Magnetics

EE521
You will learn
Basic transformer concept
Core loss, AC resistance
High frequency effect, Leakage inductance
 Introduction
• Transformers and inductors are necessary
components in many power electronic circuits.
• Usually high switching frequencies are used and
the applied voltage to the transformer or inductor
is usually not sinusoidal but square wave of
PWM.
• The advantage of high frequency is the size of
the magnetic components are small but the
consequence is that the magnetic suffer from
higher loss such as eddy current loss, proximity
loss.
 Problem of Inductor design
• To design a transformer or inductor is one of the
most difficult part in power electronics.
• Most of the industrial engineers have to use trial
and error and the consequence is that the
magnetics is not optimized.
• This will lead to a reduction in efficiency in the
power electronic circuits, higher development,
higher running cost and component cost.
 Basic magnetic equations
• Faraday's and Ampere's Law
dN
e
dt
• where e is the Electromotive force and is
equal and opposite to the applied voltage
N = flux linkage
N = number of turns
•The mangetising current of a transformer is:

 Hdl  Ni
 Operation of a perfect
transformer
• The basic operation
can be explained here
by using a perfect
transformer. ie:
• The winding
resistance is
negligible
• Perfectly coupled, i.e.
no leakage flux
• No core loss
 Waveforms
• The core flux for
square wave and
sine wave input
voltages are
different: 1

Np V in dt

• For square wave:

Vrm s
m 
4 fN p
• For sine wave:
Vrm s
m 
4.44 fN p
 Exercise
• Derive the magnetic flux equation for sine
and square wave
 Magnetising current im
l m
 Hdl  Ni im 
AN p  0  r

• where lm is the magnetic path

•  is the instantaneous flux
• μ ： magnetic permeability
• μ0：permeability of vacuum
• μr： relative permeability
 Secondary voltage ep
• The voltage is related by transformer turn
ratio:
Ns
es  e p
Np

• The magnitude of the voltages are related

by the similar ratio:
Ns
Vs  Vm
Np
 Secondary current, is
• Pure resistor

• Secondary current referred to primary

side, isp
Ns
is p  is
Np
 Equivalent circuit
• Basic equations
di di
V L M
dt dt
d i2 d i1
V 2  L 22 M 12
dt dt

• The two equations can be arranged and obtain

d i1 d i1 d i2
V 1  ( L 11  M ) M 12 (  )
dt dt dt
d i2 d i1 d i2
V 2  ( L 22  M ) M 12 (  )
dt dt dt
 Equivalent circuit

• Rm is the core loss.

• L1 and L2 are the leakage inductance of the primary
and secondary winding respectively.
• R1 and R2 are the winding resistance of the primary
and secondary size respectively.
 Core loss equivalent
L1 L2

Rm

• Eddy current loss

• Hysteresis loss
 Core loss equivalent
L1 L2

Rm

• For most design, the core loss can be assumed to

be:Pcore =kfmBn
• where: f is the operating frequency, B is the peak
flux density
• m~=1.3-2.0
• n~=2.0 - 2.7
 Tutorial 1:
A magnetic core has a flux density = 0.1T and the core loss
at 100kHz is 1W.
Assume the core loss is given by:
Pcore =kfmBn where m=2, n=2
Calculate the loss at 0.25T and 50kHz?

• Solution: Pcore =1=kfmBn =k(100E3)20.12

• Then k=1E-8
• When B=0.25T, f=50kHz
• Pcore =kfmBn =1E-8(50E3)20.252 =1.5625W
 How to calculate loss
• The loss are usually calculated by
manufacturer's data sheet as shown in Fig 6.
• In general cases, Ferrites magnetic core has a
restriction of magnetic flux density =0.3T.
Therefore, this is the maximum values we can
use. For powder iron core, the magnetic flux
can go up to 0.7T or even higher and depends
on the mix.
• However, at high frequency, because the loss is
high, we restrict the loss to a smaller value, and
is about 0. 1 T for tens of kHz and 0.03T for MHz.
Core loss data

Flux density
 Conductor loss
• The loss is calculated by basic equation:
• Pcopper=FrRdcirms2

• Fr is the ratio of the Rac to Rdc. Fr will

increase with frequency because of eddy
current loss, skin effect and proximity
effect. The formulation will be explained in
the later section.
 Leakage inductance
• Leakage inductances is a result of the
eddy current and it varies slightly with
frequency
• can be estimated for the conventional
transformer design.
• It affects the power converter’s design
because it slows than the rise of current
 Forward converter
• As voltage applies
• The current does not
increase straightaway
• The required time to
reach to nominal
value is tD2
The procedure of calculating
leakage inductance
• At distance x from the
inner edge of the
winding, the flux
density bx is given by:
x
b B
b

I1
Bm  0 N1
lc
Assumption： High Permeability !

mmf= magnetomotive force

 Primary leakage flux
• The flux  x ,at x can be given by:

x  bx ltx lt is the mean turn length

• Hence, lt
 x  Bm xx
b1

• Therefore total flux linkage for the primary

winding is: x
  N 1 d
0
b1
 Primary leakage
• It follows that:
b
 N B l
3

• The leakage inductance is therefore:

 l b
L   N
I l 3

• the leakage inductance for the secondary

winding is: 2 lt b2
LLs  0 N 2
lc 3
 Interwinding
• The interwinding gap is of width a also
contains leakage flux which links with the
windings. The flux is:
 a  Bm al t
0 N1I1
 alt
lc
• Assuming the leakage inductance is
referred to the primary side, all this flux
can be assumed to link. Hence,
N 1 a  0 N 12 lt a
LLa  
I1 lc
 Total leakage inductance
• The total leakage inductance referred to
the primary side is therefore:

N1 2
LL  LLp  LLa  ( ) LLs
N2
 Inductor
• Inductor is very similar to transformer but with
only one winding.
• The leakage inductance is not defined in
inductor. It is more important to calculate the
loss.
• It is also found that the loss calculation
presented in this section can also be used in the
loss calculation of transformer.
• The construction of inductor is also very similar
to that of the transformer.
 Magnetic circuit
• In a magnetic circuit, the MMF equation is

where R is the reluctance

Magnetic circuit
 Example 1

• Find the inductance at the coil terminals for the

structure shown in this figure
Example 1
• Step 1: draw the magnetic
circuit
• Step 2: find the cross section
area and loop length.
• Step 3: Apply
 Example 1

• Step 4: inductance is proportional to 1/R. Apply

L=N2/Rtot
 Example 1

Rright

• Step 4: inductance is proportional to 1/R. Apply

L=N2/Rtot
 Example 2

This figure shows a two-winding core. If the windings are connected in

series so that they provide a total MMF=N1i1+N2i2.
• Draw the equivalent magnetic circuit of this inductor.
• What is the inductance of the combination?
 Example 2
• Draw the equivalent magnetic circuit of this inductor.
 Example 2
• Calculate the corresponding reluctance.
Example 2
 Total loss
• Add all the components together:
– Core loss
– Copper loss
• Remark:
– The core loss can be calculated by the
equation, but need to formulate and may not
too accurate
– We can use look up table to get the loss.
– AC resistance can be very large at high
frequency.
 Skin effect and proximity
• The currents are re-
distributed and affect the
resistance of the
conductor
• Effective resistance
increases
• Therefore the loss
increases
• Design using skin depth
(wire skin < skin depth)
 Conclusion
• The excitation of a transformer using square and
sinewave are different in the resultant flux. For
Vrm s
square:  m 
4 fN p
• At high frequency, the AC resistance is higher
than dc resistance. There is a formula of Fr. It
is related to the number of layers and turn pitch.
Fr increase with frequency, turn pitch and layers
• A leakage inductance has been derived for an
E-core transformer.
• Skin effect and proximity are two major issues to
increase the AC resistance