2 Continuity of functions

A function is said to be continuous at a point (or within an interval) if its graph has no breaks
(such as holes, gaps or jumps) at that point (or within that interval).

If the graph of a function has a hole, gap or jump at x = a, we say that the function is discontin-
uous at x = a.

Fig. 11: Graphs of continuous (L) and discontinuous (R) functions

Definition 2.0.1. A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a if the following three
conditions hold:

(i) f (a) is defined;

(ii) lim f (x) exists;

x→a

(iii) lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

x2 −4
Example 2.0.1. Determine the continuity of f (x) = x−2 at (i) x = 1 and (ii) x = 2.

Solution:

(i) At x = 1
According to the definition 2.0.1, three items must be true for continuity to exist.
12 −4
(1) Is f (1) defined? Yes; f (1) = 1−2 =3
x2 − 4
(2) Does lim exist? Yes; The substitution principle shows that
x→1 x − 2

x2 − 4 (1)2 − 4
lim = =3
x→1 x − 2 1−2
x2 − 4
(3) Does lim = f (1)? Yes; 3=3.
x→1 x − 2
2 −4
So we conclude that f (x) = xx−2 is continuous at x = 1.

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(ii) At x = 2
x2 −4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
f (x) = x−2 is discontinuous at 2 because f (2) is not defined. However, lim f (x) = lim =
x→2 x→2 x−2
lim (x + 2) = 4 so that condition (ii) holds.
x→2

• The discontinuity at x = 2 is said to be removable.

• Removable discontinuities are characterized by the fact that the limit exists. They can
be fixed.

Fig. 12

• In the example above, we can fix the removable discontinuity at x = 2 by redefining

the original function into a piecewise form as follows:
(
x2 −4
x−2 if x ̸= 2
f (x) =
4 if x = 2

• Notice that in the formed piecewise function, the function is assigned a value of 4 ( limit
value) at x = 2; so that the extended function would be continuous at x = 2.
1
Example 2.0.2. Determine the continuity of f (x) = x−2 at x = 2.

19
 1
Solution: f (x) = x−2 is discontinuous at x = 2 because f (2) is not defined and also because
lim f (x) does not exist as indicated below.
x→2
Numerically:

x 1 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1 3

1
f (x) = x−2 -1 10 -100 -1000 * 10000 1000 100 10 1

From the above table,

LHL: lim f (x) = +∞ and RHL: lim f (x) = −∞. Therefore, lim f (x) does not exist.
x→2+ x→2− x→2
1
The graph of f (x) = x−2 is as shown in figure 13 below.

Fig. 13

• Since the limit does not exist, the discontinuity at x = 2 is said to be non-removable.
• Non-removable discontinuity are characterized by the fact that the limit does not
exist. They cannot be fixed.
• Non-removable discontinuities may further be classified into: jump, infinite, endpoint
and mixed discontinuity.
Definition 2.0.2. A function
 f (x) has a jump discontinuity
  at x = a if both the left
hand limit, lim f (x) and the right hand limit lim f (x) exists but are not equal
 x→a−  x→a+

i.e., lim f (x) ̸= lim f (x) . Such a discontinuity is not removable.

x→a− x→a+

20
 Fig. 14

Definition 2.0.3.A function f (x) has an infinite

 discontinuity at x = a if one or
both of the limits, lim f (x) and lim f (x) is ±∞.
x→a− x→a+
Such a discontinuity is not removable.

Fig. 15

21
Example 2.0.3. Define a function f (x) as follows

x2 if

x ̸= 2
f (x) =
0 if x=2
Here, lim f (x) = 4, but f (2) = 0. Hence, condition (iii) fails, so that f (x) has a discontinuity
x→2
at 2. Since the limit exist, the discontinuity of f at x = 2 is removable.
To fix (or remove) the discontinuity at x = 2, we change the value of f at 2 to be 4 (the limit
value), then we obtain a function h such that:

x2 if x ̸= 2

h(x) =
4 if x = 2
h(x) is now continuous at x = 2.
|x|
Example 2.0.4. Let f be a function such that f (x) = x for all x ̸= 0. The graph of f is as
shown in Figure 16.

Fig. 16

f is discontinuous at x = 0 because f (0) is not defined.

Moreover, by definition, (
x if x≥0
|x| =
−x if x<0
Therefore,
(
x
x if x≥0
f (x) =
− xx if x<0
The left-hand limit (LHL) and the right-hand limit (RHL) are hence computed as follows:
x −x
[LHL] : lim f (x) = lim = 1 and [RHL] : lim f (x) = lim = −1 (3)
x→0 + x→0+ x x→0 − x→0− x
Since, lim f (x) ̸= lim f (x), ⇒ lim f (x) does not exist. Thus, the discontinuity of f (x)
x→0− x→0+ x→0
at x = 0 is non-removable. This kind of discontinuity is called a jump discontinuity.

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2.1 Properties of Continuity
If two functions f (x) and g(x) are continuous functions at x = a then:

(i) cf is continuous at a, for any constant c.

(ii) f ± g is continuous at a.

(iii) f g is continuous at a.

(iv) f /g is continuous at a if g(x) ̸= 0.

√ p
(v) n f is continuous at a if n f (a) is defined.

2.2 Theorems of Continuity for specific functions

1. A polynomial function is continuous over the set of all real numbers (or in the interval
(−∞, +∞)).

2. An exponential function is continuous over the set of all real numbers.

3. A rational function is continuous for all real x except those values of x for which the denom-
inator is 0.

4. The logarithmic function is continuous for all real x in its domain.

5. The constant function h(x) = c is continuous everywhere (or in the interval (−∞, +∞)).

6. A radical function, or rational exponent function, is continuous for all real x in its domain.

Example 2.2.1. Determine the intervals where the following functions are continuous

(a) f (x) = 9 (b) g(x) = x3 + 8x2 + x − 9

√ 2x+1
(c) g(x) = (1.21)x (d) h(x) = x − 7 (e) f (x) = (x−1)(2x+1)

Solution:

(a) Since f (x) = 9 is a constant function, it is continuous everywhere. Therefore the interval of
continuity is (−∞, +∞).

(b) g(x) = x3 + 8x2 + x − 9 is a polynomial function which should be continuous over the set of
all real numbers. Therefore the interval of continuity is (−∞, +∞).

(c) Since this is an exponential function, it is continuous over the set of all real numbers and the
interval of continuity is (−∞, +∞).

(d) The domain of this radical function is [7, ∞), so we conclude that the function is continuous
on [7, ∞).

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 (e) Since this is a rational function, we conclude that it is continuous everywhere except at x = 1
and at x = − 12 , the values of x that make the denominator 0. Therefore, the function is
continuous on −∞, − 21 ∪ − 21 , 1 ∪ (1, ∞).

The graph of some of these functions are shown below.

Fig. 17

Exercise 6. Determine the continuity of the given functions at the indicated point.

(i) g(x) = 3x − 2, x = −2
x+1
(ii) f (x) = x−3 , x=3
x2 −25
(iii) h(x) = x−5 , x=0

x − 3, x≤0
(iv) h(x) =
x2 + x − 3, x > 0, at x = 0

x + 2, x≤1
(v) f (x) =
x2 + 3, x > 1, at x = 1

2.3 Practice Exercise

Find the discontinuities of the following functions. Determine whether they are removable. If not
removable, determine whether they are jump discontinuities.
3
x −27
1. f (x) = (x 2 −9) .

Solution: From the denominator (x2 − 9) = (x − 3)(x + 3), the function f has discontinuities
at x = 3 and x = −3. Both f (3) and f (−3) are undefined.

For x = 3;
x2 + 3x + 9
lim = 27/6 (limit exists). Hence, f (x) has a removable discontinuity at x = 3.
x→3 x+3

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 For x = −3, lim f (x) does not exist. Hence, f (x) has a nonremovable discontinuity at
x→−3
x = −3.
Summary: f (x) has a removable discontinuity at x = 3 and a nonremovable discontinuity at
x = −3.
2
2. f (x) = x
Solution: Clearly, the function f is discontinuous at x = 0. This is because f (0) is undefined.
Secondly, the lim f (x) = −∞ and lim f (x) = ∞. Since the limits do not exist, the
x→0− x→0+
discontinuity at x = 0 is Nonremovable.
In summary, f (x) has a non-removable discontinuity at x = 0.

3. 
0 if x=0
f (x) =
2 if x ̸= 0
Solution: Removable discontinuity at x = 0.

4. 
 x if x ≤ 0
f (x) = x 2 if 0 < x < 1
2−x if x ≥ 1.


Solution: No discontinuities.
x−1
5. f (x) = (x+3)(x−2) . Solution: Nonremovable discontinuity at x = −3 and x = 2.

6. f (x) = 3x3 − 7x2 + 4x − 2. Solution: A polynomial has no discontinuities.

2.4 Practice Exercise

Determine the discontinuities of the following functions and state why the function fails to be
continuous at those points. Check your answers by graphing the functions.

x2 −3x−10 x + 3 if x ≤ 2
(a) f (x) = x+2 (b) f (x) =
x2 + 1 if x < 2

 4−x if x < 3
(c) f (x) = |x| − x (d) f (x) = x − 2 if 0 < x < 3
x−1 if x ≤ 0


x4 −1 x3 +x2 −17x+15
(e) f (x) = x2 −1
(f) f (x) = x2 +2x−15
(g) f (x) = x3 − 7x
x2 −4 x2 +3x+2 x−2
(h) f (x) = x2 −5x+6
(i) f (x) = x2 +4x+3
(j) f (x) = x2 −4

Solutions

(a) Removable discontinuity at x = 2. (Note that x2 − 3x − 10 = (x + 2)(x − 5).)

(b) , (c), (g): None (No discontinuities)

25
 (d) Jump discontinuity at x = 0.

(e) Removable discontinuities at x = ±1.

(f) Removable discontinuities at x = 3, x = −5.

(h) Removable discontinuity at x = 2 and nonremovable discontinuity at x = 3.

(i) Removable discontinuity at x = −1 and nonremovable discontinuity at x = −3.

(j) Removable discontinuity at x = 2 and nonremovable discontinuity at x = −2.

2.5 Graphing piecewise functions

Sketch the graphs of the following piecewise functions.
 
x if x < 0 2 if x < 1
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) =
5 if x ≥ 0 x + 3 if x > 2
1
  
 2x + 1 if x < 1  3x + 4 if x < 0  x if x < 0
(c) f (x) = 1 if x = 1 (d) f (x) = 2 if x = 0 (e) f (x) = 3 if 0≤x<3
 √
−x2 if x > 1 x if x > 1 −x + 5 if x ≥ 3
 

Exercise 7. Sketch the graphs of the following functions and determine whether they are continuous
on the closed interval [0, 1].

 −1 if x < 0  1
x if x > 0
(a) f (x) = 0 if 0≤x≤1 (b) f (x) =
1 if x ≤ 0
1 if x > 1


 x if x ≤ 0
−x2

if x ≤ 0
(c) f (x) = (d) f (x) = 0 if 0<x<1
x2 if x > 0
x if x ≥ 1


(e) f (x) = 1 if 0 < x ≤ 1

Solutions

(a) Yes. (b) No. Not continuous on the right at 0. (c) Yes. (d) No. Not defined at 0.

(e) No. Not continuous on the left at 1.

Practice exercise 1: To be sent to the students

** End of Topic two **

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