Wireless Adhoc Network Wireless Sensor Network

The medium used in wireless ad-hoc networks is radio waves. The medium used in wireless sensor networks is radio
waves, infrared, and optical media.
Application independent network is used. The application-dependent network is used.
Hop-to-Hop routing takes place. Query-based (data-centric routing) or location-based routing takes place.
It is heterogeneous in type. It is homogeneous in type.
The traffic pattern is point-to-point. The traffic pattern is any-to-any, many-to-one, many-to-few, and one-to-many.
Wireless router is used as an inter-connecting device. Application level gateway is used as an interconnecting device.
The data rate is high. The data rate is low.
Supports common services. Supports specific applications.
Traffic triggering depends on application needs. Triggered by sensing events.
IP address is used for addressing. Local unique MAC address or spatial IP is used for addressing.
Network Type Peer-to-Peer Network type Hierarchical or Mesh
Nodes Can be any wireless device Nodes Limited to sensor nodes
Communication Range Variable depends on node placement Communication Range Limited by the sensor node’s
transmission power
Communication Range Standard network protocols (TCP/IP) Communication Range Customized protocols for efficient
data transfer and low energy consumption
Data Type General data (voice, video, files, etc.) Data Type Sensor data (temperature, humidity, light, etc.)
Power Consumption Can be high due to constant communication Power Consumption Designed to minimize energy
consumption to extend network lifetime
Security Security protocols can be implemented Security Security protocols are critical as sensor data can be sensitive
Applications General wireless communication Applications Environmental monitoring, industrial automation, home
automation, etc.

Deployment Can be deployed in any environment Deployment Typically deployed in remote or hard-to-reach locations,

such as forests, oceans, or industrial sites.___________________

3
Classification of MAC protocols
Contention-based protocols without reservation/scheduling –

Sender-initiated protocols:
The transmission of packets are initiated by the sender node.
Single-channel sender initiated. For example, MACAW, FAMA.
Multiple-channel sender initiated protocols. For example, BTMA, DBTMA, ICSMA.
Receiver-initiated protocols:
The connection is initiated by the receiver node. For example, RI-BTMA, MACA-BI, MARCH.
2. Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms –

Synchronous protocols:
All node are kept synchronized. For example, D-PRMA, CATA, HRMA, SRMA/PA, FPRP.
Asynchronous protocols:
Relative time information is used to achieve effecting reservations. For example, MACA/PR, RTMAC..
Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms –
All the nodes are treated equally and no node is get deprived of bandwidth. For example, Eg. DPS, DWOP, DLPS.

Other protocols –
These MAC protocols do not strictly fall into any above category. For example, MMAC, MCSMA, PCM, RBAR.

MAC Protocol Categories

Contention based MAC
Scheduled based MAC
Hybrid MAC
Cross-Layer MAC
Contention-based MAC
Contention-based MAC protocol is also known as a random access MAC protocol. It allows all nodes to transmit data
on the shared medium, but they have to compete with each other to access the medium. One example of contention-
based MAC is CSMA/CA.

Contention-based MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks

Sensor MAC (SMAC) is a contention-based MAC protocol that is specifically designed for wireless sensor networks.
The primary objective of SMAC is to minimize idle listening, over-hearing, and collisions of data packets. To achieve
this goal, SMAC adopts a duty-cycle approach, also known as a sleep-wakeup cycle. In this approach, each node
alternates between a fixed length of active and sleeping periods based on its schedule.

Scheduled-based MAC
Scheduled-based MAC is also known as a deterministic MAC protocol. Where each node follows a predetermined
schedule and transmits the data according to its given time slot. The data collision is completely nullified in scheduled-
based MAC. An example of Scheduled based MAC is TDMA(Time Division Multiple Access).

Scheduled-based MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks

LEACH (Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy) is a TDMA-based protocol that utilizes a clustering mechanism
in wireless sensor networks. A cluster comprises sensor nodes grouped together, with one node designated as the cluster
head and the others serving as members. The cluster head is selected based on a probabilistic algorithm, which ensures
that power consumption is evenly distributed among the nodes.

3
Hybrid MAC
Hybrid MAC is a combination of different protocols such as contention-based MAC and scheduled-based MAC to
optimize the performance of wireless sensor networks. For example, contention-based MAC protocols, such as
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance), allow nodes to access the medium based on a
random backoff interval, which reduces collisions but may result in inefficient utilization of the medium. On the other
hand, scheduled-based MAC protocols, such as TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), divide the medium into time
slots and assign them to different nodes, which can achieve high utilization but may not be flexible enough to adapt to
changing network conditions. Hybrid MAC solved the issue by using other MAC protocols, During transmission of data
if the channel is idle or the channel has low traffic then Hybrid MAC switches to contention-based MAC. If the traffic in
the channel increases then it is switched to scheduled-based MAC such as TDMA.

Hybrid MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks

The IEEE developed 802.15.4 as a standard for low-rate WPANs, which outlines the PHY and MAC layers for low-
power wireless communication in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. It was specifically created for applications that require low
data rates, low power consumption, and cost-effectivenesses, such as sensor networks, home automation, and industrial
automation.

The physical layer employs DSSS modulation with a data rate of 250 kbps and works in the 2.4 GHz ISM band that has
16 channels with 5 MHz bandwidth. Additionally, it uses FHSS to prevent interference from other wireless devices.

Cross-Layer MAC
Cross-layer MAC allows the different layers in the protocol stack, typically including physical, MAC, and network
layers, to interact and share information with one another. Firstly MAC layers gather information about the state of the
channel whether the channel is busy or not. This information will be further used to control the other parameters such as
data transmission rate, packet loss rate, and delay.

Once the parameters have been determined, the MAC layer sends the data packets to the PHY layer for transmission
over the wireless channel. After the data transmission, the PHY layer sends feedback to the MAC layer about the
success or failure of the transmission.

Cross-Layer MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks

The IEEE 802.11e standard expands on the existing IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard by incorporating Quality of Service
(QoS) support. It utilizes a cross-layer approach, allowing the MAC layer to collaborate with higher layers such as the
network and application layers, to provide specific services based on the application’s needs.

3
MANET Routing Protocols
In Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET), nodes do not know the topology of their network, instead they have to discover it
by their own as the topology in the ad-hoc network is dynamic topology. The basic rules is that a new node whenever
enters into an ad-hoc network, must announce its arrival and presence and should also listen to similar announcement
broadcasts made by other mobile nodes.

1. Pro-active routing protocols: These are also known as table-driven routing protocols. Each mobile node maintains a
separate routing table which contains the information of the routes to all the possible destination mobile nodes.

Since the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic, these routing tables are updated periodically as and when
the network topology changes. It has a limitation that it doesn’t work well for the large networks as the entries in the
routing table becomes too large since they need to maintain the route information to all possible nodes.

Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV): It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It
actually extends the distance vector routing protocol of the wired networks as the name suggests. It is based on the
Bellman-ford routing algorithm. Distance vector routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks due to
count-to-infinity problem. Hence, as a solution Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV) came
into picture.
Destination sequence number is added with every routing entry in the routing table maintained by each node. A node
will include the new update in the table only if the entry consists of the new updated route to the destination with higher
sequence number.
Global State Routing (GSR): It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the link state routing of
the wired networks. It is based on the Dijkstra’s routing algorithm. Link state routing protocol was not suited for mobile
ad-hoc networks because in it, each node floods the link state routing information directly into the whole network i.e.
Global flooding which may lead to the congestion of control packets in the network.
Hence, as a solution Global State Routing Protocol (GSR) came into the picture. Global state routing doesn’t flood the
link state routing packets globally into the network. In GSR, each of the mobile node maintains one list and three tables
namely, adjacency list, topology table, next hop table and distance table.
2. Reactive routing protocols: These are also known as on-demand routing protocol. In this type of routing, the route is
discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs by flooding the route request packets
throughout the mobile network. It consists of two major phases namely, route discovery and route maintenance.

Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR): It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. In this type of routing, the route
is discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs by flooding the route request
packets throughout the mobile network. It consists of two phases:
Route Discovery: This phase determines the most optimal path for the transmission of data packets between the source
and the destination mobile nodes.
Route Maintenance: This phase performs the maintenance work of the route as the topology in the mobile ad-hoc
network is dynamic in nature and hence, there are many cases of link breakage resulting in the network failure between
the mobile nodes.
Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV): It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. It is an extension of
dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) and it helps to remove the disadvantage of dynamic source routing protocol. In
DSR, after route discovery, when the source mobile node sends the data packet to the destination mobile node, it also
contains the complete path in its header. Hence, as the network size increases, the length of the complete path also
increases and the data packet’s header size also increases which makes the whole network slow.
Hence, Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol came as solution to it. The main difference lies in the way of
storing the path, AODV stores the path in the routing table whereas DSR stores it in the data packet’s header itself. It
also operates in two phases in the similar fashion: Route discovery and Route maintenance.
3. Hybrid Routing protocol: It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-active routing protocols.
These protocols are adaptive in nature and adapts according to the3 zone and position of the source and destination
mobile nodes. One of the most popular hybrid routing protocol is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).
The whole network is divided into different zones and then the position of source and destination mobile node is
observed. If the source and destination mobile nodes are present in the same zone, then proactive routing is used for the
transmission of the data packets between them. And if the source and destination mobile nodes are present in different
zones, then reactive routing is used for the transmission of the data packets between them.

Characteristics of MANET Routing Protocol:

To avoid the problems with routing in MANET, routing protocols should have following characteristics:

It should be widely distributed.

It must be localized.
Because of nodes mobility, it should be adjustable to frequent change in topology.
It must be free of impermeable routes.
The convergence of routes must be fast.
Each node in the network should be required to store information about the network’s stable local topology.
It should be able to provide high-quality service

------------------------

Localization is extensively used in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) to identify the current location of the sensor
nodes. A WSN consist of thousands of nodes that make the installation of GPS on each sensor node expensive and
moreover GPS will not provide exact localization results in an indoor environment. Manually configuring location
reference on each sensor node is also not possible in the case of dense network. This gives rise to a problem where the
sensor nodes must identify its current location without using any special hardware like GPS and without the help of
manual configuration. Localization techniques makes the deployment of WSNs economical. Most of the localization
techniques are carried out with the help of anchor node or beacon node, which knows its present location. Based on the
location information provided by the anchor node or beacon node, other nodes localize themselves. In this paper we
present a succinct survey on the localization techniques used in wireless sensor networks covering its problems and
research gap.

--------------------------------

Sink and Source are terms used to define the flow of direct current in an electric circuit.

A sinking input or output circuit provides a path to ground for the electric load.
A sourcing input or output provides the voltage source for the electric load.
Logic is defined by the type of components in the circuit.

A sourcing input or output circuit requires a PNP transistor.

A sinking input or output circuit requires an NPN transistor.
A simple electronic circuit consists of one digital input connected to a digital output. To power the circuit, a voltage
source, a ground, and a load is necessary.

A sourcing input or output circuit provides the necessary voltage for the circuit.
A sinking input or output circuit provides the necessary ground for the circuit.
The digital I/O provides the electrical load required for the circuit to work.

3
S-MAC Protocol in WSNs
S-MAC (Sensor MAC) is a low-power, duty-cycled MAC (medium access control) protocol designed for wireless
sensor networks. It tries to save energy by reducing the time a node spends in the active (transmitting) state and
lengthening the time it spends in the low-power sleep state. S-MAC achieves this by implementing a schedule-based
duty cycling mechanism. In this system, nodes coordinate their sleeping and waking times with their neighbors and send
the data only at predetermined time slots. As a result of this mechanism, there are fewer collisions and idle listening
events, which leads to low energy usage.

Design and Implementation of S-MAC

To save energy, this protocol’s ability to modify sleep duration based on traffic patterns is intriguing. The node sleeps
for longer periods when there is less traffic; also, the node is limited by the duty cycle protocol. Nodes spend more time
in transmissions as a result of fewer opportunities for periodic sleep as traffic volume increases.

Design Goals of S-MAC

Reduce energy consumption
Support good scalability
Self-configurable
Features of the S-MAC
S-MAC (Sensor MAC) is designed specifically for wireless sensor networks and has several key features, including:

Synchronized sleep schedule: To minimize the overhead and power usage related to MAC protocols, it adopts a
synchronized sleep schedule. To save energy, nodes alternately take turns sleeping and waking up, which reduces idle
listening and maximizes battery life.
Packet aggregation: Packet aggregation is a feature of this protocol that combines multiple data packets into a single
larger packet to reduce the quantity and frequency of transmissions in the network. This improves the network’s
scalability and hence decreases overhead.
Route discovery: The S-MAC protocol has a route discovery mechanism that enables nodes to select the fastest and
most efficient path for data transmission. This improves the network’s overall efficiency and lowers the energy use
associated with data transmission.
Low overhead: It is because S-MAC limits the amount of data carried through the network and lowers the number of
transmissions, it has a low overhead. This increases the network’s effectiveness and helps to conserve energy.
Robustness: S-MAC is designed to be resilient and robust in the face of failures and changes to the network. It has tools
and mechanisms for handling failures, identifying them, and adjusting to network changes like node mobility and
changes in network topology.
Security: To protect against unauthorized access and malicious attacks. This makes it easier to guarantee the security
and privacy of data sent across the network.

Performance Evaluation
The performance evaluation of S-MAC (Sensor MAC) is a crucial part of its development and implementation since it
enables researchers and practitioners to evaluate the protocol’s efficacy and efficiency.

There are several metrics that are commonly used to evaluate the performance of S-MAC, including:

Energy efficiency: Energy efficiency is a crucial indicator for wireless sensor networks because the node’s battery life is
constrained and they must run for extended periods without maintenance. The average energy use per node per unit of
time and the network’s overall energy use is frequently used to measure energy efficiency.
Latency: The amount of time it takes for data to be transmitted from a source node to a destination node is known as
latency. For real-time applications, where data must be delivered quickly to be usable, low latency is crucial.
Throughput: The amount of data that can be transferred in a given amount of time is known as throughput. If some of
the applications need more throughput and a sudden requirement of larger data, then it might be crucial.
Scalability: A protocol’s scalability refers to how well it can manage an expanding network of nodes and a growing
amount of traffic. Sometimes scalability may be crucial according to the higher needs and demands.
Reliability: It is reliable for the crucial data to be sent without getting
3 any errors or leakage of data. It should have a
reliable and confidential mechanism to provide
Why are low duty cycle is necessary?
Using a low duty cycle will allow the readers to transmit for a shorter amount of time; therefore, the chances of readers
interfering with each other and transmitting at the same time is reduced.

What are the advantages of using wake up radios instead of duty cycling?

Wake-Up Radio Approach. The use of low-power wake-up radio (WuR) can significantly reduce the overall power
consumption of the system. However, more importantly, it allows to reduce the delay in frame delivery to the target
node, which is particularly important in delay-sensitive applications especially in Industry 4.0 …

What are the two types of MAC protocol?

MAC protocols presented in the literature can be classified in two groups according to the approach used to manage
medium access: contention based and schedule based [25].

What are the three periods available in periodic wakeup scheme?

A whole cycle consisting of a sleep period and a listening period is called a sleep/wake-up period and is depicted in
Figure 1. Duty cycle is measured as the ratio of the listening period length to the wake-up period length which gives an
indicator of how long a node spends in the listening period. …

What is duty cycle in WSN?

Duty cycling is a technique where a node is periodically placed into the sleep mode which is an effective method of
reducing energy dissipation in wireless sensor networks (WSNs).

What is importance of duty cycle?

The actual duty cycle is important because a slight increase in it (from the theoretical ideal efficiency value) may lead to
a significant increase in the operating peak current and the corresponding magnetic fields. We thus have a more accurate
estimate of duty cycle.

What is the effect of having more duty cycle and less duty cycle?

As the duty cycle increases, the MOSFET will conduct for a longer period and the diode for a shorter period. This in
turn alters the power losses in the circuit.

What is the principle involved in wake up radio?

RF harvesting wake-up radios utilize RF energy as their power source. During RF energy harvesting, electromagnetic
waves are converted into electricity using a rectifying antenna, or rectenna.

What is a wake up radio?

Wake up Radios are the basic circuits for the on-demand communications scheme. The WuR handles the sending and
receiving of wake up messages that switch on the main processing unit or the main radio of the required node.

What is the role of MAC protocol?

The MAC protocol provides a channel of access and an addressing mechanism, so that each available node on the
network may communicate with other nodes which are available – either on the same network, or on others. Some
wireless home automation networks defined by IEEE 802.15.

What are the three main classes of MAC protocols?

In general, wireless communication has a variety of MAC protocols, which can be classified into distinct groups
according to different criteria. Based on whether a central controller
3 is involved in coordination, WSNs’ MAC protocols
can be categorized as centralized, distributed (decentralized), and hybrid.