit
AL. concrete is used
Analysis of prestressand Bending str
© Assumptions
() Concrete is homogeneous elastic
(i) Within the range of working stres:
behave elasticaly and Hooke’s law
(ii) A transverse plane section befort
bending.
«Following are the three concepts of
(@) Stress concept analysis
(©) Strength concept analysis
(©) Load balancing method
Stress concept Method
Following are the two cases for analysis
Case-(i) Beam provided with a concen
ea
Sp peers
Let, P prestressing force applied
prestressing force, the direct compre
P
by, ==
Yee
Hf due to dead load & external loads
section is M, then the extreme stresse i
andbook on CivilEngineering im MADE EASY MADEEASY RCC & Prestressed Concrete f
az,
P Pe M
Stress at bottom fibre = ae ee z
PoM By providing an eccentricity to the tendon, a hogging moment (Pe.)
3 at the extr =—+ 5
treme top edge = 5 +7 | is developed which will produce stresses, which will counteract the
5 | stresses due to external bending moment
extreme bottom edge =~ M
wen Z Strength Concept method
with eccentrics tendon: } Consider a beam of length provided wits a tendon at an eccentricity 6
~ “Suppose the beams lying on the ground i.e, the beam is not subjected
DORA aay
) to any external load. Hence there is no external bending moment on the
beam,
7 I Pore Acting on tendon
faa L
re Me Pb z
Za eZ atZ 2
ct Suess Due “Stress Due Sess Dus
sto Ecceniricty toExternal ip External
to ofthe “Bending Bending
jess Prestress Moment’ = Moment
(C-Foree acting on Gancrste
due to prestressing force The following equal forces are existing,
S$ due to eccentricity of the prestressing force = (The P-force which is the tension in the tendon.
(ii) The C-force which is the compressive force acting on the concrete.
Stresses in concrete are produced entirely due to C-force.
In the absence of any external bending moment the C-force and P-
force act at the same level. Line of action of P-force is called the P-line.
The P-line is nothing but the tendon line self. The line of action of the
C-force is called the C-line or Pressure line. Hence In the absence of
any external bending moment the P-line and the C-line coincide.
s due to bending moment 18. A Handbook on Civil Engineering
‘Suppose the beam is subjected to a bending moment M, then the C-
line will be shifted from the P-line by a distance ‘a’ called lever arm
Load Balancing Concept
* Prestressed Beam with Bent Tendon
DU Ft .
By providing bent tendons, the tendons will exert an upward pressure
on the conerete beam and will therefore counter act a part of the
external downward loading,
Considering the concrete as a free body. We find an upward force
2P sin 8
‘The net downward load at the ceniye will be (W-2P sind).
The axial longitudinal force provided by the tendon = P cos®
{since Bis small)
RCC & Prestressec
Direct stress on the sectios
(W—2P sind)! wi
net ay, [m= Y= 2Psino)
(litt a 8
Where, w = dead load per unit length
PLM
tress = Tt
sess = 545
It may be realized that the profile of tr
shape of the bending moment diagram f
order it may offer considerable and effec
if the loading on the beam is a uniformly
may be provided along a parabolic profi
Tendon with Parabolic Profile
Preaamanannc
oT TET PET TT
ww, per unit run
Loads Transmited to Bea
We Per urit run
Losds Transmited to Tend
Let be the span of the beam and h be tr
The cable will exert an upward ual = w.fm
willbe subjected to downward udl of wp
Let V and H are verticel and horizontal co fandbook on Civil Engineering MADE EASY
Wel
2
absolutely flexible member, therefore BM at every
is zero. Hence BM at the centre of the cable is
v
Ha wel
8h
z-
cable is very small, we can make approximation
cos a = P
ie beam, itis subjected to
|w per unit length
ransmitted by the cable = w, per unit length.
-W,
at tho centre = ("= We) 2
o ovessee 2 TSM
s
a prestressed concrete member do not retain all the
ress. A certain amount of loss of prestress always
sified as follows:
|
MADEEASY
RCC & Prestressed Concrete
Loss of prestress
during tensioning
process due to
trction
oeeuring Sub
‘sequently
(2) Loss dus to engin| L_NoLoss Foe
fect
(©) Lossdue to curvature | |_No Loss Pe wot
fect.
(@ Loss due to boin| [_NeLoes Pec + ne)
length and curvature
fect
Here,
Py = Prestessing force
atthe jacking enc.
Ik = Wobble. iriction
tector
15x 10% per meter< K<
5010 permet
Ja = Cumulatveangiein
radians through which
tangent to the cable
profile has turned
between any two points
under consideration
Ik = Coeiticient of
Friction n curves
= 02510056.
2. Loss of prestress at
theanchoringsiage. | [_Ne toss ,
effective slp of the
1 = Length of the
tendon
E, = Young's modulus
fortendon wires
8. Loss of prestress ; |
AvtandbookonChilengineering __m MADEEASY |
aC nove eee
© tee oege 9] [x10 | | | A Handboo
Scns bs eats
Se tte | age of cone Civil Engine
the time of transter
cofsiress (in days).
(©) Loss of stress due to
creep toconerete
em, ome
Here
Modularratio
Ele:
Original presiress
In concrete at the
levelofstee
(©) Loss of stress due to
elastic shortening of
Zero Jt all me bars are
tensioned al
Design
Steel Struc
FT or subsequent
E,htensioning
|
|
stress in
f, = Initial
concrete at the
levelofstee.
(@) Loss of stress due t0 1toS%ofinival prestross
creep of stool oF los
ue to stress
relaxations.
1 toS% of initalpresivess
1.. Structural Fasteners.
2. Tension Member...
3, Compression Member
4. Beams
5. Plate: Girders osc
6. Industrial Roofs
7. Plastic Analysis
ap MADE EASY Design of Stee Structures 125
+ Types of Riveted and Bolted Joints
Fasteners There are two types of riveted or bolted joints.
(0. Lap joint
‘* The lap joint is that in which the plates to be connected overlap
each other,
+ The lap joint may have single-row, staggered or chain riveting,
the diameter of the shank
ivet or dia of hole
Lap joint
(i) Butt Joint
for d > 25 mm * The but joint is that in which the plates to be connected butt
against each other and the connection is made by providing a
cover plate on one or both sides of joint
Nominal dia of rivet
Gross dia of rivet or dia of hole.
“eolmetordactnee
calculation fecve dameteris taken nto account | |
sd on the assumption that rivet fills the hole
la
where, dag = dia of rivet in mm
tam = thickness of plate in mm.
Nominal diameter (d): The diameter of the shank of a
rivet before riveting, is called the nominal diameter. For a bolt,
the diameter of the unthreaded portion of the shank Is called
its nominal diameter.
i) Effective diameter or gross diameter: The effective or gross
diameter of a rivet is equal to the diameter of the hole it fills after
riveting. For a bolt, the nominal diameter is same as the gross
diameter.
(iii) Net area: The net area of a boltis the area at the root of the thread,
(iv) Gauge: A row of rivets parallel to the direction of force is called a
| gauge line. The normal distance between two adjacent gauge line is
called the gauge.
>wing types of bolts are used in structures:
| black bolts are commonly used in steel works.
nade from iow or medium carbon steels.
Jesignated as black bolts Mx dx /
diameter, and / = length of the bolts.
Semi Precision Bolts
iso known as close tolerance bolts
s to prevent excessive siip, close tolerance bolts
fed in holes of 0.15 to 0.2 mm oversize. This may
culty in alignment and delay in the progress of work.
| Daste-cover but it
+The buttjoint may have a single rowor staggered or chain rivet
1 in place of rivets for structure not subjected to ae SY ENCE Ore fact eee onl neva)
J i /AMandlbook ch Cuil Engineering
__@ MADEEASY | MADEEASY
Design of Stee!
((v) Edge distance: Itis the distance between the edge of amember or
cover plate and the centre of the nearest rivet hole.
(vi) Proof load : initial tension in HSFG bolts is known as proof load of
the bolt.
(vii)Slip Factor: Coefficient of friction in friction type joint is known as
slip factor.
| (vinpitch : The distance between centres of any two adjacent rivets
parallel to the direction of force is called pitch. Diagonal pitch is the
distance between centres of any two adjacent rivets in the diagonal
direction is called diagonal pitch.
teh
.
.
<+. is ——p
Edge 4
distance |®
Endastance |
Failure of Riveted/Bolted Joints
(i) By Tearing of Plate between rivets
= @=2)]
(ii) Strength of rivet in single shear |Pe =]
(il) Strength of rivet in double shear
aaa where, f, = allowable shear stress in rivets
Eg
P, =2x 204,
qe d! = dia of hole,
(iv) Failure due to bearing or crushing of rivet or plates
Strength of rivet in bearing
R= 6.0't] where,
yearing strength of rivet
Shearing strength of joint is simply tl
(ros) of individual rivets.
Bearing strength of joint is simply
individual rivets in the joints.
Efficiency of Joints (n)
Minimum {P,. where, P, =
P=:
P = Strength of plate in tearing
made for rivet holes
= pth,
+ enero [P= mnmanf]
Force
© Number of rivet, [= Fr
IS 800 : 1984 Recommendation
‘Maximumpitch for
(any twoadjacentrivets
{irivetslyinginaline parallel
(a)Shoprivets 100
(b)Fiolarivets 20
()_Fandariven vais ®
(li) Close iclerance andtanedbols | 120
(v) Boltsin clearanceholes 120
Rivet diametor, Pitch
32tor 300mm,
whichever isle:
(including tackingrivets)
tothe forcein themember:
(a)intension 16tor200mm.
(b)incompression 42tor 200mm,
where t
hickness of thinner sndbook on Civil Engines
MI MADEEASY | MADEEASY m Design of Steel Structures i29
eo . [ry = PA
S Permissible stress | © [PT sa,
compression | O60,
ing 0.664, a fr, = 2 7 A]
it Support) O:7oe eee Lo 2A?
max. permissible avg = 0.40%, Foy Fue
a max. permissible = 0.45 f, Special Case: When all the rivets are of same diameter then.
\ é =|
flections | @ [Fone] | (©) [Fr
tion = 22° wsmy | — =e
le horizontal and verticle deflector Seer = (i) | Fe = ViFop® + Fn)? + OF Fy cose = R,
ible deflection when supported elements are
where, Fp, = Direct force in i" rivet.
cracking
ble deflection when supported element are not
Span
300 (SM)
wind and earthquake loads are considered
ible stresses in steel structures are increased by
and in rivets and welds are increased by 25%.
ding proper edge distance, we can prevent shear |
splitting failure and bearing failure of plates.
cracking =
ets
(b) Diamond Riveting (c) Staggered Riveting
| .
Dns
F,, = Force in rivet due to torsional moment
= Distance of i rivet from CG
A, = Area of iMrivet = Fea?
Fa = Always acts in the direction of applied load P.
F, = Always acts perpendicular to the line joining CG of
‘ivet group and the rivet under consideration
F, = Resultant force in rivet.
‘Most criieal rivet is one Tor which 07s manimum and rs maximum)
‘Angle biw fusion faces [Vélue of k]
[eons] 070 |
~| 065
0.60
O73" 055
(111207 [0.50]
Minimum size of weld
it depends upon thickness of thicker plate
TTHIGRAOSE BY ticker plate | MIcTRATSS:
O10 mm Sri
[-—a20mm Sim
~ 21-32 mm 6mm
[332 mm emm_ |
Max clear spacing between effective length of weld
In compression zone = 12t or 200 mm (min mum).
In tension zone = 16 t or 200 mm (minimurr) a “AHandbookon vilEngineering _™ MADEEASY | maDEEAsy a _Designof steels
* Slot weld * Tensile or ae stress dus tot
4 Fy = 7M | For he safety of joint th
L | e .
I Ib, <2t | |(rermsame are shear stress in weld, inwaia) . oo
lw ¢ 3t or 25 mm}
sone mn) | © Equivalency Method
Le | [Wres(@ry < 0.9%]
PE + (P.)° s 0.95, | (based onmaxa
Permissible bending stress for flanged sec
For solid section (Bf, @. A.) permis
|
| 125mm
|
Side filet weld subjected
to longitusinal shear
FILLET-WELDED JOINT LOADED Eccentr
There can be two cases:
(Load not lying in the plane of the wel
i) Load lying in the plane of the weld
End filet wold subjected (i) Load not lying in the plane of the we
totransverse shear * Letthiokness of weld throat = t anc
(@) 1, 4b, esl
(6) b, # 16t to make stress distribution uniform ertical shear stress at weld,
(0) if b, > 16t use end fillet weld > Ww
° = Baxt
Welded Connection
‘+ Horizontal shear stross due to ber
* Permissible Stresses
(@) Tensions and compression on section through the throat of but pea Maye a
weld = 150 N/mm? Hi 0 Bate t
() Shear on section through the throat of butt or fillet weld = 108 Nimm? L_
410 N/mm? + Resultant toe
Throat thickness t = k x size of weld = T Nv
p, = Vpe+pe | |
+ Butt-welded Joint Loaded
Eccentrically |
* Let thickness of weld throat = t, and |
length of weld = d |
* The value ofp, should
not exceed tho
Ww permissible shear
ser stiess p, (= 108MPa)
Shear stress at weld al | ress pat
Where t = thickness of weld throat
|
and d = length of weld, @ MADEEASY
sign of this connection, the depth of weld may be
jexWxe
- Be]
‘ed approximately by |[e-
n the plane of the weld: Consider a bracket connection
) of a column by a fillet weld as shown in figure
W
i shear stress atweld, [Ps = 757]
| + Ig) = the length of weld
| = thickness of the throat
due to moment, at any point in the weld
ial sires
orsional moment = Wx e
listance of the point from cg of weld section
Jolar moment of inertia of
e weld group
tly
resultant stress,
+E # 294930080 |
afoty, p, # permissible
infiletweld, Le. 108 MPa.
ssuitant stress p, will be
1um at a point where r is
1um and q is minimum,
Tension Member
Introduction
1. Tension member has no stability problem,
2. In tension member net section will be effective whereas in
compression member gross section is effective.
‘Types bi member Max. Slendemess |
Ratio.
Atension member in which reversal of direct 780
stress due to loads other then wind or
| earthquake forces.
|
|2. A member normally acting as a tie in root 350
| truss or bracing system. But subjected to
Possible reversal of stress resulting from the |
| __ action of wind or earthquake forces |
NET SECTIONAL AREA
0 tara [mcaean xs]
where,
8, = Distance between two consacutive rivets in the direction
of load, also called pitch.
Distance between two consecutive rivets perpendicular
to the direction of load also called gauge.
b= Width of the
plate L
n= Number rivets
atthe section I
t= Thickness ofthe
